Notes of

Introduction to Information and

Computer Technology (ICT)

For

BS Computer Science

Compiled and prepared by

Zahid Haroon Mian

Lecturer in Computer Science
Government College Madyan Swat
 Computer
The word computer has been derived from the English word compute which mean to calculate,
so in simple words computer means calculating machine. But we know that most of the work
done by computer of today is not calculating so this definition is not sufficient for modern
computers.
So we can extend the definition of computer that,
Computer is a device which accept data from input devices, stores data in memory until needed,
processes data in processor to useful information, and display information on output devices.
A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions called a program

A computer can also be defined as an electronic machine that accepts input (data), processes it
and gives out results (information). A program or app (short for application program) in memory
manages the processing. It can make use of data or information stored in memory and remember
the results of the processing for later use, again in memory.
A computer is also a (fairly complicated) tool intended to assist the user in accomplishing
information-based tasks ranging from locating and acquiring data/information to to processing
it to presenting or transmitting it.
In addition, it is an entertainment center allowing the user to browse the web, read a book, play
a video game, watch a movie, etc. These devices (and the following) are often left out of the
definition of a computer because they are not "general purpose" computing devices, that is, a
Kindle (tm) is used to read books, but not to create a classroom presentation. They are included
here because the lines separating such devices are becoming blurry.
In certain specialized instances, such as embedded real-time computers (as found in your car or
microwave), it is part of a more complex tool or device.
In a sense, a computer is ultimately a simple, generic device that can be used to accomplish a
wide variety of tasks. This leads to the first two generic definitions provided above.
Computer System is made up of Hardware and Software.
History of Computers
A computer is an electronic machine that accepts information, stores it, processes it according to
the instructions provided by a user and then returns the result. Today, we take computers for
granted, and they have become part of our everyday activities. While computers as we know
them today are relatively recent, the concepts and ideas behind computers have quite a bit of
history - time for a whirlwind tour of how we got to the age of email, YouTube and Facebook.
Early Computing Devices
Attempts by humans to develop a tool to manipulate data go back as far as 2600 BC when the
Chinese came up with the abacus. The slide rule was invented in 1621 and remained widely used
until the emergence of electronic calculators in the 1970s. Both these examples of early devices
were mechanical and on a human scale.
In 1830 the English mathematician Charles Babbage conceived an analytical engine, which could
be programmed with punched cards to carry out calculations. It was different from its
predecessors because it was able to make decisions based on its own computations, such as
sequential control, branching and looping. Almost all computers in use today follow this basic
idea laid out by Babbage, which is why he is often referred to as 'the father of computers.' The
analytical engine was so complex that Babbage was never able to build a working model of his
design. It was finally built more than 100 years later by the London Science Museum.
The First Electronic Computers
Many different types of mechanical devices followed that built on the idea of the analytical
engine. The very first electronic computers were developed by Konrad Zuse in Germany in the
period 1935 to 1941. The Z3 was the first working, programmable and fully automatic digital
computer. The original was destroyed in World War II, but a replica has been built by the
Deutsches Museum in Munich. Because his devices implemented many of the concepts we still
use in modern-day computers, Zuse is often regarded as the 'inventor of the computer.
Around the same time, the British built the Colossus computer to break encrypted German codes
for the war effort, and the Americans built the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and
Computer, or ENIAC. Built between 1943 and 1945, ENIAC weighed 30 tons and was 100 feet long
and eight feet high. Both Colossus and ENIAC relied heavily on vacuum tubes, which can act as
an electronic switch that can be turned on or off much faster than mechanical switches, which
were used until then. Computer systems using vacuum tubes are considered the first generation
of computers.
Vacuum tubes, however, consume massive amounts of energy, turning a computer into an oven.
The first semiconductor transistor was invented in 1926, but only in 1947 was it developed into
a solid-state, reliable transistor for the use in computers. Similar to a vacuum tube, a transistor
controls the flow of electricity, but it was only a few millimeters in size and generated little heat.
Computer systems using transistors are considered the second generation of computers.
It took a few years for the transistor technology to mature, but in 1954 the company IBM
introduced the 650, the first mass-produced computer. Today's computers still use transistors,
although they are much smaller. By 1958 it became possible to combine several components,
including transistors, and the circuitry connecting them on a single piece of silicon. This was the
first integrated circuit. Computer systems using integrated circuits are considered the third
generation of computers. Integrated circuits led to the computer processors we use today.
The computer as we know it today had its beginning with a 19th century English mathematics
professor name Charles Babbage.He designed the Analytical Engine and it was this design that
the basic framework of the computers of today are based on.
Generally speaking, computers can be classified into three generations. Each generation lasted
for a certain period of time, and each gave us either a new and improved computer or an
improvement to the existing computer.
First generation: 1937 – 1946 - In 1937 the first electronic digital computer was built by Dr. John
V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry. It was called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). In 1943 an
electronic computer name the Colossus was built for the military. Other developments continued
until in 1946 the first general– purpose digital computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC) was built. It is said that this computer weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000
vacuum tubes which was used for processing. When this computer was turned on for the first
time lights dim in sections of Philadelphia. Computers of this generation could only perform
single task, and they had no operating system.
Second generation: 1947 – 1962 - This generation of computers used transistors instead of
vacuum tubes which were more reliable. In 1951 the first computer for commercial use was
introduced to the public; the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC 1). In 1953 the
International Business Machine (IBM) 650 and 700 series computers made their mark in the
computer world. During this generation of computers over 100 computer programming
languages were developed, computers had memory and operating systems. Storage media such
as tape and disk were in use also were printers for output.
Third generation: 1963 - present - The invention of integrated circuit brought us the third
generation of computers. With this invention computers became smaller, more powerful more
reliable and they are able to run many different programs at the same time. In1980 Microsoft
Disk Operating System (MS-Dos) was born and in 1981 IBM introduced the personal computer
(PC) for home and office use. Three years later Apple gave us the Macintosh computer with its
icon driven interface and the 90s gave us Windows operating system.
As a result of the various improvements to the development of the computer we have seen the
computer being used in all areas of life. It is a very useful tool that will continue to experience
new development as time passes.
Types of Computers
Micro Computer
PC is an abbreviation for a Personal Computer, it is also known as a Microcomputer. Its physical
characteristics and low cost are appealing and useful for its users. The capabilities of a personal
computer have changed greatly since the introduction of electronic computers. By the early
1970s, people in academic or research institutions had the opportunity for single-person use of
a computer system in interactive mode for extended durations, although these systems would
still have been too expensive to be owned by a single individual. The introduction of the
microprocessor, a single chip with all the circuitry that formerly occupied large cabinets, led to
the proliferation of personal computers after about 1975. Early personal computers, generally
called microcomputers, were sold often in kit form and in limited volumes and were of interest
mostly to hobbyists and technicians. By the late 1970s, mass-market pre-assembled computers
allowed a wider range of people to use computers, focusing more on software applications and
less on development of the processor hardware. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, home
computers were developed for household use, offering some personal productivity,
programming and games, while somewhat larger and more expensive systems (although still low-
cost compared with mainframes) called workstations were aimed for office and small business
use.
Today a personal computer is an all rounded device that can be used as a productivity tool, a
media server and a gaming machine. The modular construction of the personal computer allows
components to be easily (at least for desktop units) swapped out when broken or upgraded.
Although occasionally "PC" is used to refer to the family of computers descended from the
original IBM-PC, it is now typically used for any general purpose computing platform available
(according to price) for the home market, including laptops and Apple computers.
Mainframe
Mainframes are computers in which all the processing is done centrally, and the user terminals
are called "dumb terminals" since they only input and output (and do not process). In modern
systems, a PC or a web app often acts as the dumb terminal.
Mainframes are computers used mainly by large organizations for critical applications, typically
bulk data processing such as a census. Examples: banks, airlines, insurance companies, and
colleges. They support hundreds of users simultaneously.
At SRU, the mainframe handles registration, records, reports, and various Human Resource
functions. You are much more likely to use a mainframe in your professional career (today) than
a supercomputer.
Supercomputer
Supercomputers are fast because they are actually many computers working together.
Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960's as the world's most advanced computer. These
computers were used for complex calculations such as forecasting weather and quantum physics.
Today, supercomputers are one of a kind; they are fast and very advanced. The term
supercomputer is always evolving as tomorrow's normal computers are today's supercomputer.
As of May 2011, Sunway TaihuLightis ranked on the TOP500 list as the fastest supercomputer. It
consists of 40,960 CPUs each with 256 processing cores (a quad-core has four). Although it is
energy efficient, supercomputers are still room-sized machines.
Server
Servers are similar to mainframes in that they serve many uses with the main difference that,
usually, the users (called clients) do much of their own processing. The server processes are
devoted to sharing files and managing access rights.
A server is a central computer that contains collections of data and programs. Also called a
network server, this system allows all connected users to share and store electronic data and
applications. Two important types of servers are file servers and application servers.
An application server hosts various applications or programs that you can use without having to
install them directly on your system. At SRU, once you have installed the Citrix client interface
the Citrix server(s) provide access to many applications used across campus. Web apps,
like Google Docs, work in essentially the same way.
A file server manages your files. At SRU, the H: (home drive) and I: (class works) drives show up
on any computer you log into as "network drives". These files are not actually located on your
computer's hard disk, but appear to be so.
A web server is essentially a file server located somewhere in the Internet. You request files (or
web pages) by clicking on a (hyper) link or typing in a URL. The file is displayed by your browser
as a web page. Much of the web has been developed using this client-server model. Example
client request for the SRU home page:
Cloud Computing
Although "the cloud" is not a single computer system, it seems that this is a good place to discuss
it. First, it is worth noting that servers are also often not a single computing system. All of our
Google queries aren't sent to a single machine on the Internet, but it acts that way. This is
somewhat like cloud services (in fact Google offers cloud services).
In cloud computing, your PC acts as a client, perhaps with little more hardware and software than
is needed to run an operating system and a web browser. Cloud applications are run on some
(unknown) application server in the Internet and your data is stored on some (unknown) file
server in the Internet.
This offers the potential of significant costs savings, especially in business settings where you
otherwise have to have many computers, each with their own hardware and software.
Workstation
Workstations are high-end, expensive computers that are made for complex procedures and are
intended for one user at a time. Some of the complex procedures consist of science, math and
engineering calculations and are useful for computer design and manufacturing. Workstations
are sometimes improperly named for marketing reasons. Real workstations are not usually sold
in retail.
Perhaps the first computer that might qualify as a "workstation" was the IBM 1620.
In current terminology, a desktop personal computer (or even a terminal) connected to a server,
mainframe, or network is often called a workstation. In addition, the line separating workstations
from personal computers is blurring as PCs become more powerful and workstations become
cheaper.
Smartphones
Smartphones are hand-held computers. The current generation of smartphones run an amazing
array of applications, making them quite general purpose. Their primary inadequacy at this time
is the limitations for directly connected I/O devices, like a printer. They have a keyboard and
touch screen for input, with only a screen for output. Bluetooth wireless networking (the same
you may use for a phone headset) handles the problem of connecting peripherals, and the
Internet, which can be viewed as both an input and an output device for our purposes, handles
more.
The number of mature applications for smartphones is growing rapidly (as is cloud computing).
Also, "[i]n an InformationWeek online survey of 1,139 business technology professionals, 30% of
smartphone users say they use their devices for enterprise connectivity, and 37% either
occasionally or frequently leave their laptops at home in favor of their smartphones. In all
likelihood, the smartphone will become the mobile platform for business and personal use in the
near future.
Other devices
We have talked about the convergence of technologies in computing devices for years. We seem
to be at the cusp of change in 2011, with a plethora of mobile devies, such as the Xoom and the
iPad 2 (there is even a game system that makes phone calls), attempting to tap into the same
market as smartphones, book readers and even laptops. Without the benefit of a crystal ball, I
predict that the range of hand-held devices in the future will mimic the range of laptops and
netbooks today. You will choose based on your primary use and cost, while hoping the company
you work for provides you with a high-end device.
Hardware
Hardware refers to the physical elements of a computer. This is also sometime called the
machinery or the equipment of the computer. Examples of hardware in a computer are the
keyboard, the monitor, the mouse and the central processing unit. However, most of a
computer's hardware cannot be seen; in other words, it is not an external element of the
computer, but rather an internal one, surrounded by the computer's casing (tower). A computer's
hardware is comprised of many different parts, but perhaps the most important of these is
the motherboard. The motherboard is made up of even more parts that power and control the
computer.
In contrast to software, hardware is a physical entity. Hardware and software are interconnected,
without software, the hardware of a computer would have no function. However, without the
creation of hardware to perform tasks directed by software via the central processing unit,
software would be useless.
Hardware is limited to specifically designed tasks that are, taken independently, very
simple. Software implements algorithms (problem solutions) that allow the computer to
complete much more complex tasks.
Software
Software, commonly known as programs or apps, consists of all the instructions that tell the
hardware how to perform a task. These instructions come from a software developer in the form
that will be accepted by the platform (operating system + CPU) that they are based on. For
example, a program that is designed for the Windows operating system will only work for that
specific operating system. Compatibility of software will vary as the design of the software and
the operating system differ. Software that is designed for Windows XP may experience a
compatibility issue when running under Windows 2000 or NT.
Software is capable of performing many tasks, as opposed to hardware which can only perform
mechanical tasks that they are designed for. Software provides the means for accomplishing
many different tasks with the same basic hardware. Practical computer systems divide software
systems into two major classes:
• System software: Helps run the computer hardware and computer system itself. System
software includes operating systems, device drivers, diagnostic tools and more. System
software is almost always pre-installed on your computer.
• Application software: Allows users to accomplish one or more tasks. It includes word
processing, web browsing and almost any other task for which you might install software.
(Some application software is pre-installed on most computer systems.)
Software is generally created (written) in a high-level programming language, one that is (more
or less) readable by people. These high-level instructions are converted into "machine language"
instructions, represented in binary code, before the hardware can "run the code". When you
install software, it is generally already in this machine language, binary, form.

