Unit 1: Introduction to biopsychology: Nature and scope;

Methods and ethics in biopsychology; Divisions of

biopsychology.

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Introduction to Bio-psychology:

structure of the body chemical processes involving biomolecules. study of how living things function
The scientific study of the anatomy, biochemical processes and the physiology of nervous
system is known as neuroscience.

A closely related field of the neuroscience is biopsychology, which draws information from
it to study human and animal behaviour.

It is also known as psychobiology, behavioural biology or behavioural neuroscience.

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 Behavioural neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscience
Concept (of Bio Psychology)
Neuropsychology

Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental
states.

CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord

Because all behavior is controlled by the central nervous system, it is sensible to study how
the brain functions in order to understand behavior.

This is the approach taken in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and

neuropsychology (and these are sub-specialities of Bio Psy)

Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure
and function of the brain relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes.
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Concept… cont

• Biopsychology is a branch of psychology that analyzes how the brain, neurotransmitters,

and other aspects of our biology influence our behaviors, thoughts, and feelings.

• This field of psychology is often referred to by a variety of names including

biopsychology, physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience, and psychobiology.

• Biopsychologists often look at how biological processes interact with emotions,

cognitions, and other mental processes.

• The field of biopsychology is related to several other areas, including comparative

psychology and evolutionary psychology.
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History… 1
• The study of biological psychology dates back to Avicenna (980-1037), a Persian
psychologist and physician who in The Canon of Medicine, recognized physiological
psychology in the treatment of illnesses involving emotions, and developed a system for
associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings, which is seen as an anticipation
of the word association test.

• Avicenna also gave psychological explanations for certain somatic illnesses, and he
always linked the physical and psychological illnesses together.

• Biological psychology as a scientific discipline later emerged from a variety of scientific

and philosophical traditions in the 18th and 19th centuries.

• In philosophy, men like Rene Descartes proposed physical models to explain animal and
human behavior

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History… 2

• Descartes, for example, suggested that the pineal gland, a midline unpaired structure in
the brain of many organisms, was the point of contact between mind and body.

branch of physics or technology concerned with the mechanical properties of gases

• Descartes also elaborated on a theory in which the pneumatics of bodily fluids could
explain reflexes and other motor behavior. This theory was inspired by moving statues in
a garden in Paris.

• Other philosophers also helped give birth to psychology.

• One of the earliest textbooks in the new field, The Principles of Psychology by William
James (1890), argues that the scientific study of psychology should be grounded in an
understanding of biology.
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History … 3

• Will James, like many early psychologists, had considerable training in physiology.

• The emergence of both psychology and biological psychology as legitimate sciences can be traced
from the emergence of physiology from anatomy, particularly neuroanatomy.

• Physiologists conducted experiments on living organisms, a practice that was distrusted by the
dominant anatomists of the 18th and 19th centuries.

• The influential work of Claude Bernard, Charles Bell, and William Harvey helped to convince the
scientific community that reliable data could be obtained from living subjects.

• The term "psychobiology" has been used in a variety of contexts, but was likely first used in its
modern sense by Knight Dunlap in his book An Outline of Psychobiology (1914).
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History…4

• Researchers also became interested in understanding One early attempt at understanding how
different parts of the brain control human behavior.

• This led to the development of a pseudoscience known as phrenology.

• According to this view, certain human faculties could be linked to bumps and indentations of the
brain which could be felt on the surface of the skull.

• While phrenology became quite popular, it was also soon dismissed by other scientists. However,
the idea that certain parts of the brain were responsible for certain functions played an important
role in the development of future brain research.
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History…5

Consider Paul Broca, who discovered that the seat of spoken language production is in the
left frontal lobe—a significant early discovery that has stood the test of time.

a person who speaks or argues, often publicly, in support of a particular idea

But Broca was also a proponent of craniometry,
skull measurement
using skull size and shape to categorize
people’s race, intelligence, morality, and other characteristics (Carroll, 2003).

For example, Broca believed that women are less intelligent than men because their brains
are smaller.

Of course, we say, craniometry was a terrible idea that was motivated by people’s personal
prejudices.
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II. Nature of Bio Psychology…1

• Biological psychology, also called physiological psychology, is the study of the biology of behavior;
it focuses on the nervous system, hormones and genetics.

• Biological psychology examines the relationship between mind and body, neural mechanisms, and
the influence of heredity on behavior.

• The biological approach believes behavior to be as a consequence of our genetics and physiology.

• It is the only approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a
biological and thus physical point of view.