Types of Systems Software

There are five types of systems software, all designed to control and coordinate the procedures
and functions of computer hardware. They also enable functional interaction between hardware,
software and the user.
Systems software carries out middleman tasks to ensure communication between other software
and hardware to allow harmonious coexistence with the user.
Systems software can be categorized under the following:
• Operating system: Harnesses communication between hardware, system programs, and
other applications.
• Device driver: Enables device communication with the OS and other programs.
• Firmware: Enables device control and identification.
• Translator: Translates high-level languages to low-level machine codes.
• Utility: Ensures optimum functionality of devices and applications.
Operating System (OS)
The operating system is a type of system software kernel that sits between computer hardware
and end user. It is installed first on a computer to allow devices and applications to be identified
and therefore functional.
System software is the first layer of software to be loaded into memory every time a computer
is powered up.
Suppose a user wants to write and print a report to an attached printer. A word processing
application is required to accomplish this task. Data input is done using a keyboard or other input
devices and then displayed on the monitor. The prepared data is then sent to the printer.
In order for the word processor, keyboard, and printer to accomplish this task, they must work
with the OS, which controls input and output functions, memory management, and printer
spooling.
Today, the user interacts with the operating system through the graphical user interface (GUI)
on a monitor or touchscreen interface. The desktop in modern OSs is a graphical workspace,
which contains menus, icons, and apps that are manipulated by the user through a mouse-driven
cursor or the touch of a finger. The disk operating system (DOS) was a popular interface used in
the 1980s.
Types of Operating Systems
• Real-Time OS: Is installed in special purpose embedded systems like robots, cars, and
modems.
• Single-user and single-task OS: Are installed on single-user devices like phones.
• Single-user and multitask OS: Are installed on contemporary personal computers.
• Multi-user OS: Is installed in network environments where many users have to share
resources. Server OSs are examples of multi-user operating systems.
• Network OS: Is used to share resources such as files, printers in a network setup.
• Internet/Web OS: Is designed to run on the browser that is online.
• Mobile OS: Is designed to run on mobile phones, tablets and other mobile devices.
Functions of Operating Systems
• They provide the interface between the user and hardware through GUI.
• Manages and allocates memory space for applications.
• Processes the management of applications, input/output devices, and instructions.
• Configures and manages internal and peripheral devices.
• Manages single or multi-user storage in local and network computers.
• Security management of files and applications.
• Manages input and output devices.
• Detects, installs, and troubleshoots devices.
• Monitors system performance through Task Manager and other tools.
• Produce error messages and troubleshooting options.
 • Implement interface for network communication.
• Manages printers in single or multi-user systems.
• Internal or network file management.
Examples of Operating Systems
Popular OSs for computers are:
• Windows 10
• Mac OS X
• Ubuntu
Popular network/server OSs are:
• Ubuntu Server
• Windows Server
• Red Hat Enterprise
Popular internet/web OSs are:
• Chrome OS
• Club Linux
• Remix OS
Popular mobile OSs are:
• iPhone OS
• Android OS
• Windows Phone OS
Device Drivers
Driver software is a type of system software which brings computer devices and peripherals to
life. Drivers make it possible for all connected components and external add-ons perform their
intended tasks and as directed by the OS. Without drivers, the OS would not assign any duties.
Examples of devices which require drivers:
• Mouse
• Keyboard
• Soundcard
• Display card
• Network card
• Printer
Usually, the operating system ships with drivers for most devices already in the market. By
default, input devices such as the mouse and keyboard will have their drivers installed. They may
never require third-party installations.
If a device is newer than the operating system, the user may have to download drivers from
manufacturer websites or alternative sources.
Firmware
Firmware is the operational software embedded within a flash, ROM, or EPROM memory chip for
the OS to identify it. It directly manages and controls all activities of any single hardware.
Traditionally, firmware used to mean fixed software as denoted by the word firm. It was installed
on non-volatile chips and could be upgraded only by swapping them with new, preprogrammed
chips.
This was done to differentiate them from high-level software, which could be updated without
having to swap components.
Today, firmware is stored in flash chips, which can be upgraded without swapping semiconductor
chips.
BIOS and UEFI
The most important firmware in computers today is installed by the manufacturer on the
motherboard and can be accessed through the old BIOS (Basic Input/output System) or the new
UEFI (Unified Extended Firmware Interface) platforms.
It is the configuration interface which loads first when the computer is powered up and is going
through POST (Power on Self-Test).
The motherboard firmware starts by waking up all the hardware and ensures that components
like the processor, memory, and disk drives are operational. If all the crucial components are fine,
it will run the bootloader, which will load the operating system. If the random-access memory is
faulty, the BIOS will not allow the computer to boot up.
The user can change the BIOS and UEFI settings by pressing special keys (a function key, delete,
or the esc key) at boot-up to load the configuration page. The user can configure security, boot
order, time, and other options in the page that pops up.
Though they work differently, firmware compliments drivers in a few ways. Both give identity to
hardware devices, with the latter making the operating system see the device.
The major difference between the two is that firmware will always reside within devices while
drivers will install within the operating system.
Firmware upgrades come from the device manufacturer (not the OS manufacturer). They're
necessary if the user wants computer hardware to receive new hardware and software support.
Firmware will make it possible for devices to work better with old and new operating systems
and applications.
Almost all devices and peripherals are embedded with firmware. Network card, TV tuner, router,
scanner, or monitor and examples of devices which have firmware installed on them.
Programming Language Translators
These are intermediate programs relied on by software programmers to translate high-level
language source code to machine language code. The former is a collection of programming
languages that are easy for humans to comprehend and code (i.e., Java, C++, Python, PHP, BASIC).
The latter is a complex code only understood by the processor.
Popular translator languages are compilers, assemblers, and interpreters. They're usually
designed by computer manufacturers. Translator programs may perform a complete translation
of program codes or translate every other instruction at a time.
Machine code is written in a number system of base-2, written out in 0 or 1. This is the lowest
level language possible. While seemingly meaningless to humans, the zeros and ones are actually
sequenced intelligently by the processor to refer to every conceivable human code and word.
Besides simplifying the work of software developers, translators help in various design tasks.
They;
• Identify syntax errors during translation, thus allowing changes to be made to the code.
• Provide diagnostic reports whenever the code rules are not followed.
• Allocate data storage for the program.
• List both source code and program details.
Utilities
Utilities are types of system software which sits between system and application software. These
are programs intended for diagnostic and maintenance tasks for the computer. They come in
handy to ensure the computer functions optimally. Their tasks vary from crucial data security to
disk drive defragmentation.
Most are third-party tools but they may come bundled with the operating system. Third-party
tools are available individually or bundled together such as with Hiren Boot CD, Ultimate Boot
CD, and Kaspersky Rescue Disk.
Examples and features of utility software include:
• Antivirus and security software for the security of files and applications, e.g., Malwarebytes,
Microsoft Security Essentials, and AVG.
• Disk partition services such as Windows Disk Management, Easeus Partition Master, and
Partition Magic.
• Disk defragmentation to organize scattered files on the drive. Examples include Disk
Defragmenter, Perfect Disk, Disk Keeper, Comodo Free Firewall, and Little Snitch.
• File Compression to optimize disk space such as WinRAR, Winzip, and 7-Zip.
• Data backup for security reasons, e.g., Cobian, Clonezilla, and Comodo.
• Hardware diagnostic services like Hard Disk Sentinel, Memtest, and Performance Monitor.
• Data recovery to help get back lost data. Examples include iCare Data Recovery, Recuva, and
EaseUs Data Recovery Wizard.
• Firewall for protection against external threats, e.g., Windows Firewall.
Application Software
There are two main types of application software:
• General Purpose Application Software
• Special Purpose Application Software/Function-specific Application Software
General Purpose Software
General-purpose application used to perform common information processing jobs for end users,
which also known as productivity packages. Some of the most widely used productivity packages
are bundled together as software suite. It makes users can purchase in lower cost rather than
buying an individual packages. Besides, all application inside the packages have similar graphical
user interface (GUI) and the features will work well together. But, these kind of packages will
takes a lot of disk space because there are several programs or application jointly to provide more
features for end users. It might be wasted because some of the features are not used frequently
by users.
• So, some of the will prefer to use integrated packages. Integrated packages combination
functions of several programs into one packages. This kind of packages will let users to apply
many functions for lower cost. The most important is it uses let disk space. There is not
perfect at all, due to save space on the disk, integrated packages is limited functionality and
does not provide more features to end users.
• The example of the general-purpose application programs include web browsers, electronic
mail, word processing, spreadsheets, database managers, presentation graphics, personal
information manager (PIM), and groupware. Below are the briefly explanation of the general
purpose applications.
Web browsers
Web browsers such as Microsoft Explorer, Firefox, Netcape Navigator, or Opera are the software
application that designed to support navigation through the point-and-click resources of the
World Wide Web.
Web browsers main purpose is to bring useful resources to end user. Browsers also allow user to
search any useful resources via the search engine such as google search, yahoo search and so
on.
Electronic mail
Normally there are three categories of electronic mail. They are E-mail, Instant messaging (IM),
and Weblog or blog.
E-mail is a software that allow us to communicate by sending and receiving messages and
attachments via the internet, intranet, or extranet. Examples for E-mail applications are hotmail,
gmail, or ymail.
Instant messaging (IM) software is an application that allow end users to receive electronic
messages instantly. Examples of instant messaging softwares are Yahoo messenger, Windows
Live Messenger.
Weblog or blog is a personal website in dated log format. It allow users to update with the new
information about a subject or range of subjects such as personal diaries, details of the latest
products. Besides, it also giving an opportunities to some users for running their business.
Examples of blogs are Google's Blogger, WordPress, BlogEasy, My Blog Site and etc.
Word Processing
Word processing is the application that allows users to create, edit, revise, and print documents
such as their reports, articles and etc. Microsoft Word, Lotus WordPro, Corel WordPerfect are
the examples of word processing software.
Electronic Spreadsheets
Electronic Spreadsheets normally used by virtually every business for the purpose analysis,
planning, modeling their business. The worksheet provide end users to key in their data in the
rows and columns form. Data that recorded can be stored on local computer or on network.
Besides, it also allow user to designing format and developing the formulas. Some users use
spreadsheets to develop charts and graphic displays of the results. Spreadsheet also supports
what-if questions. E.g. Microsoft Excel.
Data Managers
Data Managers is the application that used to manage or allocate data. Database software is one
of the software that provides tools for organizing data into a form that allows for efficient search
and retrieval. The software can allow users to related or accessed to specific data by using a
database query. E.g. Microsoft Access.
Presentation Graphics
Common presentation graphics packages are used to create multimedia presentations of
graphics, photos, animation, and video clips. While the top packages can tailor files for transfer
in HTML format and publish to websites. E.g., Microsoft Power Point, Lotus Freelance, Corel
Presentations.
These kinds of software are used commonly for college students nowadays. They normally used
it for presentation and helps to create their slide show.
Function-specific Software
Function-specific application software packages are used for specific applications for the end-
users in business and other fields. For example, business application software with strategic e-
business applications allows the automation and reengineering of business processes. It includes
enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, and supply chain
management. Software packages that Web-enable electronic commerce applications or apply to
the functional areas of business like human resource management and accounting and finance.
Software with decision support tools empowers managers and business professionals in decision
making. Some of the examples are datamining, enterprise information portals, or knowledge
management systems.
Data mining software analyzes that immense stores of historical business data that have been
prepared for analysis in corporate data warehouses and tries to find out the models, trends, and
correlations hidden in the data that can help ameliorate a company improve its business
performance. It may perform regression, decision tree, neural network, cluster detection, or
market basket analysis for a business.
Computer-based information systems like Decision Support Systems (DSS) provide managers
and business professionals the interactive information during the decision-making process.
Decision support systems use (1) analytical models, (2) specialized databases, (3) a decision
maker’s own insights and judgments, and (4) an interactive, computer-based modelling process
to support semi structured business decisions.
Geographic information systems (GIS) and data visualization systems (DVS) are special
categories of Decision Support Systems (DSS). The both systems combine computer graphics with
other DSS features. A geographic information system uses geographic databases to create and
show map and other graphics displays that support decisions affecting the geographic
distribution of people and other resources.
Executive information systems (EIS) are the combination of many of the features of
management information systems and decision support systems. The purpose of EIS is to provide
top executives, managers, analysts, and other knowledge workers with prompt and easy access
to information about a firm’s critical success factors (CSFs). In order to make EIS more useful to
top managers and business professionals, Web browsing, groupware tools, electronic mail, and
DSS and expert system capabilities are being added to the system.
An expert systems (ES) is a knowledge-based information system that uses it’s particular and
complicated application area knowledge to act as an expert consultant to end users. ES provide
solutions for a very specific problem area by making humanlike inferences about knowledge
contained in a particularize knowledge base.
Software Terminologies
Proprietary Software
Proprietary Software is machine programming authorized under the selective trustworthy
advantages associated with the copyright holder. Proprietary Software is created by an individual
or firm who has privileges of utilizing pre-existing or flourishing brand new equipment to make
new programming. The principle character of Proprietary Software is that its source code is
dependably kept a mystery from the outside world. Accordingly, the inside structure of exclusive
programming will be not revealed. The Confinements on restrictive programming are by and
large forced through a report called EULA (End-user license agreement) to which clients will be
suspected to concur just before utilizing the programming. It meets expectations, simply like a
written agreement of good use, ailments between the client and merchant.
Freeware
Freeware designates to software that anybody can download from the Internet and utilization
for free. The term freeware was initially utilized by Andrew Fluegelman within 1982, when he
needed to offer a correspondences project named PCTalk. Each one permit is particular to the
freeware. Copyright laws are likewise material to Freeware. All the appearance is free. Freeware
projects might be circulated free of cost. Freeware is free, and is secured by copyright. You can't
offer freeware programming and altered programming must be freeware.
Shareware
Sharewares give clients an opportunity to attempt the product before purchasing it. Copyright
laws additionally apply to Shareware yet the copyright holder or creator holds all the rights, with
a couple of particular exceptions. Most of the times, all peculiarities are not accessible, or have
constrained utilization. To utilize all the features of the product, the client needs to buy the
software. A shareware might be disseminated uninhibitedly. As a rule, creator's consent is
required, to disseminate the shareware. Shareware can't be changed, and it may be either a chop
down or impermanent variant.
Open Source Software
Open source software can be defined as software distributed under a licensing agreement which
allows the source code (computer code) to be shared, viewed and modified by other users and
organizations [2]. The open source software contains certain criteria such as:
a) Free Distribution Rights
b) Access to Source Code
c) Permission to modify
d) Distribute Modifications
e) Forbidding Modifications against persons, groups, fields of endeavor
Firmware
Firmware is a very specific, low-level program for the hardware that allows it to accomplish some
specific task. Firmware programs are (relatively) permanent, i.e., difficult or impossible to
change. From the higher-level view of software, firmware is just part of the hardware, although
it provides some functionality beyond that of simple hardware.
Firmware is part of devices (or device components) such as a video card, sound card, disk drive
and even the motherboard.
Basic Operations

Computer - Data and Information

Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized
manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human
or electronic machine.
Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special
characters (+,-, /,*, <,>, = etc.)
What is Information?
Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics −
• Timely − Information should be available when required.
• Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
• Completeness − Information should be complete.
Data Processing Cycle
Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to increase
their usefulness and add values for a particular purpose. Data processing consists of the
following basic steps - input, processing, and output. These three steps constitute the data
processing cycle.
• Input − in this step, the input data is prepared in some convenient form for processing. The
form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when electronic computers are
used, the input data can be recorded on any one of the several types of input medium, such
as magnetic disks, tapes, and so on.
• Processing − in this step, the input data is changed to produce data in a more useful form.
For example, pay-checks can be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for
the month can be calculated from the sales orders.
• Output − at this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step is collected. The
particular form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data
may be pay-checks for employees
Input
Input is whatever goes into the computer. Input can take a variety of forms, from commands you
enter by keyboard to data from another computer (via a network connection) or device (via direct
or network connection). A device that feeds data into a computer, such as a keyboard or mouse,
is called an input device.
Output
Output is any information (data) that comes out of a computer. Output devices can be other
computers, display screens, speakers, and printers.
Storage
Computer data storage is referred to as storage or memory, which can save digital data. Examples
are RAM, hard disks, CDs, DVDs and removable flash memory sticks.
Permanent, or non-volatile, storage devices do not require power to remember the data stored.
Mass storage devices, like your hard disk, are non-volatile; a loss of power does not affect their
ability to retain data. This category also include ROM (Read Only Memory).
Temporary or volatile storage is more often called "memory". A loss of power means that any
data stored will be lost irretrievably. When you are using an application, such as a word
processor, the data (the document you are working on) is stored in RAM (Random Access
Memory). If you lose power without explicitly saving your work, you will likely lose data.
Processing
The processor is the brain of a computer. It's also called the CPU (Central processing unit) and it
is a microchip. For a non-programmer, this is where all the real action is. Programs just set the
stage and direct the play. (In this off hand analogy, the play itself, in written form, would be most
like a program.)
The processor actually performs very simple operations like basic arithmetic and comparing two
values (but that may be like saying a stage actor just speaks, moves and emotes).
Despite its apparent simplicity, the CPU does in fact run the show, controlling all of the
peripherals while executing the current software commands.
Since we will return to this later, it is worth pointing out that the CPU itself receives input
(perhaps "fetching" the next command to execute) and generates output (perhaps the result of
adding two numbers). The CPU also has its own, very temporary, storage (the numbers to be
added need to be stored somewhere, as does the result while it is being sent out of the CPU).
The CPU may also contain "level 1 cache" memory. This is like a very fast (and expensive) version
of RAM that allows the CPU to have things it may need soon close at hand
Computer - Memory Units
Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage capacity
is expressed in terms of Bytes.
The following table explains the main memory storage units −
S.No. Unit & Description

Bit (Binary Digit)

1 A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a component in
an electric circuit.

Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte
3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a data item
or a character.

Word
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a unit, which
varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer.
4
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as small as 8
bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in the form of computer
words.
The following table lists some higher storage units −
 S.No. Unit & Description

1 Kilobyte (KB)1 KB = 1024 Bytes

2 Megabyte (MB)1 MB = 1024 KB

3 GigaByte (GB)1 GB = 1024 MB

4 TeraByte (TB)1 TB = 1024 GB

5 PetaByte (PB)1 PB = 1024 TB

Peripheral and I/O Hardware

Input Devices
Since the computer is a digital device, all input devices must provide data in digital form. A key
function of most of the devices listed below is to convert data from analog to digital form for
transmission to the computer through a hardware interface (for our purposes, a port).
Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Light pen
• Track Ball
• Scanner
• Graphic Tablet
• Microphone
• Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
• Optical Character Reader(OCR)
• Bar Code Reader
• Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows −
S.No Keys & Description

Typing Keys
1 These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the same
layout as that of typewriters.

2 Numeric Keypad
 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17
keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and
calculators.

Function Keys
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at the top
3
of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific
purpose.

Control keys
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys. Control
4
keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5 Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock,
Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse/Pointing Device
Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and
sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between
the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it
cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages
• Easy to use
• Not very expensive
• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen.
It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball
moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be
moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Cameras
Digital cameras are now standard, with most people uploading the pictures to their computer for
processing, printing or sharing. Digital cameras are built into most laptops and hand-held devices,
especially mobile phones and today are often processed and shared directly from the phobe.
They are commonly added onto computers as webcams.
Video cameras are not yet all digital, although videos created using laptops and smartphones are
digital. Older videos need to be converted (using a CODEC) for storage or manipulation on the
computer.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can
be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had
been pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into
binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.
The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages
of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.
OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable
code, and stores the text on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a
handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then
fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.
It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.
Magnetic stripe Cards
Magnetic stripe technology, usually called mag-stripe, is so named because of the stripe of
magnetic oxide tape that is laminated on a card. There are three tracks of data on the magnetic
stripe. Typically the data on each of the tracks follows a specific encoding standard, but it is
possible to encode any format on any track. A mag-stripe card is cheap compared to other card
technologies and is easy to program. The magnetic stripe holds more data than a barcode can in
the same space. While a mag-stripe is more difficult to generate than a bar code, the technology
for reading and encoding data on a mag-stripe is widespread and easy to acquire. Magnetic stripe
technology is also susceptible to misreads, card wear, and data corruption. These cards are also
susceptible to some forms of skimming where external devices are placed over the reader to
intercept the data read.
Smart card
There are two types of smart cards: contact and contactless. Both have an embedded
microprocessor and memory. The smart card differs from the proximity card in that the microchip
in the proximity card has only one function: to provide the reader with the card's identification
number. The processor on the smart card has an embedded operating system and can handle
multiple applications such as a cash card, a pre-paid membership card, or an access control card.
The difference between the two types of smart cards is the manner with which the
microprocessor on the card communicates with the outside world. A contact smart card has eight
contact points, which must physically touch the contacts on the reader to convey information
between them. Since contact cards must be inserted into readers carefully in the proper
orientation, the speed and convenience of such a transaction is not acceptable for most access
control applications. The use of contact smart cards as physical access control is limited mostly
to parking applications when payment data is stored in card memory, and when the speed of
transactions is not as important.
A contactless smart card uses the same radio-based technology as the proximity card, with the
exception of the frequency band used: it uses a higher frequency (13.56 MHz instead of 125 kHz),
which allows the transfer of more data, and communication with several cards at the same time.
A contactless card does not have to touch the reader or even be taken out of a wallet or purse.
Most access control systems only read serial numbers of contactless smart cards and do not
utilize the available memory. Card memory may be used for storing biometric data (i.e.
fingerprint template) of a user. In such case a biometric reader first reads the template on the
card and then compares it to the finger (hand, eye, etc.) presented by the user. In this way
biometric data of users does not have to be distributed and stored in the memory of controllers
or readers, which simplifies the system and reduces memory requirements.
Smartcard readers have been targeted successfully by criminals in what is termed a supply chain
attack, in which the readers are tampered with during manufacture or in the supply chain before
delivery. The rogue devices capture customers' card details before transmitting them to
criminals.
Portable Devices
The current generation of portable devices, such as laptops and smartphones, include many of
the devices described above, including keyboard, cursor control, touch screen (as described
below), digital camera, and microphone. "Scanning" a barcode involves snapping a digital picture.
The network (phone and Internet) can both act as an input device, as well as an output device.
Touchpad/Pointing Stick
Touch pads are most commonly built into a laptop computer. A touch pad is a rectangular plastic
piece which can control the pointer on a computer simply by dragging your finger across its
surface. A pointing stick resembles a pencil eraser and is commonly located in between keys on
a laptop key board. To control the pointer on the computer with a pointing stick you use your
finger to push the stick in the direction you would like the pointer to move.
Touchpads were originally known as trackpads. Some touchpads can have multiple mouse
buttons by either tapping in a special corner of the pad, or by tapping with two or more fingers.
Scrolling is implemented in touchpads along the sides, although this can be configured in
touchpad settings.
Both the touchpad and the point stick allow one to move the cursor about with minimal
hand/arm movement, though some users find accuracy to be a problem (more so with the
pointing stick). By contrast, the mouse often requires large movements, but excels at accuracy.
Touch Screen
A touch screen allows the user's finger(s) to act as a point & click device, providing the user
interface with a more direct manipulation of objects and text displayed on the screen. That is, it
gains most of the advantages of the (active) pen or stylus, without the need for a separate device.
Accuracy is one problem, especially for small hand-held device where the (relatively large and
blunt) finger occludes a significant part of the screen. Touch screens are commonly used on hand-
held devices, kiosk computers, ATMs, and public workstations, like self check out (point of sale)
devices in a store.
There are two common types of touch screen, resistive screens and capacitive screens. Resistive
screens operate by using two thin layers. When one layer comes into contact with another (from
someone pressing the screen), they form a connection which can be translated into a pair of
coordinates a computer uses. Resistive screens have the advantage of allowing the use of a
(normal) stylus or a hand wearing a glove. They are used in many hand-held devices.
Capacitive screens utilizes the concept that the human body is a conductor. When someone taps
on a resisting material (such as a glass panel), a change in capacitance is observed, and the
computer can determine where the user made a selection. This type of technology is known as
capacitive sensing. Capacitive screens may only be used with styli and gloves when they are
specially designed. A popular use of capacitive sensing is the touch screens in popular
smartphones such as the iPhone.
 Output Devices
Monitor
A monitor, or visual display unit, is an electronic visual display for computers. It is now common
for a single computer to have multiple monitors. Currently, most monitors are backlit LCD (flat
panel liquid crystal) displays, which use much less energy than the older CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
displays. CRTs, like Grandma's old television set, aim a stream of electrons through a mask at a
phosphor coated, fluorescent screen creating a bright, sharp image, and much more
electromagnetic radiation and heat.
The image is created from approximately one million (1000x1000) pixels, or picture elements.
Each pixel includes sub pixels for the primary colors (red, green & blue) which are mixed to create
a color on the screen. You will recall that a true color display provides approximately 16 million
colors (using one byte each for the red, green & blue sub pixels).
Monitor performance characteristics
The performance of a monitor is measured by the following parameters:
Luminance, or over-all brightness, is measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2 also called
a Nit).
Aspect ratios is the ratio of the horizontal length to the vertical length. Monitors usually have the
aspect ratio 4:3, 16:10 or 16:9.
Viewable image size is usually measured diagonally, but the actual widths and heights are more
informative since they are not affected by the aspect ratio in the same way. For CRTs, the
viewable size is typically 1 inch (25 mm) smaller than the tube itself.
Display resolution is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed.
Maximum resolution is limited by dot pitch.
Dot pitch is the distance between sub pixels of the same color in millimeters. In general, the
smaller the dot pitch, the sharper the picture will appear.
Refresh rate is the number of times in a second that a display is illuminated. Maximum refresh
rate is limited by response time.
Response time is the time a pixel in a monitor takes to go from active (black) to inactive (white)
and back to active (black) again, measured in milliseconds. Lower numbers mean faster
transitions and therefore fewer visible image artifacts.
Contrast ratio is the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest color (white) to that of the darkest
color (black) that the monitor is capable of producing.
Power consumption is the amount of energy needed (measured in Watts).
Viewing angle is the maximum angle at which images on the monitor can be viewed, without
excessive degradation to the image. It is measured in degrees horizontally and vertically.
A computer monitor, technically termed as a visual display unit, can be plainly described as an
electronic device that transmits information from the computer onto a screen, thereby acting as
an interface and connecting the viewer with the computer. At present, computer monitors are
available in a variety of shapes, designs, and colors. However, based on the technology used to
make computer monitors, they can be broadly categorized into three types.
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
3. LED (Light-Emitting Diodes)
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitors
These monitors employ the CRT technology used most commonly in the manufacturing of
television screens. In this, a stream of intense high energy electrons is used to form images on a
fluorescent screen. A cathode ray tube is a basically a vacuum tube containing an electron gun at
one end and a fluorescent screen at another end. From this electron gun, a process called
thermionic emission generates a strong beam of electrons. These electrons travel through a
narrow path within the tube with high speed using various electro-magnetic devices and finally
strike the phosphor points present on the fluorescent screen, thus creating an image. There are
several advantages of using CRT monitors:
• These monitors are highly reliable and efficient, and are capable of generating a resolution of
up to 2048 x 1536 pixels, thereby providing a clear picture quality. Also, CRT monitors that
are now available are capable of producing thousands of different colors.
• Secondly, CRT monitors are affordable and cost effective.
• Unlike conventional CRT monitors, modern technological advancements have resulted in the
development of flat screen CRT monitors that reduce the glare and are good for the eyes.
However, the only concern with buying CRT monitors is that they are heavy and can occupy a
great deal of work space. Also, these devices get heated up very easily.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitors
Liquid crystal display, also known as liquid crystal diode, is one of the most advanced technologies
available at present. Typically, an LCD monitor consists of a layer of color or monochrome pixels
arranged schematically between a couple of transparent electrodes and two polarizing filters.
Optical effect is achieved by polarizing the light in varied amounts and making it pass through the
liquid crystal layer. At present, there are two types of LCD technology available. These include
the active matrix or TFT and a passive matrix technology. Among these, TFT technology is more
secure and reliable, and generates better picture quality. On the other hand, passive matrix has
a slow response time and is slowly becoming outdated.
In recent times, LCD monitors have become increasing popular with consumers. Some major
advantages of using an LCD monitor include:
• These monitors are compact, lightweight, and do not consume much desk space.
• Secondly, these monitors do not consume much electricity and can even be operated by using
batteries.
• Also, the images transmitted by these monitors do not get geometrically distorted and have
little flicker.
However, LCD monitors do have certain disadvantages. Most importantly, these monitors are
very expensive. Secondly, image quality is not constant when viewed from different angles. Also,
an LCD monitor’s resolution is always constant. Any alterations can result in a reduced
performance.
LED (Light-Emitting Diodes) Monitors
LED monitors are the latest types of monitors in the market today. Like LCD, it is again a flat panel
display making use of light-emitting diodes for back-lightning instead of Cold Cathode
Fluorescent (CCFL) back-lightning used in LCDs. Primarily, the display is of LCD only but the back-
lightning is done by LEDs.
LED monitors are said to use much lesser power than CRT and LCD. Thus, they are also considered
environmental friendly. Other core advantages of LED monitors are:
1. They produce images with higher contrast
2. They have less negative environmental impact when disposed
3. Lifespan and durability of LED monitors is more than CRT or LCD monitors
4. Because of the technology, the monitor panels can be made very thin
5. Do not produce much heat while running
6. LED monitors are little expensive than the former types. There are multiple ways by which
LED back-lightning is done.
• White-edge LEDs are fixed around the rim of the monitor. It used a special diffusion panel to
spread light evenly behind the screen.
• An array of LEDs are placed behind the screen. Their brightness is not controlled individually.
• Again an array of LEDs are placed behind the screen, but the brightness of each individual LED
is controlled separately.
Printers
A printer is an external output device that takes data from a computer and generates output in
the form of graphics / text on a paper".
There are two types of printers.
Impact printers
An impact printer makes contact with the paper. It usually forms the print image by pressing an
inked ribbon against the paper using a hammer or pins. Following are some examples of impact
printers.
Dot-Matrix Printers
The dot-matrix printer uses print heads containing from 9 to 24 pins. These pins produce patterns
of dots on the paper to form the individual characters. The 24 pin dot-matrix printer produces
more dots that a 9 pin dot-matrix printer, which results in much better quality and clearer
characters. The general rule is: the more pins, the clearer the letters on the paper. The pins strike
the ribbon individually as the print mechanism moves across the entire print line in both
directions, i-e, from left to right, then right to left, and so on. The user can produce a color output
with a dot-matrix printer (the user will change the black ribbon with a ribbon that has color
stripes). Dot-matrix printers are inexpensive and typically print at speeds of 100-600 characters
per second.
Daisy-wheel printers
In order to get the quality of type found on typewriters, a daisy-wheel impact printer can be used.
It is called daisy-wheel printer because the print mechanism looks like a daisy; at the end of each
“Petal” is a fully formed character which produces solid-line print. A hammer strikes a “petal”
containing a character against the ribbon, and the character prints on the paper. Its speed is slow
typically 25-55 characters per second.
Line printers
In business where enormous amount of material are printed, the character-at-a-time printers are
too slow; therefore, these users need line-at-a-time printers. Line printers, or line-at-a-time
printers, use special mechanism that can print a whole line at once; they can typically print the
range of 1,200 to 6,000 lines per minute. Drum, chain, and band printers are line-at-a-time
printers.
Drum printer
A drum printer consists of a solid, cylindrical drum that has raised characters in bands on its
surface. The number of print positions across the drum equals the number available on the page.
This number typically ranges from 80-132 print positions. The drum rotates at a rapid speed. For
each possible print position there is a print hammer located behind the paper. These hammers
strike the paper, along the ink ribbon, against the proper character on the drum as it passes. One
revolution of the drum is required to print each line. This means that all characters on the line
are not printed at exactly the same time, but the time required to print the entire line is fast
enough to call them line printers. Typical speeds of drum printers are in the range of 300 to 2000
lines per minute.
Chain printers
A chain printer uses a chain of print characters wrapped around two pulleys. Like the drum
printer, there is one hammer for each print position. Circuitry inside the printer detects when the
correct character appears at the desired print location on the page. The hammer then strikes the
page, pressing the paper against a ribbon and the character located at the desired print position.
An impression of the character is left on the page. The chain keeps rotating until all the required
print positions on the line have filled. Then the page moves up to print the next line. Speeds of
chain printers range from 400 to 2500 characters per minute.
Band printers
A band printer operates similar to chain printer except it uses a band instead of a chain and has
fewer hammers. Band printer has a steel band divided into five sections of 48 characters each.
The hammers on a band printer are mounted on a cartridge that moves across the paper to the
appropriate positions. Characters are rotated into place and struck by the hammers. Font styles
can easily be changed by replacing a band or chain.
Non-impact printers
Non-impact printers do not use a striking device to produce characters on the paper; and because
these printers do not hammer against the paper they are much quieter. Following are some non-
impacted printers.
Ink-jet printers
Ink-jet printers work in the same fashion as dot-matrix printers in the form images or characters
with little dots. However, the dots are formed by tiny droplets of ink. Ink-jet printers form
characters on paper by spraying ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field that arranges the
charged ink particles into characters at the rate of approximately 250 characters per second. The
ink is absorbed into the paper and dries instantly. Various colors of ink can also be used.
One or more nozzles in the print head emit a steady stream of ink drops. Droplets of ink are
electrically charged after leaving the nozzle. The droplets are then guided to the paper by
electrically charged deflecting plates [one plate has positive charge (upper plate) and the other
has negative charge (lover plate)]. A nozzle for black ink may be all that’s needed to print text,
but full-color printing is also possible with the addition of needed to print text, but full-color
printing is also possible with the addition three extra nozzles for the cyan, magenta, and yellow
primary colors. If a droplet isn’t needed for the character or image being formed, it is recycled
back to its input nozzle.
Several manufacturers produce color ink-jet printer. Some of these printers come with all their
color inks in a cartridge; if you want to replace on color, you must replace all the colors. Other
color ink-jet printers allow you to replace ink individually. These printers are a better choice if
user uses one color more than other colors. These printers produce less noise and print in better
quality with greater speed.
Laser printers
A laser printer works like a photocopy machine. Laser printers produce images on paper by
directing a laser beam at a mirror which bounces the beam onto a drum. The drum has a special
coating on it to which toner (an ink powder) sticks. Using patterns of small dots, a laser beam
conveys information from the computer to a positively charged drum to become neutralized.
From all those areas of drum which become neutralized, the toner detaches. As the paper rolls
by the drum, the toner is transferred to the paper printing the letters or other graphics on the
paper. A hot roller bonds the toner to the paper.
Laser printers use buffers that store an entire page at a time. When a whole page is loaded, it will
be printed. The speed of laser printers is high and they print quietly without producing much
noise. Many home-use laser printers can print eight pages per minute, but faster and print
approximately 21,000 lines per minute, or 437 pages per minute if each page contains 48 lines.
When high speed laser printers were introduced they were expensive. Developments in the last
few years have provided relatively low-cost laser printers for use in small businesses.
Advantages of Laser Printer
• The main advantage of Laser printer is its speed & efficiency at which it prints high-quality
quality graphics & text.
• Laser printers produce high-quality output as compared to other printers.
• Laser printers are quite and does not produce disturbing sounds.
• They are also capable to produce color prints.
Disadvantages of Laser Printer
• The main disadvantage of Laser printer is its cost, they are relatively costly as compared to
other printers.
• The maintenance, repair & servicing charges are also high of these printers.
• Laser printers emit small amount of ozone and are hazardous to health and the atmosphere.
Plotter
A plotter is a printer designed for printing vector graphics. Instead of printing individual dots on
the paper, plotters draw continuous lines. This makes plotters ideal for printing architectural
blueprints, engineering designs, and other CAD drawings.
There are two main types of plotters – drum and flatbed plotters. Drum plotters (also called roller
plotters) spin the paper back and forth on a cylindrical drum while the ink pens move left and
right. By combining these two directions, lines can be drawn in any direction. Flatbed plotters
have a large horizontal surface on which the paper is placed. A traveling bar draws lines on the
paper as it moves across the surface.
Most drum and flatbed plotters provide output sizes that are much larger than
standard inkjet and laser printers. For example, a typical inkjet printer creates documents that
are 8.5 inches wide. A drum plotter may produce documents that are 44 inches wide. The length
of a document printed by a drum plotter is only limited by the size of the paper. Documents
printed by flatbed plotters are constrained to the length and width of the printing surface.
Speakers
Speakers are popular output devices used with computer systems. They receive audio input from
the computer's sound card and produce audio output in the form of sound waves. Most
computer speakers are active speakers, meaning they have an internal amplifier which allows
you to increase the volume, or amplitude, of the sound. Speakers usually come in pairs, which
allows them to produce stereo sound from two separate audio channels.

Storage Devices
Storage Devices
A storage device is used in the computers to store the data. Provides one of the core functions
of the modern computer.
Types of Storage
There are four type of storage:
• Primary Storage
• Secondary Storage
• Tertiary Storage
• Off-line Storage
Primary Storage
• Also known as main memory.
• Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a memory
bus.
• The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required.
• Example: – RAM– ROM – Cache

RAM
• It is called Random Access Memory because any of the data in RAM can be accessed just as
fast as any of the other data.
• Random access memory means that data in any part of RAM is directly accessible for
processor.
• It is volatile memory mean that data can be lost in RAM once the computer is powered off.
• RAM needs to be refreshed periodically to retain data.
• There are two types of RAM:
– DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
– SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
Static RAM
• Faster
• More expensive
• More power consumption
• does not need to be refreshed
Dynamic RAM
• Slower
• Less expensive
• Less power consumption
• needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second
ROM
• This memory is used as the computer begins to boot up.
• Small programs called firmware are often stored in ROM chips on hardware devices (like a
BIOS chip), and they contain instructions the computer can use in performing some of the
most basic operations required to operate hardware devices.
• ROM memory cannot be easily or quickly overwritten or modified.
Cache
• Cache is a high-speed access area that can be either a reserved section of main memory or a
storage device.
• RAM is not that fast like processor. To solve the problem of speed difference between RAM
and processor caches are used.
• Most computers today come with L3 cache or L2 cache, while older computers included only
L1 cache.
• L1 cache is present inside the CPU, while other two are located outside. The size of L2 is more
than L1 but slower in speed. L3 is slower in speed than L2 but size of L3 is much more than
L2.
• Processor first looks for data in L1 then in L2 and then in L3. If not found in caches then
processor search in RAM.
Secondary Storage
• It is not directly accessible by the CPU.
• Computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers
the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage.
• Example: – Hard disk
Hard Disk
• The hard disk drive is the main, and usually largest, data storage device in a computer.
• It can store anywhere from 160 gigabytes to 2 terabytes.
• Hard disk speed is the speed at which content can be read and written on a hard disk.
• A hard disk unit comes with a set rotation speed varying from 4500 to 7200 rpm.
• Disk access time is measured in milliseconds.
Internal Hard disk External Hard disk
Portability No Yes
Price Less expensive More expensive
Speed Fast Slow
Size Big Small
Tertiary Storage Devices
• Typically it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and dismount removable
mass storage media into a storage device.
• It is a comprehensive computer storage system that is usually very slow, so it is usually used
to archive data that is not accessed frequently.
• This is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without human
operators.
• Examples: – Magnetic Tape – Optical Disc
Magnetic Tape
• A magnetically coated strip of plastic on which data can be encoded.
• Tapes for computers are similar to tapes used to store music.
• Tape is much less expensive than other storage mediums but commonly a much slower
solution that is commonly used for backup.
Optical Disc
• Optical disc is any storage media that holds content in digital format and is read using a laser
assembly is considered optical media.
• The most common types of optical media are – Blu-ray (BD) – Compact Disc (CD) – Digital
Versatile Disc (DVD)
CD DVD BD
Capacity 700MB 4.7GB – 17GB 50GB
Wavelength 780nm 650nm 405nm
Read/Write Speed 1200KB/s 10.5MB/s 36MB/s
Example • CD-ROM, • DVD-ROM • BD-R
• CD-RW • DVD+R/RW • BD-RE
Off-line Storage Devices
• Also known as disconnected storage.
• Is computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing
unit.
• It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again.
• Also known as disconnected or removable storage.
• Is computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing
unit.
• It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again.
• Examples: – Floppy Disk – Zip diskette – USB Flash drive – Memory card
Floppy Disk
• A soft magnetic disk.
• Floppy disks are portable.
• Floppy disks are slower to access than hard disks and have less storage capacity, but they are
much less expensive.
• Can store data up to 1.44MB.
• Two common sizes: 5 ¼” and 3 ½”.
Zip Diskette
• Hardware data storage device developed by Iomega that functions like a Standard 1.44"
floppy drive.
• Capable to hold up to 100 MB of data or 250 MB of data on new drives.
• Now it less popular as users needed larger storage capabilities.
USB Flash Drive
• A small, portable flash memory card that plugs into a computer’s USB port and functions as
a portable hard drive.
• Flash drives are available in sizes such as 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 5GB, and 16GB and are an
easy way to transfer and store information.
Memory Card
• An electronic flash memory storage disk commonly used in consumer electronic devices such
as digital cameras, MP3 players, mobile phones, and other small portable devices.
• Memory cards are usually read by connecting the device containing the card to your
computer, or by using a USB card reader.
Storage Device Features
• Volatility
• Accessibility
• Mutability
• Addressability
Volatility
• Two types of volatility: – Volatile Memory – Non-Volatile Memory
Volatile Memory
• Requires constant power to maintain the stored information.
• The fastest memory technologies.
• All contents are erased when the system's power is turned off or interrupted.
• It has been more popularly known as temporary memory.
Non-Volatile Memory
• Will retain the stored information even if it is not constantly supplied with electric power.
• Nonvolatile memory is the device which keeps the data even when the current is off.
• It is suitable for long-term storage of information.
Accessibility
• Refers to reading or writing data records
• Two types of accessibility: – Random access – Sequential access
Random Access
• Any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in approximately the same amount
of time.
• Such characteristic is well suited for primary and secondary storage.
Sequential Access
• The accessing of pieces of information will be in a serial order, one after the other; therefore
the time to access a particular piece of information depends upon which piece of information
was last accessed.
• Such characteristic is typical of off-line storage.
Mutability
• Allows information to be overwritten at any time.
• A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary storage purposes would
be useless for many tasks.
• Three types of mutability: – Read/write storage or mutable storage – Read only storage –
Slow write, fast read storage.
Read/Write Storage or Mutable Storage
• Allows information to be overwritten at any time.
• A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary storage purposes would
be useless for many tasks.
Read Only Storage
• Retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and write once storage (WORM)
allows the information to be written only once at some point after manufacture.
• These are called immutable storage.
Slow Write, Fast Read Storage
• Read/write storage which allows information to be overwritten multiple times, but with the
write operation being much slower than the read operation.
Addressability
• Three types of addressability – Location-addressable – File addressable– Content-addressable
Location-addressable
• Each individually accessible unit of information in storage is selected with its numerical memory
address.
File addressable
• Information is divided into files of variable length, and a particular file is selected with human-
readable directory and file names.
Content-addressable
• Each individually accessible unit of information is selected based on the basis of (part of) the
contents stored there.
• Content-addressable storage can be implemented using software (computer program) or
hardware (computer device), with hardware being faster but more expensive option.
• Hardware content addressable memory is often used in a computer's CPU cache.
Other Example of Storage Devices
• Punch card
• Cloud storage
• RAID
Punched Card
• Early method of data storage used with early computers
• Punch cards also known as Hollerith cards
• Containing several punched holes that represents data
Cloud Storage
• Cloud storage means "the storage of data online in the cloud," wherein a data is stored in and
accessible from multiple distributed and connected resources that comprise a cloud.
• Cloud storage can provide the benefits of greater accessibility and reliability; rapid
deployment; strong protection for data backup, archival and disaster recovery purposes.
• Examples: – Google Drive – Flickr – Microsoft Sky Drive
RAID
• RAID is short for redundant array of independent (or inexpensive) disks.
• It is a category of disk drives that employ two or more drives in combination for fault
tolerance and performance.
• RAID disk drives are used frequently on servers but aren't generally necessary for personal
computers.
• RAID allows you to store the same data redundantly (in multiple paces) in a balanced way to
improve overall storage performance.
Computer - CPU (Central Processing Unit)
Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −
• CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
• CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
• It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
• It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has following three components.
• Memory or Storage Unit
• Control Unit
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main
memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two
types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
• It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
• It stores intermediate results of processing.
• It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
• All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual
data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
• It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
• It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
• It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
• It communicates with Input/output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
• It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,
• Arithmetic Section
• Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the
above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching,
and merging of data.
CPU Registers
In computer architecture, a processor register is a very fast computer memory used to speed the
execution of computer programs by providing quick access to commonly used values-typically,
the values being in the midst of a calculation at a given point in time.
These registers are the top of the memory hierarchy, and are the fastest way for the system to
manipulate data. In a very simple microprocessor, it consists of a single memory location, usually
called an accumulator. Registers are built from fast multi-ported memory cell. They must be able
to drive its data onto an internal bus in a single clock cycle. The result of ALU operation is stored
here and could be re-used in a subsequent operation or saved into memory.
Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold, for example, an “8-bit
register” or a “32-bit register”. Registers are now usually implemented as a register file, but they
have also been implemented using individual flip-flops, high speed core memory, thin film
memory, and other ways in various machines.
The term is often used to refer only to the group of registers that can be directly indexed for input
or output of an instruction, as defined by the instruction set. More properly, these are called the
“architected registers“. For instance, the x86 instruction set defines a set of eight 32-bit registers,
but a CPU that implements the X86 instruction set will contain many more hardware registers
than just these eight.
There are several other classes of registers:
a) Accumulator: It is most frequently used register used to store data taken from memory. Its
number varies from microprocessor to microprocessor.
b) General Purpose registers: General purpose registers are used to store data and intermediate
results during program execution. Its contents can be accessed through assembly
programming.
c) Special purpose Registers: Users do not access these registers. These are used by computer
system at the time of program execution.
Some types of special purpose registers are given below:
• Memory Address Register (MAR): It stores address of data or instructions to be fetched from
memory.
• Memory Buffer Register (MBR): It stores instruction and data received from the memory and
sent from the memory.
• Instruction Register (IR): Instructions are stored in instruction register. When one instruction
is completed, next instruction is fetched in memory for processing.
• Program Counter (PC): It counts instructions.
The instruction cycle is completed into two phases: (a) Fetch Cycle and (b) Execute Cycle. There
are two parts in instruction- opcode and operand. In fetch cycle opcode of instruction is fetched
into CPU. The opcode, at first, is reached to Data Register (DR), then to Instruction Register (IR).
Decoder accesses the opcode and it decodes opcode and type of operation is declared to CPU
and execution cycle is started.
RISC and CISC:
The RISC and CISC are technologies on which on which design and architecture of microprocessor
is based.
• RISC: It stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer in which each instruction has dedicated
electronic circuitry made from gates, decoders etc. to generate control signal. It is a
hardwired technique of designing processor unit. Example: DEC’s Alpha, Power PC,
ULTRASPARC
• CISC: It stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer based on microprogramming
techniques. The hardware is controlled by instructions coded in control memory. Instruction
is called microinstruction and coding process is called microprogramming. Each
microinstructions produces control signal to control hardware of computer. CISC is more
complex but less efficient processor designing technique.
Difference between RISC and CISC:
Sn. RISC CISC
1. Small set of instruction with fixed (32 bits) Large set of instructions with variable format
format and most register based instructions. (16-64 bits per instructions)
2. Addressing modes are limited to 3-5 12-24 addressing modes
3. Large numbers (32-192) of GPRs (General 8-24 GPRs with a unified cache for instruction
Purpose Registers) with mostly split data and data, recent designs also use split caches.
cache and instruction cache.
4. Most hardwired without control memory. Most micro-coded using memories (ROM),
but modern CISC also use hardwired control.
Computer - Number System
When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers
can understand only numbers. A computer can understand the positional number system where
there are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values
depending on the position they occupy in the number.
The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −
• The digit
• The position of the digit in the number
• The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number system)
There are four types of number system available:
• Decimal Number System.
• Binary Number System.
• Octal Number System.
• Hexadecimal Number System.
Decimal Number System
The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal
number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the
successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands,
and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number
1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position,
and 1 in the thousands position. Its value can be written as
(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100) + (3 x 10) + (4 x l)
(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102) + (3 x 101) + (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following number
systems which are frequently used in computers.
S.No. Number System and Description

Binary Number System

1
Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1

Octal Number System

2
Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7

Hexa Decimal Number System

3
Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F
Binary Number System
Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −
• Uses two digits, 0 and 1
• Also called as base 2 number system
• Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20
• Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example
2x where x represents the last position - 1.
Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −
Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 101012 2110

Note − 101012 is normally written as 10101.
Octal Number System
Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −
• Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
• Also called as base 8 number system
• Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80
• Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example
8x where x represents the last position - 1
Example
Octal Number: 125708
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −
Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10

Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3 125708 549610

Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.
Hexadecimal Number System
Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −
• Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
• Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15
• Also called as base 16 number system
• Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example, 160
• Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example
16x where x represents the last position – 1
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −
Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10

Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10

Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.
 Computer - Number Conversion
There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base
to another. In this chapter, we'll demonstrate the following −
• Decimal to Other Base System
• Other Base System to Decimal
• Other Base System to Non-Decimal
• Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
• Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
• Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
• Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary
Decimal to Other Base System
Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the new
base number.
Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in
Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new base
number.
Example
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent −
Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1

Step 2 14 / 2 7 0

Step 3 7/2 3 1

Step 4 3/2 1 1

Step 5 1/2 0 1
As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that
the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the
Most Significant Digit (MSD).
Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.
Other Base System to Decimal System
Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the position of
the digit and the base of the number system).
Step 2 − multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding
columns.
Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.
Example
Binary Number: 111012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −
Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 111012 ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 111012 2910

Binary Number: 111012 = Decimal Number: 2910
Other Base System to Non-Decimal System
Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.
Example
Octal Number: 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent −
Step 1 - Convert to Decimal
Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10

Step 2 258 (16 + 5)10

Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number: 258 = Decimal Number: 2110
Step 2 - Convert Decimal to Binary
Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1

Step 2 10 / 2 5 0

Step 3 5/2 2 1

Step 4 2/2 1 0

Step 5 1/2 0 1
Decimal Number: 2110 = Binary Number: 101012
Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012
Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Octal
Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.
Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Octal Equivalent −
Step Binary Number Octal Number

Step 1 101012 010 101

Step 2 101012 28 58

Step 3 101012 258

Binary Number: 101012 = Octal Number: 258
Shortcut Method ─ Octal to Binary
Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary number.
Example
Octal Number: 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent −
Step Octal Number Binary Number

Step 1 258 210 510

Step 2 258 0102 1012

Step 3 258 0101012

Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012
Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Hexadecimal
Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.
Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent −
Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

Step 1 101012 0001 0101

Step 2 101012 110 510

Step 3 101012 1516

Binary Number: 101012 = Hexadecimal Number: 1516
Shortcut Method - Hexadecimal to Binary
Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the hexadecimal digits may
be treated as decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary number.
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 1516
Calculating Binary Equivalent −
Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number

Step 1 1516 110 510

Step 2 1516 00012 01012

Step 3 1516 000101012

Hexadecimal Number: 1516 = Binary Number: 101012

Operating System
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices
such as disk drives and printers.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux, Windows, OS X, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS,
etc.
Definition
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.
Following are some of important functions of an operating System.
• Memory Management
• Processor Management
• Device Management
• File Management
• Security
• Control over system performance
• Job accounting
• Error detecting aids
• Coordination between other software and users
Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory
is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to
be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities for
memory management −
• Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in
use.
• In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
• Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
• De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.
Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and
for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the
following activities for processor management −
• Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is
known as traffic controller.
• Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
• De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the
following activities for device management −
• Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.
• Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
• Allocates the device in the efficient way.
• De-allocates devices.
File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
• Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known
as file system.
• Decides who gets the resources.
• Allocates the resources.
• De-allocates the resources.
Other Important Activities
Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −
• Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized
access to programs and data.
• Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and
response from the system.
• Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
• Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging
and error detecting aids.
• Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer
systems.
Types of Operating System
Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep evolving with
time. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of operating systems which are
most commonly used.
Batch operating system
The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user
prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator.
To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The
programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the programs with
similar requirements into batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −
• Lack of interaction between the user and the job.
• CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the CPU.
• Difficult to provide the desired priority.
Time-sharing operating systems
Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension
of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is
termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that
in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use, whereas
in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so
frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction
processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation.
That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the user submits the
command, the response time is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a
small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have
been modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −
• Provides the advantage of quick response.
• Avoids duplication of software.
• Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −
• Problem of reliability.
• Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
• Problem of data communication.
Distributed operating System
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and
multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed
systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are
referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −
• With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources available at
another.
• Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
• If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue operating.
• Better service to the customers.
• Reduction of the load on the host computer.
• Reduction of delays in data processing.
Network operating System
A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage
data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose
of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple
computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other
networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −
• Centralized servers are highly stable.
• Security is server managed.
• Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
• Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.
The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −
• High cost of buying and running a server.
• Dependency on a central location for most operations.
• Regular maintenance and updates are required.
Real Time operating System
A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to
process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken by the
system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as
the response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online
processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a processor
or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated
application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints,
otherwise the system will fail. For example, scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,
industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems,
secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual
memory is almost never found.
Soft real-time systems
Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks
and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard
real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like
undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.
Application software
Application software is a subclass of computer software that employs the capabilities of a
computer directly and thoroughly to a task that the user wishes to perform.
This should be contrasted with system software which is involved in integrating a computer's
various capabilities, but typically does not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that
benefit the user.
MICROSOFT OFFICE
Microsoft office developed by Microsoft Company, in Microsoft office following program are
available:
• Microsoft word
• Microsoft excel
• Microsoft power point
• Microsoft Access etc
Word, a powerful word processor capable of generating anything from a typewriter-style to a fully
formatted Page/Notes/Books like this one.
1. Excel a spreadsheet and charting application capable of performing complex mathematical and
financial analysis.
2. PowerPoint, a presentation designer that will have you putting together slide shows in minutes,
incorporating data from word, excel, and access as needed.
3. Access, a relational database application capable of strong all the data your company produces
and reassembling it I any style report you care to design.
Ms-Office Programs & Their Executable Files
• Executable File of Microsoft Word is WINWORD.EXE.
• Executable File of Microsoft Excel is EXCEL.EXE
• Executable File of Microsoft Power Point is POWERPNT.EXE
• Executable File of Microsoft Access is MSACCESS.EXE
Overview
Microsoft office developed by Microsoft Company, in Microsoft office
following program are available:
• Microsoft word
• Microsoft excel
• Microsoft power point
• Microsoft Access etc
Word, a powerful word processor capable of generating anything from a
typewriter-style to a fully formatted Page/Notes/Books like this one.
1. Excel a spreadsheet and charting application capable of performing
complex mathematical and financial analysis.
2. PowerPoint, a presentation designer that will have you putting
together slide shows in minutes, incorporating data from word, excel,
and access as needed.
3. Access, a relational database application capable of strong all the data
your company produces and reassembling it I any style report you care
to design.
Ms-Office Programs & Their Executable Files
• Executable File of Microsoft Word is WINWORD.EXE.
• Executable File of Microsoft Excel is EXCEL.EXE
• Executable File of Microsoft Power Point is POWERPNT.EXE
• Executable File of Microsoft Access is MSACCESS.EXE
Ms-Office Programs & Their Default Extensions
• Microsoft Word Save their Document with "user defined file name" and add "DOC"
extension by default, & for templates save "Template Name" with DOT extension.
• Microsoft Excel Save their workbooks with "user defined file name" and add "XLS"
extension by default, & for workspaces save "Work Space name" with "XLW" extension.
• Microsoft PowerPoint Save their Presentation with "user defined file name" and add
"PPT" extension by default.
• Microsoft Access Save their Databases with "User Defined file name" and add "MDB"
extension.
Creating a New Document in Word, Work Book in Excel, Blank Presentation in PowerPoint
To create a new file based on the default Template, click the New Button on the standard toolbar
or press Ctrl+N or Alt+F+N word will open a new document named Documentx (Document1,
Document2, Document3, etc). Excel a new Spreadsheet named Bookx, PowerPoint named
presentation x, and access a new database that it will make you save at once by using the file new
Database dialog Box.
To Create a new file based on a different template:
• Choose File --> New to display the new dialog box for the application select any template you
want to capture in your current File. For example Letters and faxes etc.
Saving a File
The first time you save a file, you assign it a name and choose the folder in which to save it.
Thereafter, when you save the file, the application uses that name and folder and does not prompt
you for changes-unless you decide to save the file under a different name. in that case, you need
to use the File --> Save as command rather the File --> save.
Saving a File for the First Time
To save a file for the first time:
1. Choose File --> Save to display the save as dialog box. (The dialog boxes in the different
applications have slightly different names. Instead of choosing File --> Save, you can click the
save button on the Standard Toolbar or press either Shift+F12 or Ctrl+S.
2. In the Save in box at the Top of the Save As dialog box, choose the folder in which to save
the file. Navigate the Save as Dialog Box in the same way that would windows Dialog Box-
Click the Up One level button (or press the Backspace key on Save in List Box or
press Alt+Down Arrow at that time) to move up one level of folders, or double –click on the
folders displayed in the main window to move down through them to folder you want.
3. In the File Name Text Box, enter a name for your file.
4. With windows ’95 and Windows’NT long file names, you can enter through and descriptive
name-up to 255 characters, including the path to the file.You cannot use the following
characters in file names (if you do try to use one of these, the application will advise you of
the problem):
5. Colon, Less than & Greater than Sign< >, Back slash, Asterisk*, Forward Slash, Question
Mark? , Double quotation mark, Pipe symbol |.
6. Click the Save Button to save the file.
7. If the application displays a properties dialog Box for the file enter any identifying information
on the summary tab.
Saving a File Again:
To save a file that you’ve saved before, choose the save command by using one of the methods
given in the previous section: Click the Save button on the standard toolbar or choose File
Save Or Press Ctrl+S , Shift+F12, or Alt+Shift_F2. The application will save the file without
consulting you about the location or file name.
Saving a File Under another Name:
One of the easiest ways to make a copy of an open file is to open it and save it under a different
name. this technique can be particularly useful if you’re working on a file and have made changes
to it, but you don’t want to save it and replace the original file-for example, if you think you might
need to revert to the original file and you forgot to make a backup before making your changes.
The save as command can also be useful for copying a file to a different folder or drive- for
example, if you want to copy a document to a floppy drive or to a network drive.
To save a file under different name or to a different folder:
1. Choose File --> Save as to display the Save As Dialog Box.
2. Enter a different name for the file in the File Name Box, or choose a different folder in the Save
in Drop Down List.
3. Click the Ok button to save the file. If the folder you’ve chosen already contains a file with the
same name, the application will ask whether you want to overwrite it and display Yes, No,
Cancel option. Select yes if you want to overwrite otherwise select no and repeat step-1,2 and
type a different file name.
Saving a File in Different Format
To save an existing File in different format:
1. Choose File --> Save As to display the Save As Dialog Box.
2. Scroll down the Save As Type Drop-Down List (for example Text Only, Rich Text Format,
Ms-DOS Text, Template etc), and choose the file type you want to save the current file as.
3. If you want, enter a different file name for the file.( you don’t have to, however, because the
file will get the new extension you choose in step-2 and therefore will not overwrite the existing
file.
4. Click the Save button or Press Enter.
Opening a File
To open a file in the current Application:
1. Click the open button on the standard toolbar, Or choose File --> Open, Or Press
2. Ctrl+O to display the open Dialog Box.
3. If you're already in the right folder , proceed Step 3, if not, use the Look in Drop down
4. list to navigate to the folder holding the file you want to open. Move through the folder using
standard navigation : Click the Up one Level button or press the Back Space Key in Look in )
to move Up one Level of folders or double-click a folder to move down through it.
5. Choose the file to open , and then click the open button. To open several files at once, click the
first one in the open dialog box to select it. Then to select Contiguous files, hold down shift
and click the last file in the sequence to select it and all the ones between it and the first file.
To select contiguous files , or to select further files after select further files after selecting a
contiguous sequence. Hold down ctrl and click each file you want to open. When you’ve got
the files selected, click the open button.
Common Operations (Cut, Copy, Paste) in (Word, Excel, Power Point, Access)
The Cut, Copy , and Paste command work smoothly between the various office applications: you
can copy, say a telephone# from a spreadsheet or email message and paste It into the your word
document, or you can cut/copy a number of paragraph, lines from word document and paste them
into PowerPoint Slide or another Part of your Document. Cut, Copy, and Paste use the Clipboard,
which is area of reserved memory in windows. The clipboard can hold only one item at a time, so
every time you cut, or copy something new, that item replaces previous one. When you paste an
item, however, you paste in a copy of the newest item from the clipboard; the item remains on the
clipboard until supplanted by another item, so you can paste it more than once if you wish.
You can access the Cut, Copy, and Paste commands in a number of ways:
• By clicking the Cut, Copy, and Paste from standard toolbar buttons.
• By choosing Edit -->Cut, Edit -->Copy, or Edit -->Paste
• By using the Cut (Ctrl+X), Copy (Ctrl+C), Paste (Ctrl+V) keyboard shortcuts.
• By right clicking in the item you want to cut or copy, or in the location where you want to
paste the item, and choosing Cut, Copy, or Paste from the context menu.
To Cut , or Copy more than one character or Words or Lines or paragraphs block must make using
keyboard Shift arrows or dragging mouse. After that perform paste operation to get results.
Menu Bars & Toolbars
The next major similarity among the Office applications is their menu bars and toolbars. You will
see that word, Excel, PowerPoint , and Access share most of their menus ; File Edit , View , Insert,
Format, (Except Access), Tools , window ,and help, with each application having a different menu
between tools and window. This commonality of menus makes it easy to find the commands you
need when working in the Microsoft Applications. You can also customize the menu bar in word,
Excel, PowerPoint, and Access, and you can move it to different points in the application window
in all the applications. Likewise, all the office application use multiple toolbars , so you can easily
executes some of the most useful common commands. By default , the applications displays the
most widely used toolbars, but you can easily choose to display other toolbars when you need
them, alternatively , you can easily hide all the toolbars to give yourself more room on screen to
work in. you can also customize the toolbars , so they contain the commands you need most in
Word , Excel , Access, and PowerPoint, and in all the applications, you can move the toolbars to
whatever you want them in the application window. To access any option in menu bar press
Alt+Underline Character. Or F10 key with Right/Left Arrow.
Displaying Toolbars
To display and hide toolbars :
• With the Mouse right click anywhere in the Menu Bar or in a displayed toolbar to show a list
of toolbars with check marks next to those currently displayed. Click next to displayed toolbar
to hide it or to a hidden toolbar to display it.
• With the keyboard , choose View --> Toolbars to display the list of toolbars with check marks
next to those currently displayed. Use Down and Up arrow to move the highlight to the
displayed toolbar you want to hide or the hidden toolbar you want to display then press Enter
key.
Microsoft Word and Features
Microsoft Word is a word processor is used to type text, to style and lay-out the text (formatting)
and check and print the resulting document. Word processors have many additional features to
allow you, for instance, to easily check spelling, insert images and tables into the text, create
footnotes and mass-produce personalized letters and labels from templates (mail-merge).
Some examples of what Word can do
PAGE HEADER Standard text that appears on every page (shown dimmed when displayed on the
AND FOOTER screen as this text cannot be edited from the document window). This option is
available in View Menu

GRAPHIC A picture. Simple line drawings graphics can be created in Word. More
sophisticated images can be created in specialized graphics packages or obtained
from other sources and then imported into Word. This option is available in
Insert Picture or Insert  Object

TEXT ALIGNMENT

LEFT- Text aligned at left margin of the page. This option is available in formatting
ALIGNED toolbar & also available in Format Paragraph or use Ctrl+L to Align Left.

RIGHT- Text aligned at right margin of the page. This option is available in formatting
ALIGNED toolbar & also available in Format Paragraph or use Ctrl+R to Right Align.
 JUSTIFIED Full lines of text in each paragraph align at both left and right margins (Word
achieves this by automatically adjusting the size of the spaces between words).
This option is available in formatting toolbar & also available in Format
Paragraph or use Ctrl+J to Justify Text.

CENTER Text aligned at center margin of the page. This option is available in formatting
ALIGN toolbar & also available in Format Paragraph or use Ctrl+E to Center Align.

TABLE A table of aligned rows and columns. Word makes it easy to alter the size and
layout of a table, the style of any table and cell borders, and any shading of table
cells. This option is available in standard toolbar & also available in Tablet Draw
Table/Insert Table.

NEWSPAPER- It is possible to specify the number of columns on a page or section of a page.

STYLE This option is available in formatting toolbar & also available in Format column.
COLUMNS

BULLETED Each item in the list has is indented (starts to the right of the left-hand margin)
LIST and has a 'bullet' in the left margin. This option is available in formatting toolbar
& also available in Format Bullets & Numbering
Spelling and Grammar
Checks the active document for possible spelling, grammar, and writing style errors, and displays
suggestions for correcting them. To set spelling and grammar checking options, click Options on
the Tools menu, and then click the Spelling and Grammar tab. Or use F7 Short cut. Option also
available in standard toolbar.
Find (Microsoft Word)
Searches for specified text, formatting, symbols, comments, footnotes, or endnotes in the active
document.
Replace (Microsoft Word)
Searches for and replaces specified text, formatting, footnotes, endnotes, or comment marks in the
active document.
Create a header or footer (Microsoft Word)
• On the View menu, click Header and Footer.
• To create a header, enter text or graphics in the header area. Or click a button on
• the Header and Footer toolbar.
To insert Click
Page numbers Page Numbers .
The current date Date .
The current time Time .
Common header or footer items, such as running total page numbers (Page 1 of 10),--> the file
name, or the author's name Insert AutoText, point to Header, and then click the item you want.
• 3 To create a footer, click Switch between Header and Footer to move to the footer area. Then
repeat step 2.
• When you finish, click Close.
Tip. The text or graphics you enter in a header or footer is automatically left aligned. You may
want to center the item instead or include multiple items (for example, a left-aligned date and a
right-aligned page number). To center an item, press TAB; to right align an item, press TAB twice.
Add bullets or numbers (Microsoft Word)
• Select the items to which you want to add bullets or numbers.
• To add bullets, click Format --> Bullets & Numbering --> Bulleted.
• To add numbers, click Format --> Bullets & Numbering --> Numbered.
• To create a bulleted or numbered list automatically as you type, type 1. or * followed by a
space or a tab and any text you want. When you press ENTER to add the next list item, Word
automatically inserts the next number or bullet. To finish the list, press ENTER twice. You can
also finish the list by pressing BACKSPACE to delete the last number in the list.
• To change the bullet or number format or the spacing between the bullet or number and the
text, select the items, and then click Bullets and Numbering on the Format menu. Click either
the Bulleted or Numbered tab, and then click the format you want. To adjust the spacing, click
Customize, and then change the distance from bullet or number position to text position. Word
applies the changes you make the next time you click Bullets or Numbering.
Add a border (Microsoft Word)
In a Word document, you can add a border to any or all sides of a table, a paragraph, or selected
text in a document. You can add a border, including a picture border (such as a row of trees), to
any or all sides of each page in a document.
You can also add a border or line to a drawing object ¾ including a text box, an AutoShape, a
picture, or imported art.
• In Word documents, all tables by default have a ½-pt black, single solid-line border that prints.
On Web pages, tables do not have a printable border by default.
• In Word documents, you can use the Table AutoFormat command to add borders and shading
to a table automatically.
Add a border to a table, a paragraph, or selected text (Microsoft Word)
• To add a border to a table, click anywhere in the table. To add borders to specific cells, select
only those cells, including the end-of-cell mark. To surround a paragraph with a border, click
anywhere in the paragraph. To surround only specific text, such as a word, with a border, select
the text.
• On the Format menu, click Borders and Shading, and then click the Borders tab.
• Select the options you want, and make sure the correct option is selected under Apply to.
• To specify that only particular sides get borders, click Custom under Setting. Under Preview,
click the diagram's sides, or use the buttons to apply and remove borders.
• To specify the exact position of the border relative to the text, click Options, and then select
the options you want.
Add a border to a page in a document (Microsoft Word)
• On the Format menu, click Borders and Shading, and then click the Page Border tab.
• Select the options you want.
• To specify that the border appears on a particular side of a page, such as only at the top, click
Custom under Setting. Under Preview, click where you want the border to appear.
• To specify a particular page or section
• For the border to appear in, click the option you want under Apply to.
• To specify the exact position of the border on the page, click Options, and then select the
options you want...
Add a border or a line to a drawing object (Microsoft Word)
• Select the drawing object you want to change.
• 2 Click Drawing to display the Drawing toolbar.
• To add a color to the line or border, click the arrow next to Line Color , and then click the color
you want. If you don't see the color you want, click More Line Colors. Click a color on the
Standard tab, or click the Custom tab to mix your own color, and then click OK.
Columns (Microsoft Word)
Changes the number of columns in a document or a section of a document.
• To Add multiple column in a document Select your document.
• choose Format --> Columns select the numbered of columns and press Enter Key. This option
also available in standard toolbar.
Insert a second document into an open document (Microsoft Word)
• Click where you want to insert the second document.
• On the Insert menu, click File.
• In the File name box, enter the name of the file you want to insert.
Insert the current date and time in a document (Microsoft Word)
• Click where you want to insert the date or time.
• On the Insert menu, click Date and Time.
• To specify the format of the date or time, click a format in the Available formats box.
To automatically update the date or time when you print the document, select the Update
automatically check box. Otherwise, the document will always print with the original date or time.
You can also use a shortcut to insert the current date. First turn on AutoComplete by clicking
AutoText on the AutoText toolbar and then selecting the Show AutoComplete tip for AutoText
and dates check box. In your document, type the first few characters of the date ¾ for example,
type jun for today's date. When Word suggests the entire date ¾ such as "June 2, 1997" ¾ press
ENTER or F3 to accept it. To reject the date, press ESC or just keep typing.
Insert symbols not on the keyboard (Microsoft Word)
• Click where you want to insert the symbol.
• On the Insert menu, click Symbol, and then click the Symbols tab.
• Double-click the symbol or character you want to insert.
If you select a different font, you will see a different set of symbols. If you have Multilingual
Support installed and are using an expanded font, such as Arial or Times New Roman, the Subset
list appears. Use this list to choose from an extended list of language characters, including Greek
and Russian (Cyrillic). For more information, click
Add an AutoCorrect entry to correct a typing error (Microsoft Word)
• On the Tools menu, click AutoCorrect.
• Make sure the Replace texts as you type check box is selected.
• In the Replace box, type a word or phrase that you often mistype or misspell ¾ for example,
type usually
• In the With box, type the correct spelling of the word ¾ for example, type usually
• Click Add.
Note: Whenever you type an AutoCorrect name (for example, usually) followed by a space or
other punctuation, Word will replace it with the correction (for example, usually).
Add, change, or remove the 3-D effect of a drawing object (Microsoft Word)
You can add a 3-D effect to lines, AutoShapes, and freeform objects. With 3-D options, you can
change the depth (the extrusion) of the object and its color, rotation, angle, direction of lighting,
and surface texture. When you change the color of a 3-D effect, the change affects only the 3-D
effect of the object, not the object itself. An object can have either a shadow or a 3-D effect, but
not both ¾ if you apply a 3-D effect to an object that has a shadow, the shadow disappears.
Add or change the 3-D effect of a drawing object (Microsoft Word)
• Select the drawing object you want to change.
• On the Drawing toolbar, click 3-D .
To add a 3-D effect, click the option you want. (Microsoft Word)
To change a 3-D effect ¾ for example, its color, rotation, depth, lighting, or surface texture ¾ click
3-D again, click 3-D Settings, and then click the options you want on the 3-D Settings toolbar.
For Help on an option, press SHIFT+F1, and then click the option.
Tip To add the same 3-D effect to several objects at one time ¾ the same color, for example ¾
select or group the objects before you add the effect.
Remove a 3-D effect from a drawing object(Microsoft Word)
• Click the drawing object you want to change.
• On the Drawing toolbar, click 3-D , and then click No 3-D.
Change the color of the 3-D effect of a drawing object(Microsoft Word)
• Select the drawing object you want to change.
• On the Drawing toolbar, click 3-D , and then click 3-D Settings.
• On the 3-D Settings toolbar, click the arrow next to 3-D Color .
• Click the color you want.
If you don't see the color you want, click More 3-D Colors. Click a color on the Standard tab, or
click the Custom tab to mix your own color, and then click OK.
Mail Merge (Microsoft Word)
Produces form letters, mailing labels, envelopes, catalogs, and other types of merged documents.
Data Field
A category of information in a data source. A data field corresponds to one column of information
in the data source. The name of each data field is listed in the first row (header row) of the data
source. "PostalCode" and "LastName" are examples of data field names.
Data Record
A complete set of related information in a data source. A data record corresponds to one row of
information in the data source. All information about one client in a client mailing list is an
example of a data record.
TIPS ON PLANNING A DATA SOURCE
• · Allow enough data fields for the data records with the most information.
• Some clients on a mailing list might have more address information than others ¾ for example,
a business name, a department title, and up to three lines for the address. In a data source,
however, all the data records must have the same number of data fields. If a data record doesn't
have a particular category of information, leave the field blank for that record.
• · Information you want to sort by ¾ for example, city, state, postal code, or addressee's last
name ¾ must be in a separate data field.
• · To speed mail delivery in the United States, set up addresses to display postal bar codes.
• The addressee's ZIP Code and delivery address ¾ such as a street name and number or a post
office box ¾ must be in separate data fields.
• · Organize data so that you can use it in different ways.
• For example, when you set up a data source to print form letters, plan the address information
so that you can use the same data source to print either mailing labels or envelopes. By placing
 the title, first name, and last name in separate fields, you can use the same field to print the last
name in both the address (Mr. Gerard LaSalle) and the salutation (Dear Mr. LaSalle).
I WANT TO CREATE A DATA SOURCE FIRST, BEFORE I START A MAIL-MERGE
DOCUMENT.
The easiest way to create a data source in Word is to use the Mail Merge command to start a main
document. After you've created the data source, you can delete the blank main document. In a new
document window, click Mail Merge (Tools menu), click Create, and then click Form Letters.
When Word displays a message, click Active Window. Then click Get Data and create a data
source.
Create new styles
The quickest way to create a new paragraph style is to format a paragraph, select it, and then base
the new style on the formatting and other properties applied to the selected text.
• Select the text that contains the formatting you want to include in your style.
• Click in the Style box.
• Type over the existing style name to create the name for the new style.
• Press ENTER.
To create new character styles, click Style on the Format menu, and then click New. In the Name
box, type a name for the style. In the Style type box, click Character. Select the other options you
want, and then click Format to set attributes for the style.
To set additional attributes for paragraph styles ¾ such as the style for the next paragraph or
whether the style is saved in the template ¾ click Style on the Format menu, click the style whose
settings you want to change, click Modify, and then select the options you want.
Microsoft Excel and Features
A spreadsheet is used to manipulate rows and columns of numbers and perform calculations on
these (which can be simple arithmetic or use complicated formulae). Spreadsheet packages are
also very good at producing stylish charts and graphs of the data in a spreadsheet. Excel worksheet
divided into rows and columns. A worksheet contains maximum 255 columns (A..IV) and 65536
rows. The editable area of worksheet is known as cell for example (a1,b1,c2 etc).
About workbooks and worksheets
In Microsoft Excel, a workbook is the file in which you work and store your data. Because each
workbook can contain many sheets, you can organize various kinds of related information in a
single file. Use worksheets to list and analyze data. You can enter and edit data on several
worksheets simultaneously and perform calculations based on data from multiple worksheets.
When you create a chart, you can place the chart on the worksheet with its related data or on a
separate chart sheet. The names of the sheets appear on tabs at the bottom of the workbook
window. To move from sheet to sheet, click the sheet tabs. The name of the active sheet is bold.
Workspace
A workspace file saves information about all open workbooks, such as their locations, window
sizes, and screen positions. When you open a workspace file by using the Open command (File
menu), Microsoft Excel opens each workbook saved in the workspace. The workspace file does
not contain the workbooks themselves, and you must continue to save changes you make to the
individual workbooks.
• Open the workbooks you want to open as a group.
• Size and position the workbook windows as you want them to appear the next time you use
the workbooks.
• On the File menu, click Save Workspace.
• In the File name box, enter a name for the workspace file.
To open the workbooks each time you start Microsoft Excel, save the workspace file in the XLStart
folder in your Microsoft Excel folder. Save only the workspace file, not the workbook files, in the
XLStart folder.
Types of data available in Excel
Before you enter data you need to know how excel handles it. Excel recognizes five different types
of data: numbers dates, times, text/label, and formulas.
Numbers
Numbers are values that can be calculated. They can consist of the numerals 0 to 9, with a decimal
point (a period) as a separator for decimal places and with commas as separators for thousands.
Numbers can start with a dollar sign ($) or other currency symbol, or with a + or – sign. They can
end with a % sign; They can also enclosed in parenthesis (as an alternative to the –sign, for
indicating negative numbers).
You control the display of numbers by formatting the cells that contain them. For example, you
could format a cell to display currency amounts with two decimal places.
Date
Excel uses slashes when displaying dates that need them, but you can use hyphens when entering
dates . for example, birth 11/28/1999 and 11-28-1999 will be stored correctly.
Time
Click the cell where you want to enter data. Type the data and press ENTER or TAB.
Use a slash or a hyphen to separate the parts of a date; for example, type 9/5/96 or Jun-96.To enter
a time based on the 12-hour clock, type a space and then a or p after the time; for example, 9:00 p.
Otherwise, Microsoft Excel enters the time as AM.
Formulas
Formulas are mathematical formulas telling excel to perform calculations on data in cell., for
example , to add the data in the cells A1,B2, and C3 and display the result in cell D4, You would
enter the formula +a1+b2+c3 in cell d4.
Text/Label
Excel considers any data that it does not recognize as number , date, time, or formula to be text.
This is a wide brief; in practice, it means that data containing letters (other than cell addresses,
A.M, or P.M., and so on.) will be treated as text. For example, if you enter a list of employees’
names, positions, and work histories, excel will treat them as text.
About Toolbars
Toolbars allow you to organize the commands in Microsoft Excel the way you want so that you
can find and use them quickly. For example, you can add and remove menus and buttons, create
your own custom toolbars, hide or display toolbars, and move toolbars. In previous versions of
Microsoft Excel, toolbars contained only buttons. Now toolbars can contain buttons, menus, or a
combination of both.
The menu bar is a special toolbar at the top of the screen that contains menus such as File, Edit,
and View. The default menu bar contains menus and commands for working with worksheets. If
you're working with a chart sheet or an embedded chart, the chart menu bar is displayed instead.
You can customize the menu bars just like any built-in toolbar; for example, you can add and
remove buttons and menus.
Some menu commands have images next to them so you can quickly associate the command with
the corresponding toolbar button. If you want easier access to a command, create a toolbar button
for it by using the Customize dialog box (Tools menu).
When you quit Microsoft Excel, changes you made to the menu bar and built-in toolbars, any
custom toolbars you created, and the toolbars currently displayed are saved in a toolbars settings
file in your Windows folder. This settings file is saved as username
8.xlb, where username is your Windows or network log-in name. If your computer is not connected
to a network or not set up with a log-in prompt, the settings file is saved as excel8.xlb. The toolbar
configuration saved in this file is used by default each time you start Microsoft Excel.. If you
frequently use a particular set of toolbars, you can save the configuration in a separate toolbars
settings file so that you don't have to redisplay and arrange the toolbars each time. Toolbars you
create or customize are available to all workbooks on your own system. To ensure that a custom
toolbar is always available with a specific workbook, you can attach the toolbar to the workbook.
To Start Excel
On the Start menu's Programs menu. To start Excel:
• Click the Start button.
• Point at Programs and, from the Programs menu click on Microsoft Excel.
Constructing a simple Excel worksheet
You are now going to design a very simple Excel spreadsheet to calculate your net income after
tax has been deducted from your gross income. This exercise shows you the basic principle behind
using spreadsheets, using a formula to make calculations. You need do this section only if you
think you may want to set up your own spreadsheet (as opposed to simply using a spreadsheet
someone else has set up for you).
As a brief illustration:
First, open a new blank worksheet:
To give the new worksheet a meaningful name:
• Double-click on the Sheet1 tab and type Tax.
To give meaningful labels to cells on your worksheet:
• Click in cell C3 (the cell reference C3 appears at the top left of the screen).
• In cell C3 type Gross Income. (Don't worry that the text spills over into Column D).
• Move to cell C4 and type Tax Free Allowance.
• In C5 type Taxable Income.
• In C6 type Tax Paid
• In C7 type Net Income.
To adjust the column width to fit the text you have typed:
• Select (highlight) column C, by clicking anywhere on the grey area of the cell containing the
column heading 'C'.
• From the Format menu, choose Column and then AutoFit Selection.
Now set up the formulae to calculate your net income. Gross Income minus Tax Free Allowance
gives the Taxable Income. Tax is calculated at a certain rate (say 30% of the Taxable Income) and
the Tax Paid is then deducted from the Gross Income to give the Net Income. To translate this into
Excel's terms:
• In D3, type as your Gross Income 9000 (don't worry at the moment that this doesn't have a
pound sign).
• In D4, type as your Tax Free Allowance 3500.
• In D5 type the formula +D3-D4 and then press Enter. (The initial plus sign denotes that the
cell contains a formula rather than a literal value). This particular formula causes the value in
cell D5 to become that of D3 minus D4, so D5 should now contain 5500.
If cell D5 does not display 5500, check and correct the formula. To do this:
• Click in D5 and notice that the formula appears in a box underneath the Formatting Toolbar
(just to the right of the box that shows the cell reference).
• To correct a formula, click on the formula and edit it. When ready, press Enter.
Now calculate the Tax Paid (30% of the Taxable Income D5), using '*' as the multiplication sign
and '/' for division, i.e.:
• In D6 type +D5*(30/100).
• If D6 does not calculate the correct tax, 1650, correct the formula (in the way described above).
• Now calculate the Net Income in D7 (as Gross Income minus Tax Paid). The answer should
be 7350.
If you wish, now format the cells containing monetary figures to show currency. To do this:
• Select (highlight) the whole of column D.
• Click the Currency Style button. If the values in the cells are too large to display they will
show as ###### and you need to increase the width of column D.
• Now try changing your Gross Income and Tax Free Allowance.
This spreadsheet is rather inflexible because if the Tax Rate changes you will have to provide a
new formula in D6. It can be improved as follows:
• In A1 type Tax Rate (%).
• In B1 type 30.
• Alter the formula in D6 so that it reads +D5*(B1/100).
• Experiment with changing the value in B1.
The above illustrates a common use of spreadsheets - to ask 'what if' questions (eg 'What would
happen to my income if the Tax Rate went up to 50%'). The spreadsheets you have seen are very
simple. Complex systems (eg in economics or physical sciences) can be modeled using enormous
spreadsheets and complex calculations and hypotheses can be tested or predictions made by
changing the values of variables on the spreadsheet.
Types of series that Microsoft Excel can fill in for you
You can automatically fill in several types of series by selecting cells and dragging the fill handle
or by using the Series command (point to Fill on the Edit menu, and then click Series). To select
the type of series from a shortcut menu, select the starting values for the series; then hold down
the right mouse button as you drag the fill handle.
Time: A time series can include increments of days, weeks, or months that you specify, or it can
include repeating sequences such as weekdays, month names, or quarters. For example, the initial
time selections in the following table result in the series shown.
Initial selection Extended series
9:00 10:00, 11:00, 12:00
Mon Tue, Wed, Thu
Monday Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday
Jan Feb, Mar, Apr
Jan, Apr Jul, Oct, Jan
Jan-96, Apr-96 Jul-96, Oct-96, Jan-97
15-Jan, 15-Apr 15-Jul, 15-Oct
1994, 1995 1996, 1997, 1998
AutoFill:
The AutoFill feature extends several types of series as shown in the following table. The fourth
example shows how Microsoft Excel can extend part of a selection (Product 1) and copy another
part (On backorder). The last example is a best-fit trend.
Note: Items separated by commas are in adjacent cells.
Initial selection Extended series
Mon Tue, Wed, Thu,...
1-Jan, 1-Mar 1-May, 1-Jul, 1-Sep,...
Qtr3 (or Q3 or Quarter3) Qtr4, Qtr1, Qtr2,...
Product 1, On backorder Product 2, On backorder, Product 3, On backorder,...
text1, textA text2, textA, text3, textA,...
1st Period 2nd Period, 3rd Period,...
Product 1 Product 2, Product 3,...
1, 2 3, 4, 5, 6,...
1, 3, 4 5.66, 7.16, 8.66,...
Linear and Growth series
When you create a linear series by dragging the fill handle, Microsoft Excel increases or decreases
values by a constant value that is based on the selected starting values. When you create a growth
series by selecting the Growth Trend command from the shortcut menu, Microsoft Excel multiplies
values by a constant factor. For information about linear and growth series that you can create with
the Series command, click .
Initial selection Extended linear series
1, 2 3, 4, 5
1, 3 5, 7, 9
100, 95 90, 85
Initial selection Extended growth series
1,2 4, 8, 16
1,3 9, 27, 81
2,3 4.5, 6.75, 10.125
Auto Formatting Worksheets
For formatting tables quickly , try Excel’s AutoFormat Features-which , like word’s table auto-
format feature. Offers sundry predefined table formats encompassing all formatting from fonts
through borders and shading. To use AutoFormat on selected cells or on a range of cells surrounded
by blank cells:
• Choose Format --> AutoFormat to display The AutoFormat dialog box.
• Choose a format from the Table format list box. Watch the sample box for a preview of how
your table will look.
• If you want to apply only some of the formatting characteristics, click the option button to
display the six options in the formats to apply group box at the bottom of the AutoFormat
dialog box. Clear the check boxes for the options you do not want to apply.
• Click the ok button to close the AutoFormat dialog box and apply the Auto Formatting you
choose.
Edit cell contents
• Double-click the cell that contains the data you want to edit Or Press F2 key.
• Make any changes to the cell contents.
• To enter your changes, press ENTER.
To cancel your changes, press ESC.
Clear or delete cells, rows, or columns
When you delete cells, Microsoft Excel removes them from the worksheet and shifts the
surrounding cells to fill the space. When you clear cells, you remove the cell contents (formulas
and data), formats, or comments, but leave the blank cells on the worksheet.
Starting Excel and opening the example spreadsheet
Clear contents, formats, or comments from cells
• Select the cells, rows, or columns you want to clear.
• On the Edit menu, point to Clear, and then click All, Contents, Formats, or Comments.
• If you click a cell and then press DELETE or BACKSPACE, Microsoft Excel removes the cell
contents but does not remove any comments or cell formats.
• If you clear a cell, Microsoft Excel removes the contents, formats, comments, or all three from
a cell. The value of a cleared cell is 0 (zero), and a formula that refers to that cell will receive
a value of 0.
To remove all comments from a worksheet, click Go To on the Edit menu, click Special, and then
click Comments. Then point to Clear on the Edit menu, and click Comments
Delete cells, rows, or columns
• Select the cells, rows, or columns you want to delete.
• On the Edit menu, click Delete. OR press delete key
Change column width and row height
You can adjust the width of columns and the height of rows. You can also define the default width
of columns for a worksheet. Defining the default column width adjusts all columns to the same
width, except columns that have previously been changed.
Change column width
• Drag the boundary on the right side of the column heading until the column is the width you
want.
• The displayed column width is the average number of digits 0-9 of the standard font that fit in
a cell.
• To change the column width for multiple columns, select the columns you want to change.
Then drag a boundary at the right of a selected column heading. To change the column width
for all columns on the worksheet, click the Select All button, and then drag the boundary of
any column heading.
• To make the column width fit the contents, double-click the boundary to the right of the column
heading.
Change row height
• Drag the boundary below the row heading until the row is the height you want.
• To change the row height for multiple rows, select the rows you want to change. Then drag a
boundary below a selected row heading. To change the row height for all rows on the
worksheet, click the Select All button, and then drag the boundary below any row heading.
• To make the row height fit the contents, double-click the boundary below the row heading.
Define the default column width
• To define the default column width for all worksheets in a workbook, select all worksheets.
• On the Format menu, point to Column, and then click Standard Width.
• Type a new measurement.
The number that appears in the Standard column width box is the average number of digits 0-9 of
the standard font that fit in a cell. To define the default column width for all new workbooks and
worksheets, create a workbook template and a worksheet template.
Copying and Moving Data
You can copy and move data in excel by using Cut, Copy, and paste (as discussed in previous) or
drag-and-drop. There are two quick points to note here :
When pasting a-range of data, you need only select the upper-left anchor cell of the destination,
but be sure excel won’t overwrite any important data in the other cells that the range will cover.
To use drag & drop, select the cell or range to move or copy, and then move the mouse pointer to
one of its borders.
Go To (Edit menu)
In Microsoft Excel, scrolls through the worksheet and selects the cell, range, or cells with special
characteristics you specify. Press Ctrl+G or Choose Alt+E+Goto and then type the cell address
and press enter key.
Cells Formatting
Applies formats to the selected cells. This command might not available if the sheet is protected.
To see a complete list of built-in number formats, click Cells on the Format menu. The Number
tab provides number formats not found on the Formatting toolbar, including accounting, date, time,
fraction, scientific, and text formats. The Special category includes formats for ZIP Codes and
phone numbers. You can also customize these formats. To change the way numbers, dates, and
times are displayed, you can change the number format of selected cells. Changing the number
format does not affect the actual data values used in calculations. You can apply some number
formats by using the number formatting buttons on the Formatting toolbar. For example, click the
Currency Style button to display 35561 as $ 35,561.00.
Excel Functions
Syntax: SUM(number1,number2, ...)
Adds all the numbers in a range of cells.
Number1, number2, ... are 1 to 30 arguments for which you want the total value or sum.
• Numbers, logical values, and text representations of numbers that you type directly into the list
of arguments are counted. See the first and second examples following.
• If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in that array or reference are counted.
Empty cells, logical values, text, or error values in the array or reference are ignored. See the
third example following.
• Arguments that are error values or text that cannot be translated into numbers cause errors.
Examples
SUM(3, 2) equals 5:SUM("3", 2, TRUE) equals 6 because the text values are translated into
numbers, and the logical value TRUE is translated into the number 1.Unlike the previous example,
if A1 contains "3" and B1 contains TRUE, then:
SUM(A1, B1, 2) equals 2 because references to nonnumeric values in references are not translated.
If cells A2:E2 contain 5, 15, 30, 40, and 50:SUM(A2:C2) equals 50
SUM(B2:E2, 15) equals 150
Excel Functions (Average)
Returns the average (arithmetic mean) of the arguments:
Syntax
AVERAGE(number1,number2, ...)
Number1, number2, ... are 1 to 30 numeric arguments for which you want the average.
Remarks
• The arguments must be either numbers or names, arrays, or references that contain numbers.
• If an array or reference argument contains text, logical values, or empty cells, those values are
ignored; however, cells with the value zero are included.
When averaging cells, keep in mind the difference between empty cells and those containing the
value zero, especially if you have cleared the Zero values check box on the View tab (Options
command, Tools menu). Empty cells are not counted, but zero values are.
Examples
If A1:A5 is named Scores and contains the numbers 10, 7, 9, 27, and 2, then:
AVERAGE(A1:A5) equals 11
AVERAGE(Scores) equals 11
AVERAGE(A1:A5, 5) equals 10
AVERAGE(A1:A5) equals SUM(A1:A5)/COUNT(A1:A5) equals 11
If C1:C3 is named Other Scores and contains the numbers 4, 18, and 7, then:
AVERAGE(Scores, Other Scores) equals 10.5
Excel Functions (Max)
Returns the largest value in a set of values. Syntax: MAX(number1,number2,...)
Number1,number2,... are 1 to 30 numbers for which you want to find the maximum value.
• You can specify arguments that are numbers, empty cells, logical values, or text
representations of numbers. Arguments that are error values or text that cannot be translated
into numbers cause errors.
• If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in that array or reference are used. Empty
cells, logical values, or text in the array or reference are ignored. If logical values and text must
not be ignored, use MAXA instead.
• If the arguments contain no numbers, MAX returns 0 (zero).
Examples
If A1:A5 contains the numbers 10, 7, 9, 27, and 2, then:
MAX(A1:A5) equals 27
MAX(A1:A5,30) equals 30
Excel Functions (Min)
Returns the smallest number in a set of values. Syntax: MIN(number1,number2, ...)
Number1, number2,... are 1 to 30 numbers for which you want to find the minimum value.
• You can specify arguments that are numbers, empty cells, logical values, or text
representations of numbers. Arguments that are error values or text that cannot be translated
into numbers cause errors.
• If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in that array or reference are used. Empty
cells, logical values, or text in the array or reference are ignored. If logical values and text
should not be ignored, use MINA instead.
• If the arguments contain no numbers, MIN returns 0.
Examples
If A1:A5 contains the numbers 10, 7, 9, 27, and 2, then:
MIN(A1:A5) equals 2
MIN(A1:A5, 0) equals 0
MIN is similar to MAX. Also see the examples for MAX.
Excel Functions (Round)
Rounds a number to a specified number of digits. Syntax ROUND(number,num_digits)
Number is the number you want to round.
Num_digits specifies the number of digits to which you want to round number.
· If num_digits is greater than 0 (zero), then number is rounded to the specified number of decimal
places.
· If num_digits is 0, then number is rounded to the nearest integer.
· If num_digits is less than 0, then number is rounded to the left of the decimal point.
Examples
ROUND(2.15, 1) equals 2.2
ROUND(2.149, 1) equals 2.1
ROUND(-1.475, 2) equals -1.48
ROUND(21.5, -1) equals 20
Excel Functions if()
Returns one value if a condition you specify evaluates to TRUE and another value if it evaluates
to FALSE.Use IF to conduct conditional tests on values and formulas.
Syntax 1 :IF(logical_test,value_if_true,value_if_false)
Logical_test is any value or expression that can be evaluated to TRUE or FALSE.
Value_if_true is the value that is returned if logical_test is TRUE. If logical_test is TRUE and
value_if_true is omitted, TRUE is returned. Value_if_true can be another formula. Value_if_false
is the value that is returned if logical_test is FALSE. If logical_test is FALSE and value_if_false
is omitted, FALSE is returned. Value_if_false can be another formula.
Remarks
• Up to seven IF functions can be nested as value_if_true and value_if_false arguments to
construct more elaborate tests. See the following last example.
• When the value_if_true and value_if_false arguments are evaluated, IF returns the value
returned by those statements.
• If any of the arguments to IF are arrays, every element of the array is evaluated when the IF
statement is carried out. If some of the value_if_true and value_if_false arguments are action-
taking functions, all of the actions are taken.

Examples
In the following example, if the value in cell A10 is 100, then logical_test is TRUE, and the total
value for the range B5:B15 is calculated. Otherwise, logical_test is FALSE, and empty text ("") is
returned that blanks the cell that contains the IF function.
IF(A10=100,SUM(B5:B15),"")
Suppose an expense worksheet contains in B2:B4 the following data for "Actual Expenses" for
January, February, and March: 1500, 500, 500. C2:C4 contains the following data for "Predicted
Expenses" for the same periods: 900, 900, 925.
You can write a formula to check whether you are over budget for a particular month, generating
text for a message with the following formulas:
IF(B2>C2,"Over Budget","OK") equals "Over Budget"
IF(B3>C3,"Over Budget","OK") equals "OK"
Suppose you want to assign letter grades to numbers referenced by the name AverageScore. See
the following table.
If AverageScore is Then return
Greater than 89 A
From 80 to 89 B
From 70 to 79 C
From 60 to 69 D
Less than 60 F
You can use the following nested IF function:
IF(AverageScore>89,"A",IF(AverageScore>79,"B",
IF(AverageScore>69,"C",IF(AverageScore>59,"D","F"))))
In the preceding example, the second IF statement is also the value_if_false argument to the first
IF statement. Similarly, the third IF statement is the value_if_false argument to the second IF
statement. For example, if the first logical_test (Average>89) is TRUE, "A" is returned. If the first
logical_test is FALSE, the second IF statement is evaluated, and so on.
Excel Functions count()
Counts the number of cells that contain numbers and numbers within the list of arguments. Use
COUNT to get the number of entries in a number field in a range or array of
numbers Syntax:COUNT(value1,value2, ...)
Value1, value2, ... are 1 to 30 arguments that can contain or refer to a variety of different types of
data, but only numbers are counted.
• Arguments that are numbers, dates, or text representations of numbers are counted; arguments
that are error values or text that cannot be translated into numbers are ignored.
• If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in that array or reference are counted.
Empty cells, logical values, text, or error values in the array or reference are ignored. If you
need to count logical values, text, or error values, use the COUNT function.
Examples
In the following example,COUNT(A1:A7) equals 3,COUNT(A4:A7) equals 2
COUNT(A1:A7, 2) equals 4
Excel Functions or()
Returns TRUE if any argument is TRUE; returns FALSE if all arguments are FALSE.
Syntax: OR(logical1,logical2,...)
Logical1,logical2,... are 1 to 30 conditions you want to test that can be either TRUE or FALSE.
• The arguments must evaluate to logical values such as TRUE or FALSE, or in arrays or
references that contain logical values.
• If an array or reference argument contains text, numbers, or empty cells, those values are
ignored.
• If the specified range contains no logical values, OR returns the #VALUE! error value.
• You can use an OR array formula to see if a value occurs in an array. To enter an array formula,
press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER in Microsoft Excel 97 for Windows or +ENTER in Microsoft
Excel 97 for the Macintosh.
Examples
OR(TRUE) equals TRUE
OR(1+1=1,2+2=5) equals FALSE
If A1:A3 contains the values TRUE, FALSE, and TRUE, then:
OR(A1:A3) equals TRUE
Excel Functions and()
Returns TRUE if all its arguments are TRUE; returns FALSE if one or more arguments is FALSE.
Syntax:AND(logical1,logical2, ...)
Logical1, logical2, ... are 1 to 30 conditions you want to test that can be either TRUE or FALSE.
• The arguments must evaluate to logical values such as TRUE or FALSE, or the arguments
must be arrays or references that contain logical values.
• If an array or reference argument contains text or empty cells, those values are ignored.
• If the specified range contains no logical values, AND returns the #VALUE! error value.
Examples
AND(TRUE, TRUE) equals TRUE
AND(TRUE, FALSE) equals FALSE
AND(2+2=4, 2+3=5) equals TRUE
If B1:B3 contains the values TRUE, FALSE, and TRUE, then:
AND(B1:B3) equals FALSE
If B4 contains a number between 1 and 100, then:
AND(1<B4, B4<100) equals TRUE
Suppose you want to display B4 if it contains a number strictly between 1 and 100, and you want
to display a message if it is not. If B4 contains 104, then:
IF(AND(1<B4, B4<100), B4, "The value is out of range.") equals "The value is out of range."
If B4 contains 50, then:
IF(AND(1<B4, B4<100), B4, "The value is out of range.") equals 50
Sorting
If you previously sorted a list on the same worksheet, Microsoft Excel uses the same sorting
options unless you change them.
1 Click a cell in the column you would like to sort by.
2 Click Sort Ascending .
Note In a PivotTable, Microsoft Excel uses the selected field to sort items in ascending alphabetic
order. Numbers are sorted from lowest to highest value.
Create a chart
You can display Microsoft Excel data graphically in a chart. Charts are linked to the worksheet
data they are created from and are updated when you change the worksheet data.You can create
charts from cells or ranges that are not next to one another.
You can create either an embedded chart or a chart sheet.
• Select the cells that contain the data that you want to appear in the chart.
• If you want the column and row labels to appear in the chart, include the cells that contain
them in the selection.
• Click Chart Wizard .
• Follow the instructions in the Chart Wizard.
If your worksheet has multiple levels of row and column labels, your chart can also display those
levels. When you create the chart, include the row and column labels for each level in your
selection. To preserve the hierarchy when you add data to the chart, change the cell range used to
create the chart.
Select A Different Chart Type
For most 2-D charts, you can change the chart type of either a data series or the entire chart. For
bubble charts, you can change only the type of the entire chart. For most 3-D charts, changing the
chart type affects the entire chart. For 3-D bar and column charts, you can change a data series to
the cone, cylinder, or pyramid chart type.
• Click the chart you want to change.
• To change the chart type of a data series, click the data series.
• To change the chart type of the entire chart, don't click anything on the chart.
• On the Chart menu, click Chart Type.
• On the Standard Types or Custom Types tab, click the chart type you want.
To apply the cone, cylinder, or pyramid chart type to a 3-D bar or column data series, click
Cylinder, Cone, or Pyramid in the Chart type box on the Standard Types tab, and then select the
Apply to selection check box.
Note If you clear the Apply to selection check box, Microsoft Excel changes the chart type for the
entire chart even if a single data series is selected.
Returns a subtotal in a list or database. It is generally easier to create a list with subtotals using the
Subtotals command (Data menu). Once the subtotal list is created, you can modify it by editing
the SUBTOTAL function.
Excel Functions subtotal()
Syntax:SUBTOTAL(function_num,ref1,ref2,…)
Function_num is the number 1 to 11 that specifies which function to use in calculating subtotals
within a list.
Function_Num Function
1 AVERAGE
2 COUNT
3 COUNTA
4 MAX
5 MIN
6 PRODUCT
7 STDEV
8 STDEVP
Function_Num Function
9 SUM
10 VAR
11 VARP
Ref1, ref2, are 1 to 29 ranges or references for which you want the subtotal.
Remarks
• If there are other subtotals within ref1, ref2,… (or nested subtotals), these nested subtotals are
ignored to avoid double counting.
• SUBTOTAL will ignore any hidden rows that result from a list being filtered. This is important
when you want to subtotal only the visible data that results from a list that you have filtered.
• If any of the references are 3-D references, SUBTOTAL returns the #VALUE! error value.
Example
SUBTOTAL(9,C3:C5) will generate a subtotal of the cells C3:C5 using the SUM function
Display a subset of rows in a list by using filters
You can apply filters to only one list on a worksheet at a time.
• Click a cell in the list you want to filter.
• On the Data menu, point to Filter, and then click AutoFilter.
• To display only the rows that contain a specific value, click the arrow in the column that
contains the data you want to display.
• Click the value.
• To apply an additional condition based on a value in another column, repeat steps 3 and 4 in
the other column.
To filter the list by two values in the same column, or to apply comparison operators other than
Equals, click the arrow in the column, and then click Custom. For information about displaying
rows by comparing values.
Notes
• When you apply a filter to a column, the only filters available for other columns are the values
visible in the filtered list.
• You can apply up to two conditions to a column with AutoFilter. If you need to apply three or
more conditions to a column, use calculated values as your criteria, or copy records to another
location, you can use advanced filters.
Excel Functions GOAL SEAK
Find a specific result for a cell by adjusting the value of one other cell
• On the Tools menu, click Goal Seek.
• In the Set cell box, enter the reference for the cell that contains the formula you want to resolve.
• In the To value box, type the result you want.
• In the By changing cell box, enter the reference for the cell that contains the value you want to
adjust.
Microsoft PowerPoint
An Example Presentation Using PowerPoint
PowerPoint is a presentation graphics package. It can be used to attractively support talks and
lectures, by projection from a PC or by preparing transparencies for OHPs (by printing from
PowerPoint and transferring the pages to acetate). It can also be used for unattended 'rolling
demonstrations' on a computer screen (eg in a Foyer area or at an exhibition). PowerPoint can also
be used to prepare speaker's notes and handouts. In this section you will see an example
PowerPoint presentation. You will then have a chance to experiment briefly with changing parts
of the presentation.
Starting PowerPoint And Opening The Example Document
In Computer Centre Training Rooms PowerPoint is on the Start menu's Programs panel. To start
PowerPoint:
• Click the Start button.
• Point at Programs and, from the Programs panel, click on Microsoft PowerPoint.
• In PowerPoint's opening dialog box, click on Open an Existing Presentation and then click
OK. The Open dialog box appears.
The example document for this practical work is in a file called city talk. In Computer Centre
Training Rooms this file is in the folder C:/User/Office and to open the document from there:
• In the Folder List box, double-click the Office folder. The file city talk should now be visible
in the Folder List box.
• Click on the file city talk.
• Click on Open. The first slide of the presentation is displayed.
Selecting the PowerPoint view
PowerPoint starts in Slide View, which is the view to use when editing a presentation. Other views
are for giving a presentation, arranging slides, preparing an outline and preparing notes. The view
can be selected from the View menu. Alternatively use the View Toolbar (at the bottom left of the
screen). If using the Toolbar remember that ScreenTips can be used to identify buttons.
Slide Show View
• Select Slide Show view.
• Click the left mouse button to advance the slide show and the right mouse button to go back.
During the show notice the various transitions (special effects as a new slide appears)
and builds (the way that bullet points on a slide can be made to appear one-at-a-time). When
 the slide show has finished you are returned to Slide view (Note: In Slide Show view, the Esc
key can be used to abandon the show at any point).
Slide Sorter View
Slide Sorter View can be used, for example, to change the order of presentation of slides and the
special effects.
• From the View Menu (or View Toolbar) choose Slide Sorter view.
• The Slide Sorter Toolbar shows the transition and build of the highlighted slide.
• Click on any slide and experiment with its transition. A list of transitions is obtained by clicking
the arrow to the right of the Transition box. The Transition button (to the left of the
transition box) allows you to vary, eg the speed of the transition.
• Similarly with the Build box and Build button you can change the slide's build effects.
Notice that there is a slide that you did not see during the slide show (slide number 5). The Hide
button to the right of the Build box allows you to 'hide' slides (this is useful if you want to give a
slightly different presentation to different audiences).
• Click on the hidden slide and click on the Hide button to restore it to the slide show.
• To re-arrange the presentation:
• Drag a slide to a different position in the slide sorter. Experiment with this.
• A slide can be deleted by clicking on it and then pressing the Del key.
• To view a slide in detail:
• Double-clicking on the slide.
Slide View
Slide View is used to create or edit slides. How to format and align text and images on a slide and
how to create and style a slide and a slide show from scratch is shown in Getting started with
PowerPoint 97 (document ppt97-i1). As a brief illustration:
• Click anywhere on the text of a slide to edit the text at that point (except for the small text at
the bottom, which comes from the Slide Master - see Slide Master View).
• Click on a graphic (picture) and notice that handles appear around the picture; these can be
used to alter the size of the graphic (by dragging a handle). Note: Holding down the Ctrl key
while dragging a sizing handle preserves the correct horizontal and vertical proportions of the
graphic.
• A graphic can be moved to a different location by clicking anywhere within it and dragging.
Slide Master View
The Slide Master controls the overall appearance of every slide (unless for an individual slide the
master is deliberately not applied). To see the components of each slide that come from the Slide
Master:
• From the View menu, choose Master and then Slide Master.
Notes Pages View
You can use PowerPoint to produce and print notes to accompany your talk. To see the notes:
• From the View menu (or View Toolbar), choose Notes Pages.
• Scroll through the presentation to see the notes.
Outline view
You may find outlining useful in when preparing a talk. Outline view condenses the text content
of the slides to make it easier to follow and change the content of the presentation.
• From the View menu (or View Toolbar), choose Outline.
• Click in any part of the text to edit it at that point.
Spell checking and printing from PowerPoint
PowerPoint has a spelling checker but does not have a Print Preview. To save paper please do not
print the entire slideshow during the following exercise (if you would like to see an example
handout, please print 6 slides per page to save paper).
• From the File menu, choose Print.
• For a list of print options click on the arrow to the right of the Print What box.

Slides (without Builds) Prints as Slide Show view – one complete slide per page, full-size.
These can be photocopied onto acetate for OHPs.

Slides (with Builds) Prints one page for each build on the slide (Note: can be very
wasteful of paper).

Notes Pages Prints as Notes Pages view - a reduced-size slide with any speaker's
notes below, one slide per page.

Handouts Prints reduced-size slides for audience handouts (select the required
number of slides per page).

Outline Prints the condensed text content of the slides.

To quit from PowerPoint
• From the File menu, choose Exit. You need not save any changes you have made.
Internet
The internet is a globally connected network system that uses TCP/IP to transmit data via various
types of media. The internet is a network of global exchanges – including private, public, business,
academic and government networks – connected by guided, wireless and fiber-optic technologies.
The terms internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably, but they are not exactly
the same thing; the internet refers to the global communication system, including hardware and
infrastructure, while the web is one of the services communicated over the internet.
As computing advanced, peer-to-peer (P2P) communication was gradually delivered and
enhanced. Since the 1990s, the internet has greatly influenced and upgraded networking to global
standards. Billions of internet users rely on multiple application and networking technologies,
including:
Internet Protocol (IP): The internet’s primary component and communications backbone. Because
the internet is comprised of hardware and software layers, the IP communication standard is used
to address schemes and identify unique connected devices. Prominent IP versions used for
communications include Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6).
Communications: The internet is the most cost-effective communications method in the world, in
which the following services are instantly available:
• Email
• Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services
• Online movies and gaming
• Data transfer/file-sharing, often through File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Instant messaging
• Internet forums
• Social networking
• Online shopping
• Financial services
The internet originated with the U.S. government, which began building a computer network in
the 1960s known as ARPANET. In 1985, the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF)
commissioned the development of a university network backbone called NSFNET. The system
was replaced by new networks operated by commercial internet service providers in 1995. The
internet was brought to the public on a larger scale at around this time.
Web Browser
A web browser is a software program that allows a user to locate, access, and display web pages.
In common usage, a web browser is usually shortened to "browser." Browsers are used primarily
for displaying and accessing websites on the internet, as well as other content created using
languages such as Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and Extensible Markup Language
(XML).
Browsers translate web pages and websites delivered using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
into human-readable content. They also have the ability to display other protocols and prefixes,
such as secure HTTP (HTTPS), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), email handling (mailto:), and files
(file:). In addition, most browsers also support external plug-ins required to display active content,
such as in-page video, audio and game content.
A variety of web browsers are available with different features, and are designed to run on different
operating systems. Common browsers include Internet Explorer from Microsoft, Firefox from
Mozilla, Google Chrome, Safari from Apple, and Opera. All major browsers have mobile versions
that are lightweight versions for accessing the web on mobile devices.
Web browsers date back to the late 1980s when an English scientist, Tim Berners-Lee, first
developed the ideas that led to the World Wide Web (WWW). This consisted of a series of pages
created using the HTML language and joined or linked together with pointers called hyperlinks.
Following this was the need for a program that could access and display the HTML pages correctly
– the browser.
A browser is software that is used to access the internet. A browser lets you visit websites and do
activities within them like login, view multimedia, link from one site to another, visit one page
from another, print, send and receive email, among many other activities. The most common
browser software titles on the market are: Microsoft Internet Explorer, Google's Chrome, Mozilla
Firefox, Apple's Safari, and Opera. Browser availability depends on the operating system your
computer is using (for example: Microsoft Windows, Linux, Ubuntu, Mac OS, among others).
When you type a web page address such as www.allaboutcookies.org into your browser, that web
page in its entirety is not actually stored on a server ready and waiting to be delivered. In fact each
web page that you request is individually created in response to your request.
You are actually calling up a list of requests to get content from various resource directories or
servers on which the content for that page is stored. It is rather like a recipe for a cake - you have
a shopping list of ingredients (requests for content) that when combined in the correct order bakes
a cake (the web page).The page maybe made up from content from different sources. Images may
come from one server, text content from another, scripts such as date scripts from another and ads
from another. As soon as you move to another page, the page that you have just viewed disappears.
This is the dynamic nature of websites.
 Search Engine
Search engine is a service that allows Internet users to search for content via the World Wide Web
(WWW). A user enters keywords or key phrases into a search engine and receives a list of Web
content results in the form of websites, images, videos or other online data. The list of content
returned via a search engine to a user is known as a search engine results page (SERP).
To simplify, think of a search engine as two components. First a spider/web crawler trolls the web
for content that is added to the search engine's index. Then, when a user queries a search engine,
relevant results are returned based on the search engine's algorithm. Early search engines were
based largely on page content, but as websites learned to game the system, algorithms have become
much more complex and search results returned can be based on literally hundreds of variables.
There used to be a significant number of search engines with significant market share. Currently,
Google and Microsoft's Bing control the vast majority of the market. (While Yahoo generates
many queries, their back-end search technology is outsourced to Microsoft.)
World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a network of online content that is formatted in HTML and
accessed via HTTP. The term refers to all the interlinked HTML pages that can be accessed over
the Internet. The World Wide Web was originally designed in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee while he
was a contractor at CERN.
The World Wide Web is most often referred to simply as "the Web."
The World Wide Web is what most people think of as the Internet. It is all the Web pages, pictures,
videos and other online content that can be accessed via a Web browser. The Internet, in contrast,
is the underlying network connection that allows us to send email and access the World Wide Web.
The early Web was a collection of text-based sites hosted by organizations that were technically
gifted enough to set up a Web server and learn HTML. It has continued to evolve since the original
design, and it now includes interactive (social) media and user-generated content that requires little
to no technical skills.
We owe the free Web to Berners-Lee and CERN’s decision to give away one of the greatest
inventions of the century.
Email - electronic mail
Short for electronic mail, email (or e-mail) is defined as the transmission of messages
over communications networks. Typically the messages are notes entered from the keyboard or
electronic files stored on disk. Most mainframes, minicomputers, and computer networks have an
email system.
Some electronic mail systems are confined to a single computer system or network, but others
have gateways to other computer systems, enabling users to send electronic mail anywhere in the
world. Companies that are fully computerized make extensive use of e-mail because it is fast,
flexible, and reliable.
Typical Components of an Email System
Most email systems include a rudimentary text editor for composing messages, but many allow
you to edit your messages using any editor you want. Some systems will also provide basic
formatting, including bold, italics, font color and HTML. You can use the program to send the
message to a recipient by specifying the recipient's address. You can also send the same message
to several users at once. This is called broadcasting.
Sent messages are stored in electronic mailboxes until the recipient fetches them. To see if you
have any mail, you may have to check your electronic mailbox periodically, although many
systems alert you when mail is received. After reading your mail, you can store it in a text file,
forward it to other users, or delete it. Copies of memos can be printed out on a printer if you want
a paper copy.
Email Provided by Online Services and ISPs
All online services and Internet Service Providers (ISPs) offer email, and most
also support gateways so that you can exchange mail with users of other systems. Usually, it takes
only a few seconds or minutes for mail to arrive at its destination. This is a particularly effective
way to communicate with a group because you can broadcast a message or document to everyone
in the group at once.
Although different email systems use different formats, there are some emerging standards that
are making it possible for users on all systems to exchange messages. In the PC world, an
important e-mail standard is MAPI. The CCITT standards organization has developed the X.400
standard, which attempts to provide a universal way of addressing messages.
To date, though, the de facto addressing standard is the one used by the Internet system because
almost all e-mail systems have an Internet gateway.
Ecommerce
Electronic commerce or ecommerce is a term for any type of business, or commercial
transaction that involves the transfer of information across the Internet. It covers a range of
different types of businesses, from consumer-based retail sites, through auction or music sites,
to business exchanges trading goods and services between corporations. It is currently one of
the most important aspects of the Internet to emerge.
Ecommerce allows consumers to electronically exchange goods and services with no barriers
of time or distance. Electronic commerce has expanded rapidly over the past five years and is
predicted to continue at this rate, or even accelerate. In the near future the boundaries between
"conventional" and "electronic" commerce will become increasingly blurred as more and more
businesses move sections of their operations onto the Internet.
Business to Business or B2B refers to electronic commerce between businesses rather than
between a business and a consumer. B2B businesses often deal with hundreds or even
thousands of other businesses, either as customers or suppliers. Carrying out these transactions
electronically provides vast competitive advantages over traditional methods. When
implemented properly, ecommerce is often faster, cheaper and more convenient than the
traditional methods of bartering goods and services.
Electronic transactions have been around for quite some time in the form of Electronic Data
Interchange or EDI. EDI requires each supplier and customer to set up a dedicated data link
(between them), where ecommerce provides a cost-effective method for companies to set up
multiple, ad-hoc links. Electronic commerce has also led to the development of electronic
marketplaces where suppliers and potential customers are brought together to conduct mutually
beneficial trade.
The road to creating a successful online store can be a difficult if unaware of ecommerce
principles and what ecommerce is supposed to do for your online business. Researching and
understanding the guidelines required to properly implement an e-business plan is a crucial part
to becoming successful with online store building.
What do you need to have an online store and what exactly is a shopping cart?
Shopping cart software is an operating system used to allow consumers to purchase goods and
or services, track customers, and tie together all aspects of ecommerce into one cohesive whole.
While there are many types of software that you can use, customizable, turnkey solutions are
proven to be a cost-effective method to build, edit and maintain an online store. How do online
shopping carts differ from those found in a grocery store? The image is one of an invisible
shopping cart. You enter an online store, see a product that fulfills your demand and you place
it into your virtual shopping basket. When you are through browsing, you click checkout and
complete the transaction by providing payment information.
To start an online business, it is best to find a niche product that consumers have difficulty
finding in malls or department stores. Also take shipping into consideration. Pets.com found
out the hard way: dog food is expensive to ship FedEx! Then you need an ecommerce enabled
website. This can either be a new site developed from scratch, or an existing site to which you
can add ecommerce shopping cart capabilities.
The next step, you need a means of accepting online payments. This usually entails obtaining
a merchant account and accepting credit cards through an online payment gateway (some
smaller sites stick with simpler methods of accepting payments such as PayPal).
Lastly, you need a marketing strategy for driving targeted traffic to your site and a means of
enticing repeat customers. If you are new to ecommerce keep things simple- know your
limitations.
Ecommerce can be a very rewarding venture, but you cannot make money overnight. It is
important to do a lot of research, ask questions, work hard and make on business decisions on
facts learned from researching ecommerce. Don't rely on "gut" feelings. We hope our online
ecommerce tutorial has helped your business make a better decision in choosing an online
shopping cart for your ecommerce store.
Collaborative Computing
Collaborative computing is described as a phenomenon where modern technology tools facilitate
and enhance group work that exists through distributed technology – where individuals collaborate
from remote locations.
Many different types of modern tools and technologies constitute collaborative programming
resources. Some of the earliest systems focused on how to allow groups in distributed locations to
view files, share information and chat amongst themselves in order to complete projects. As
collaborative computing and general technology evolved, videoconferencing and multi-feature
conferencing programs upped the ante in providing sophisticated platforms where remote teams
could complete tasks like content management, or work on the full “life cycle” for a product or
service.
Collaborative computing tools really run the gamut – Google Hangouts could be called
“collaborative computing.” Some of the proprietary platforms that remote teams use to deliver
graphic design or copy projects could also be called collaborative computing tools. It is important
to note that while early collaborative computing technologies focused on bringing together people
in different places, many of today's tools focus more on streamlining and organizing the
collaborative work of large groups of people who may actually be within the same business campus
or other location.
Much of the modern collaborative computing infrastructure offered to companies involves cutting
down on face time, and replacing face-to-face meetings and interactions with digital ones.
Collaborative computing can serve a business in many different ways, according to its footprint
and operational needs.
Social networking
Social networking is the practice of expanding the number of one's business and/or social contacts
by making connections through individuals, often through social media sites such
as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and Google+.
Based on the six degrees of separation concept (the idea that any two people on the planet could
make contact through a chain of no more than five intermediaries), social networking establishes
interconnected online communities (sometimes known as social graphs) that help people make
contacts that would be good for them to know, but that they would be unlikely to have met
otherwise.
Depending on the social media platform, members may be able to contact any other member. In
other cases, members can contact anyone they have a connection to, and subsequently anyone that
contact has a connection to, and so on. Some services require members to have a preexisting
connection to contact other members.
While social networking has gone on almost as long as societies themselves have existed, the
unparalleled potential of the Web to facilitate such connections has led to an exponential and
ongoing expansion of that phenomenon. In addition to social media platforms, the capacity for
social interaction and collaboration is increasingly built into business applications.
Cybercrime
Cybercrime is an issue which impacts the lives of many Australians. Cybercrimes are crimes which
are:
• directed at computers or other devices (for example, hacking), and
• Where computers or other devices are integral to the offence (for example, online fraud,
identity theft and the distribution of child exploitation material).
Common types of cybercrime include hacking, online scams and fraud, identity theft, attacks on
computer systems and illegal or prohibited online content.
The effect of cybercrime can be extremely upsetting for victims, and not necessarily just for
financial reasons. Victims may feel that their privacy has been violated, and that they are
powerless.
Computer Security Issues
Information Assurance Services works closely with IT Services. IT Services are able to monitor
computer and network usage in order to protect University assets and services. Maintaining
computer security involves implementing suitable preventative measures, detecting potential
vulnerabilities, detecting possible threats, detecting compromised systems and handling incidents.
The term misuse covers various activities including:
• Hacking unauthorized access to or use of data, systems, server or networks, including any
attempt to probe, scan or test the vulnerability of a system, server or network or to breach
security or authentication measures without express authorization of the owner of the system,
server or network. Members of the University should not run computer programs that are
associated with hacking without prior authorization. Obtaining and using such programs is not
typical of normal usage and may therefore otherwise be regarded as misuse.
• Use of University owned computer equipment, including the network, for illegal activities
including copying Copyright material without permission. The vast majority of files shared
on P2P (peer-to-peer) networks violate copyright law because they were posted without
permission of the artist or label.
• Sending abusive e-mails or posting offensive Web pages.
• Creation or transmission of any offensive or indecent images.
• Giving unauthorized access to University computing resources e.g. allowing an account to be
used by someone not authorized to use it.
• Deliberately creating or spreading computer viruses or worms.
• Unauthorized running of applications that involve committing the University to sharing its
computing resources, e.g. network bandwidth, in an uncontrolled and unlimited way.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Stands for "Global Positioning System." GPS is a satellite navigation system used to determine the
ground position of an object. GPS technology was first used by the United States military in the
1960s and expanded into civilian use over the next few decades. Today, GPS receivers are included
in many commercial products, such as automobiles, smartphones, exercise watches, and GIS
devices.
The GPS system includes 24 satellites deployed in space about 12,000 miles (19,300 kilometers)
above the earth's surface. They orbit the earth once every 12 hours at an extremely fast pace of
roughly 7,000 miles per hour (11,200 kilometers per hour). The satellites are evenly spread out so
that four satellites are accessible via direct line-of-sight from anywhere on the globe.
Each GPS satellite broadcasts a message that includes the satellite's current position, orbit, and
exact time. A GPS receiver combines the broadcasts from multiple satellites to calculate its exact
position using a process called triangulation. Three satellites are required in order to determine a
receiver's location, though a connection to four satellites is ideal since it provides greater accuracy.
In order for a GPS device to work correctly, it must first establish a connection to the required
number of satellites. This process can take anywhere from a few seconds to a few minutes,
depending on the strength of the receiver. For example, a car's GPS unit will typically establish a
GPS connection faster than the receiver in a watch or smartphone. Most GPS devices also use
some type of location caching to speed up GPS detection. By memorizing its previous location, a
GPS device can quickly determine what satellites will be available the next time it scans for a GPS
signal.
NOTE: Since GPS receivers require a relatively unobstructed path to space, GPS technology is
not ideal for indoor use. Therefore, smartphones, tablets, and other mobile devices often use other
means to determine location, such as nearby cell towers and public Wi-Fi signals. This technology,
sometimes referred to as the local positioning system (LPS), is often used to supplement GPS when
a consistent satellite connection is unavailable.
Computer Programming
Why Programming?
You may already have used software, perhaps for word processing or spreadsheets, to solve
problems. Perhaps now you are curious to learn how programmers write software. A program is
a set of step-by-step instructions that directs the computer to do the tasks you want it to do and
produce the results you want.
There are at least three good reasons for learning programming:
• Programming helps you understand computers. The computer is only a tool. If you learn how
to write simple programs, you will gain more knowledge about how a computer works.
• Writing a few simple programs increases your confidence level. Many people find great
personal satisfaction in creating a set of instructions that solve a problem.
• Learning programming lets you find out quickly whether you like programming and whether
you have the analytical turn of mind programmers need. Even if you decide that
programming is not for you, understanding the process certainly will increase your
appreciation of what programmers and computers can do.
A set of rules that provides a way of telling a computer what operations to perform is called a
programming language. There is not, however, just one programming language; there are many.
In this chapter you will learn about controlling a computer through the process of programming.
You may even discover that you might want to become a programmer.
An important point before we proceed: You will not be a programmer when you finish reading
this chapter or even when you finish reading the final chapter. Programming proficiency takes
practice and training beyond the scope of this book. However, you will become acquainted with
how programmers develop solutions to a variety of problems.
Levels of Language
Programming languages are said to be "lower" or "higher," depending on how close they are to
the language the computer itself uses (Os and 1s = low) or to the language people use (more
English-like-high). We will consider five levels of language. They are numbered 1 through 5 to
correspond to levels, or generations. In terms of ease of use and capabilities, each generation is
an improvement over its predecessors. The five generations of languages are
1. Machine language
2. Assembly languages
3. High-level languages
4. Very high-level languages
5. Natural languages
Let us look at each of these categories.
Machine Language
Humans do not like to deal in numbers alone-they prefer letters and words. But, strictly speaking,
numbers are what machine language is. This lowest level of language, machine language,
represents data and program instructions as 1s and Os-binary digits corresponding to the on and
off electrical states in the computer. Each type of computer has its own machine language. In the
early days of computing, programmers had rudimentary systems for combining numbers to
represent instructions such as add and compare. Primitive by today's standards, the programs
were not convenient for people to read and use. The computer industry quickly moved to develop
assembly languages.
Assembly Languages
Today, assembly languages are considered very low level-that is, they are not as convenient for
people to use as more recent languages. At the time they were developed, however, they were
considered a great leap forward. To replace the Is and Os used in machine language, assembly
languages use mnemonic codes, abbreviations that are easy to remember: A for Add, C for
Compare, MP for Multiply, STO for storing information in memory, and so on. Although these
codes are not English words, they are still- from the standpoint of human convenience-preferable
to numbers (Os and 1s) alone. Furthermore, assembly languages permit the use of names- perhaps
RATE or TOTAL-for memory locations instead of actual address numbers. just like machine
language, each type of computer has its own assembly language.
The programmer who uses an assembly language requires a translator to convert the assembly
language program into machine language. A translator is needed because machine language is the
only language the computer can actually execute. The translator is an assembler program, also
referred to as an assembler. It takes the programs written in assembly language and turns them into
machine language. Programmers need not worry about the translating aspect; they need only write
programs in assembly language. The translation is taken care of by the assembler.
Although assembly languages represent a step forward, they still have many disadvantages. A key
disadvantage is that assembly language is detailed in the extreme, making assembly programming
repetitive, tedious, and error prone.
High-Level Languages
The first widespread use of high-level languages in the early 1960s transformed programming
into something quite different from what it had been. Programs were written in an English-like
manner, thus making them more convenient to use. As a result, a programmer could accomplish
more with less effort, and programs could now direct much more complex tasks.
These so-called third-generation languages spurred the great increase in data processing that
characterized the 1960s and 1970s. During that time the number of mainframes in use increased
from hundreds to tens of thousands. The impact of third-generation languages on our society has
been enormous.
Of course, a translator is needed to translate the symbolic statements of a high-level language into
computer-executable machine language; this translator is usually a compiler. There are many
compilers for each language and one for each type of computer. Since the machine language
generated by one computer's COBOL compiler, for instance, is not the machine language of some
other computer, it is necessary to have a COBOL compiler for each type of computer on which
COBOL programs are to be run. Keep in mind, however, that even though a given program would
be compiled to different machine language versions on different machines, the source program
itself-the COBOL version-can be essentially identical on each machine.
Some languages are created to serve a specific purpose, such as controlling industrial robots or
creating graphics. Many languages, however, are extraordinarily flexible and are considered to be
general-purpose. In the past the majority of programming applications were written in BASIC,
FORTRAN, or COBOL-all general-purpose languages.
Computer Networks
A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers is called
computer network. This interconnection among computers facilitates information sharing among
them. Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless media.
Classification of Computer Networks
Computer networks are classified based on various factors. They include:
• Geographical span
• Inter-connectivity
• Administration
• Architecture
Geographical Span
Geographically a network can be seen in one of the following categories:
• It may be spanned across your table, among Bluetooth enabled devices, Ranging not more
than few meters.
• It may be spanned across a whole building, including intermediate devices to connect all
floors.
• It may be spanned across a whole city.
• It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces.
• It may be one network covering whole world.
Inter-Connectivity
Components of a network can be connected to each other differently in some fashion. By
connectedness we mean either logically, physically, or both ways.
• Every single device can be connected to every other device on network, making the network
mesh.
• All devices can be connected to a single medium but geographically disconnected, created bus
like structure.
• Each device is connected to its left and right peers only, creating linear structure.
• All devices connected together with a single device, creating star like structure.
• All devices connected arbitrarily using all previous ways to connect each other, resulting in a
hybrid structure.
Administration
From an administrator’s point of view, a network can be private network which belongs a single
autonomous system and cannot be accessed outside its physical or logical domain. A network can
be public which is accessed by all.
Network Architecture
Computer networks can be discriminated into various types such as Client-Server, peer-to-peer or
hybrid, depending upon its architecture.
• There can be one or more systems acting as Server. Other being Client, requests the Server to
serve requests. Server takes and processes request on behalf of Clients.
• Two systems can be connected Point-to-Point, or in back-to-back fashion. They both reside at
the same level and called peers.
• There can be hybrid network which involves network architecture of both the above types.
Network Applications
Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network. They provide numerous
advantages:
• Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
• Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
• Information sharing by using Web or Internet
• Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
• IP phones
• Video conferences
• Parallel computing
• Instant messaging
Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical span. A network can be as
small as distance between your mobile phone and its Bluetooth headphone and as large as the
internet itself, covering the whole geographical world,
Personal Area Network
A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user. This may
include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has connectivity range up
to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled
headphones, wireless printers and TV remotes.

For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which may contain up to 8
devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.
Local Area Network
A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single administrative system
is generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN). Usually, LAN covers an organization’ offices,
schools, colleges or universities. Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least
as two to as much as 16 million.
LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users. The resources such as
printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable among computers.

LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment. It may contains local
servers serving file storage and other locally shared applications. It mostly operates on private IP
addresses and does not involve heavy routing. LAN works under its own local domain and
controlled centrally.
LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most widely employed LAN
technology and uses Star topology, while Token-ring is rarely seen.
LAN can be wired, wireless, or in both forms at once.
Metropolitan Area Network
The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city such as cable TV
network. It can be in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI).
Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to expand
their Local Area Networks. For example, MAN can help an organization to connect all of its
offices in a city.

Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works in between Local
Area Network and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or internet.
Wide Area Network
As the name suggests, the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which may span across
provinces and even a whole country. Generally, telecommunication networks are Wide Area
Network. These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are equipped with
very high speed backbone, WANs use very expensive network equipment.

WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame
Relay, and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be managed by multiple
administration.
Internetwork
A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the largest network
in existence on this planet. The internet hugely connects all WANs and it can have connection to
LANs and Home networks. Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and uses IP as its addressing
protocol. Present day, Internet is widely implemented using IPv4. Because of shortage of address
spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to IPv6.
Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information worldwide. It uses
WWW, FTP, email services, audio and video streaming etc. At huge level, internet works on
Client-Server model.
Internet uses very high-speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect various continents, fibers
are laid under sea known to us as submarine communication cable.
Internet is widely deployed on World Wide Web services using HTML linked pages and is
accessible by client software known as Web Browsers. When a user requests a page using some
web browser located on some Web Server anywhere in the world, the Web Server responds with
the proper HTML page. The communication delay is very low.
Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in many aspects of life. Some of them are:
• Web sites
• E-mail
• Instant Messaging
• Blogging
• Social Media
• Marketing
• Networking
• Resource Sharing
• Audio and Video Streaming
Computer Network Topologies
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network.
Both logical and physical topologies could be same or different in a same network.
Point-to-Point
Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches or routers, servers
connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is
connected to sending end of the other and vice-versa.

If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple intermediate devices.
But the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and see each other as if they are connected
directly.
Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable. Bus topology may
have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, Bus topology either
uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is one of
the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect the other devices. But
failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices stop functioning.

Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one direction and
as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the line.
Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a point-
to-point connection. That is, there exists a point-to-point connection between hosts and hub. The
hub device can be any of the following:
• Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater
• Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
• Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all hosts to all
other hosts fails. Every communication between hosts, takes place through only the hub.Star
topology is not expensive as to connect one more host, only one cable is required and
configuration is simple.
Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a circular
network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not
adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the
existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable.
Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every connection in the ring is a
point of failure. There are methods which employ one more backup ring.
Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This topology has hosts in
point-to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in point-to-point
connection to few hosts only.

Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-to-point
links. Mesh technology comes into two types:
• Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network.
Thus, for every new host n (n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the most reliable
network structure among all network topologies.
• Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts
connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to
provide reliability to some hosts out of all.
Computer Network Security
During initial days of internet, its use was limited to military and universities for research and
development purpose. Later when all networks merged together and formed internet, the data
used to travel through public transit network. Common people may send the data that can be
highly sensitive such as their bank credentials, username and passwords, personal documents,
online shopping details, or confidential documents.
All security threats are intentional i.e., they occur only if intentionally triggered. Security threats
can be divided into the following categories:
• Interruption
Interruption is a security threat in which availability of resources is attacked. For example, a
user is unable to access its web-server or the web-server is hijacked.
• Privacy-Breach
In this threat, the privacy of a user is compromised. Someone, who is not the authorized person
is accessing or intercepting data sent or received by the original authenticated user.
• Integrity
This type of threat includes any alteration or modification in the original context of
communication. The attacker intercepts and receives the data sent by the sender and the
attacker then either modifies or generates false data and sends to the receiver. The receiver
receives the data assuming that it is being sent by the original Sender.
• Authenticity
This threat occurs when an attacker or a security violator, poses as a genuine person and
accesses the resources or communicates with other genuine users.
No technique in the present world can provide 100% security. But steps can be taken to secure
data while it travels in unsecured network or internet. The most widely used technique is
Cryptography.

Cryptography is a technique to encrypt the plain-text data which makes it difficult to understand
and interpret. There are several cryptographic algorithms available present day as described
below:
• Secret Key
• Public Key
Secret Key Encryption
Both sender and receiver have one secret key. This secret key is used to encrypt the data at
sender’s end. After the data is encrypted, it is sent on the public domain to the receiver. Because
the receiver knows and has the Secret Key, the encrypted data packets can easily be decrypted.
Example of secret key encryption is Data Encryption Standard (DES). In Secret Key encryption,
it is required to have a separate key for each host on the network making it difficult to manage.
Public Key Encryption
In this encryption system, every user has its own Secret Key and it is not in the shared domain.
The secret key is never revealed on public domain. Along with secret key, every user has its own
but public key. Public key is always made public and is used by Senders to encrypt the data. When
the user receives the encrypted data, he can easily decrypt it by using its own Secret Key.
Signals
 When data is sent over physical medium, it needs to be first converted into electromagnetic
signals. Data itself can be analog such as human voice, or digital such as file on the disk.Both
analog and digital data can be represented in digital or analog signals.
• Digital Signals
Digital signals are discrete in nature and represent sequence of voltage pulses. Digital signals
are used within the circuitry of a computer system.
• Analog Signals
Analog signals are in continuous wave form in nature and represented by continuous
electromagnetic waves.
Transmission Impairment
When signals travel through the medium they tend to deteriorate. This may have many reasons
as given:
• Attenuation
For the receiver to interpret the data accurately, the signal must be sufficiently strong. When
the signal passes through the medium, it tends to get weaker. As it covers distance, it loses
strength.
• Dispersion
As signal travels through the media, it tends to spread and overlaps. The amount of dispersion
depends upon the frequency used.
• Delay distortion
Signals are sent over media with pre-defined speed and frequency. If the signal speed and
frequency do not match, there are possibilities that signal reaches destination in arbitrary
fashion. In digital media, this is very critical that some bits reach earlier than the previously
sent ones.
• Noise
Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be Noise in signal,
which may distort the actual information being carried. Noise can be characterized in one of
the following class:
o Thermal Noise
Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may introduce noise in the media.
Up to a certain level, thermal noise is unavoidable.
o Intermodulation
When multiple frequencies share a medium, their interference can cause noise in the medium.
Intermodulation noise occurs if two different frequencies are sharing a medium and one of
them has excessive strength or the component itself is not functioning properly, then the
resultant frequency may not be delivered as expected.
o Crosstalk
This sort of noise happens when a foreign signal enters into the media. This is because signal
in one medium affects the signal of second medium.
o Impulse
This noise is introduced because of irregular disturbances such as lightening, electricity, short-
circuit, or faulty components. Digital data is mostly affected by this sort of noise.
Transmission Media
The media over which the information between two computer systems is sent, called transmission
media. Transmission media comes in two forms.
• Guided Media
 All communication wires/cables are guided media, such as UTP, coaxial cables, and fiber
Optics. In this media, the sender and receiver are directly connected and the information is
send (guided) through it.
• Unguided Media
Wireless or open air space is said to be unguided media, because there is no connectivity
between the sender and receiver. Information is spread over the air, and anyone including the
actual recipient may collect the information.
Channel Capacity
The speed of transmission of information is said to be the channel capacity. We count it as data
rate in digital world. It depends on numerous factors such as:
• Bandwidth: The physical limitation of underlying media.
• Error-rate: Incorrect reception of information because of noise.
• Encoding: The number of levels used for signaling.
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique to mix and send multiple data streams over a single medium. This
technique requires system hardware called multiplexer (MUX) for multiplexing the streams and
sending them on a medium, and de-multiplexer (DMUX) which takes information from the
medium and distributes to different destinations.
Twisted Pair Cable
A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires twisted together to form a
single media. Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for ground
reference. The twists between wires are helpful in reducing noise (electro-magnetic interference)
and crosstalk.

There are two types of twisted pair cables:

• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
STP cables comes with twisted wire pair covered in metal foil. This makes it more indifferent to
noise and crosstalk.
UTP has seven categories, each suitable for specific use. In computer networks, Cat-5, Cat-5e,
and Cat-6 cables are mostly used. UTP cables are connected by RJ45 connectors.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in the center and it is made of solid
conductor. The core is enclosed in an insulating sheath. The second wire is wrapped around over
the sheath and that too in turn encased by insulator sheath. This all is covered by plastic cover.
Because of its structure, the coax cable is capable of carrying high frequency signals than that of
twisted pair cable. The wrapped structure provides it a good shield against noise and cross talk.
Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps.
There are three categories of coax cables namely, RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin Ethernet), and
RG-11 (Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio Government.
Cables are connected using BNC connector and BNC-T. BNC terminator is used to terminate the
wire at the far ends.
Fiber Optics
Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. When light ray hits at critical angle it tends to refracts
at 90 degrees. This property has been used in fiber optic. The core of fiber optic cable is made of
high quality glass or plastic. From one end of it light is emitted, it travels through it and at the
other end light detector detects light stream and converts it to electric data.
Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in two modes, one is single mode fiber
and second is multimode fiber. Single mode fiber can carry a single ray of light whereas
multimode is capable of carrying multiple beams of light.

Fiber Optic also comes in unidirectional and bidirectional capabilities. To connect and access
fiber optic special type of connectors are used. These can be Subscriber Channel (SC), Straight
Tip (ST), or MT-RJ.
Wireless Transmission
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no physical
link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless signals are
spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts the
digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range. The receptor on
the other end receives these signals and converts them back to digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.
Radio Transmission
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate through
walls and structures alike. Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm – 100,000 km and have
frequency ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely High
Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-divided into six bands.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in
straight line and bounce back. The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they cover
long distance. High frequency radio waves have more power.
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000 kilometers,
over the earth’s surface.

Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They use
Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands are
spread upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.

Microwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them can
be sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves travels in
straight lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency ranging from 300
MHz to 300 GHz.

Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture above,
multiple antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and do
not penetrate wall like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is
using.
Infrared Transmission
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength of 700-
nm to 1-mm and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television and it’s
remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of high
frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.
Database Management System (DBMS)
A database management system (DBMS) refers to the technology for creating and managing
databases. DBMS is a software tool to organize (create, retrieve, update and manage) data in a
database.
The main aim of a DBMS is to supply a way to store up and retrieve database information that is
both convenient and efficient. By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that have
embedded meaning. Normally people use software such as DBASE IV or V, Microsoft ACCESS,
or EXCEL to store data in the form of database. A datum is a unit of data. Meaningful data
combined to form information. Hence, information is interpreted data - data provided with
semantics. MS. ACCESS is one of the most common examples of database management software.
More on Data, Information, and Knowledge
Knowledge refers to the useful use of information. As you know, that information can be
transported, stored and shared without much problem and difficulties but the same cannot be said
about knowledge. Knowledge necessarily involves a personal experience and practice.
Database systems are meant to handle a large collection of information. Management of data
involves both defining structures for storage of information and providing mechanisms that can do
the manipulation of those stored information. Moreover, the database system must ensure the
safety of the information stored, despite system crashes or attempts at unauthorized access.
Why use DBMS?
• To develop software applications In less time.
• Data independence and efficient use of data.
• For uniform data administration.
• For data integrity and security.
• For concurrent access to data, and data recovery from crashes.
• To use user-friendly declarative query language.
Where is a Database Management System (DBMS) being Used?
• Airlines: reservations, schedules, etc
• Telecom: calls made, customer details, network usage, etc
• Universities: registration, results, grades, etc
• Sales: products, purchases, customers, etc
• Banking: all transactions etc
Advantages of DBMS
A DBMS manage data and has many advantages. These are:
• Data independence: Application programs should be as free or independent as possible from
details of data representation and storage. DBMS can supply an abstract view of the data for
insulating application code from such facts.
• Efficient data access: DBMS utilizes a mixture of sophisticated concepts and techniques for
storing and retrieving data competently, and this feature becomes important in cases where the
data is stored on external storage devices.
• Data integrity and security: If data is accessed through the DBMS, the DBMS can enforce
integrity constraints on the data.
• Data administration: When several users share the data, integrating the administration of data
can offer major improvements. Experienced professionals understand the nature of the data
being managed and can be responsible for organizing the data representation to reduce
redundancy and make the data to retrieve efficiently.
Components of DBMS
• Users: Users may be of any kind such as DB administrator, System developer or database
users.
• Database application: Database application may be Departmental, Personal, organization's and
/ or Internal.
• DBMS: Software that allows users to create and manipulate database access,
• Database: Collection of logical data as a single unit.
A database is a collection of information that is organized so that it can be easily accessed,
managed and updated.
Data is organized into rows, columns and tables, and it is indexed to make it easier to find relevant
information. Data gets updated, expanded and deleted as new information is added. Databases
process workloads to create and update themselves, querying the data they contain and running
applications against it.
Computer databases typically contain aggregations of data records or files, such as sales
transactions, product catalogs and inventories, and customer profiles.
Typically, a database manager provides users with the ability to control read/write access, specify
report generation and analyze usage. Some databases offer ACID (atomicity, consistency,
isolation and durability) compliance to guarantee that data is consistent and that transactions are
complete.
Databases are prevalent in large mainframe systems, but are also present in smaller
distributed workstations and midrange systems, such as IBM's AS/400 and personal computers.
Evolution of databases
Databases have evolved since their inception in the 1960s, beginning with hierarchical and
network databases, through the 1980s with object-oriented databases, and today with SQL and
NoSQL databases and cloud databases.
In one view, databases can be classified according to content type: bibliographic, full text, numeric
and images. In computing, databases are sometimes classified according to their organizational
approach. There are many different kinds of databases, ranging from the most prevalent approach,
the relational database, to a distributed database, cloud database or NoSQL database.
Relational database
A relational database, invented by E.F. Codd at IBM in 1970, is a tabular database in which data
is defined so that it can be reorganized and accessed in a number of different ways.
Relational databases are made up of a set of tables with data that fits into a predefined category.
Each table has at least one data category in a column, and each row has a certain data instance for
the categories which are defined in the columns.
The Structured Query Language (SQL) is the standard user and application program interface for
a relational database. Relational databases are easy to extend, and a new data category can be
added after the original database creation without requiring that you modify all the existing
applications.
Distributed database
A distributed database is a database in which portions of the database are stored in multiple
physical locations, and in which processing is dispersed or replicated among different points in a
network.
Distributed databases can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. All the physical locations in a
homogeneous distributed database system have the same underlying hardware and run the same
operating systems and database applications. The hardware, operating systems or database
applications in a heterogeneous distributed database may be different at each of the locations.
Cloud database
A cloud database is a database that has been optimized or built for a virtualized environment, either
in a hybrid cloud, public cloud or private cloud. Cloud databases provide benefits such as the
ability to pay for storage capacity and bandwidth on a per-use basis, and they provide scalability
on demand, along with high availability.
A cloud database also gives enterprises the opportunity to support business applications in
a software-as-a-service deployment.
NoSQL database
NoSQL databases are useful for large sets of distributed data.
NoSQL databases are effective for big data performance issues that relational databases aren't built
to solve. They are most effective when an organization must analyze large chunks
of unstructured data or data that's stored across multiple virtual servers in the cloud.
Object-oriented database
Items created using object-oriented programming languages are often stored in relational
databases, but object-oriented databases are well-suited for those items.
An object-oriented database is organized around objects rather than actions, and data rather than
logic. For example, a multimedia record in a relational database can be a definable data object, as
opposed to an alphanumeric value.
Graph database
A graph-oriented database, or graph database, is a type of NoSQL database that uses graph
theory to store, map and query relationships. Graph databases are basically collections of nodes
and edges, where each node represents an entity, and each edge represents a connection between
nodes.
Graph databases are growing in popularity for analyzing interconnections. For example,
companies might use a graph database to mine data about customers from social media.
Accessing the database: DBMS and RDBMS
A database management system (DBMS) is a type of software that allows you to define,
manipulate, retrieve and manage data stored within a database.
A relational database management system (RDBMS) is a type of database management software
that was developed in the 1970s, based on the relational model, and is still the most popular way
to manage a database.
Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle Database, IBM DB2 and MySQL are the top RDBMS products
available for enterprise users. DBMS technologies began in the 1960s to support hierarchical
databases, and they include IBM's Information Management System and CA's Integrated Database
Management System.
Relational Model
The relational model is the theoretical basis of relational databases which is a technique or way of
structuring data using relations, which are grid-like mathematical structures consisting of columns
and rows. Codd proposed the relational model for IBM, but the idea became extremely vital and
prominent that his work would become the basis of relational databases. You might be very
familiar with the physical demonstration of a relation in a database - which is known as a table.
In the relational model, all data is logically structured within relations, i.e., tables, as mentioned
above. Each relation has a name and is formed from named attributes or columns of data. Each
tuple or row holds one value per attribute. The greatest strength of the relational model is this
simple logical structure that it forms. Behind this simple structure is a sophisticated theoretical
foundation that is lacking in the first generation of DBMSs.
Objective of Relational Model
The relational model's objectives were specified as follows:
• To allow a high degree of data independence; application programs must not be affected by
alterations to the internal data representation, mostly by changes to file organizations or access
paths.
• To provide considerable grounds for dealing with data semantics, reliability, and redundancy
problems. In particular, Codd's theory for the relational model introduced the concept of
normalized relations, where relations that have no repeating groups and the process is called
normalization.
• To allow the expansion of set-oriented data manipulation languages.
Real life Structure of a Relational Database
In general, a row in a table signifies a relationship among a group of values. Since a table is a
collection of such relationships, there is a close connection amongst the concept of the table and
the mathematical concept of relation, from which the relational data model gets its name. In
mathematical terminology, a tuple is simply a sequence or list of values. A relationship between n
values is indicated mathematically by an n-tuple of values, i.e., a tuple with n values, corresponds
to a row in a table.
Database Schema
When you talk about the database, you must distinguish between the database schema, which is
the logical blueprint of the database, and the database instance, which is a snapshot of the data in
the database at a given instant in time. The concept of a relation corresponds to the programming
language notion of a variable, while the concept of a relation schema corresponds to the
programming languages' notion of the type definition. In other words, a database schema is a
skeletal structure which represents the logical view of the complete database. It describes how the
data is organized and how the relations among them are associated and formulates all the
constraints that are to be applied to the data.
In general, a relation schema consists of a directory of attributes and their corresponding domain.
Some Common Relational Model Terms

• Relation: A relation is a table with columns and rows.

• Attribute: An attribute is a named column of a relation.
• Domain: A domain is the set of allowable values for one or more attributes.
• Tuple: A tuple is a row of a relation.