• Therefore, all that is psychological is first physiological. All thoughts, feeling & behavior ultimately
have a biological cause.
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Nature of Bio Psychology... 2
A biological perspective is relevant to the study of psychology in three ways:

1. Comparative method: different species of animal can be studied and compared. This can help in the
search to understand human behavior.

2. Physiology: how the nervous system and hormones work, how the brain functions, how changes in
structure and/or function can affect behavior. For example, we could ask how prescribed drugs to treat
depression affect behavior through their interaction with the nervous system.

3. Investigation of inheritance: what an animal inherits from its parents, mechanisms of inheritance
(genetics). For example, we might want to know whether high intelligence is inherited from one generation
to the next.

Each of these biological aspects, the comparative, the physiological (i.e., the brain) and the genetic, can help
explain human behavior.
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Strengths (of Bio Psy)
• The biological approach provides clear predictions that can. This means that explanations can be
scientifically tested and support with evidence.
• Real life applications (e.g., therapy)
• Emphasizes objective measurement
• Many experiments to support theories
• High application to other areas: Biology + Cog = Evolutionary Psy

Limitations (of Bio Psy)

• Ignores mediational processes (doesn’t recognize cognitive processes)
• Bio psychological theories often over-simplify the huge complexity of physical systems and their
interaction with the environment.
• Too deterministic (little free-will)
• Humanism – can’t compare animals to humans
• Reductionist
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Scope…. 1

Basic Assumptions in Bio Psy

• Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner.

• Behavior can be largely explained in terms of biology (e.g., genes/hormones).

• Human genes have evolved over millions of years to adapt behavior to the environment.
Therefore, most behavior will have an adaptive / evolutionary purpose.

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Scope… 2

The research interests of biological psychologists span a number of domains, including but
not limited to, sensory and motor systems, sleep, drug use and abuse, ingestive behavior,
reproductive behavior, neurodevelopment, plasticity of the nervous system, and biological
correlates of psychological disorders. the ability of the nervous system to change its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by
reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections.

Given the broad areas of interest falling under the purview of biological psychology, it will
probably come as no surprise that individuals from all sorts of backgrounds are involved in
this research, including biologists, medical professionals, physiologists, and chemists.

This interdisciplinary approach is often referred to as neuroscience, of which biological

psychology is a component (Carlson, 2013).

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Scope… 3

Biological psychologists are interested in measuring biological, physiological, or genetic

variables in an attempt to relate them to psychological or behavioural variables.

Because all behaviour is controlled by the central nervous system, biological psychologists
seek to understand how the brain functions in order to understand behaviour.

Key areas of focus include sensation and perception; motivated behaviour (such as hunger,
thirst, and sex); control of movement; learning and memory; sleep and biological rhythms;
and emotion.

As technical sophistication leads to advancements in research methods, more advanced

topics such as language, reasoning, decision making, and consciousness are now being
studied.
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Scope … 4

Biological psychology has also had a strong history of contributing to medical disorders
including those that fall under the purview of clinical psychology and psychopathology,
also known as abnormal psychology.

Although animal models for all mental illnesses do not exist, the field has contributed
important therapeutic data on a variety of conditions, including:

• Parkinson's Disease, a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that often
impairs the sufferer's motor skills and speech.

• Huntington's Disease, a rare inherited neurological disorder whose most obvious

symptoms are abnormal body movements and a lack of coordination. It also affects a
number of mental abilities and some aspects of personality.
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Scope … 5

• Alzheimer's Disease, a neurodegenerative disease that, in its most common form, is

found in people over the age of 65.

• Alzheimer’s Disease is is characterized by progressive cognitive deterioration, together

with declining activities of daily living and by neuropsychiatric symptoms or behavioral
changes. Worsening visual or spatial problems

• Clinical depression, a common psychiatric disorder, characterized by a persistent

lowering of mood, loss of interest in usual activities and diminished ability to experience
pleasure.

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 Scope… 6
people interpret reality abnormally

• Schizophrenia, a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a mental illness characterized by

impairments in the perception or expression of reality, most commonly manifesting as
auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions or disorganized speech and
thinking inseeing
theor hearing
context of significant social or occupational dysfunction.
something a belief that is clearly false and that
that is not really there (because indicates an abnormality in the affected
you are ill or have taken a drug) person's content of thought

• Autism, a brain development disorder that impairs social interaction and communication,
and causes restricted and repetitive behavior, all starting before a child is three years old.
a feeling of fear, dread, and uneasiness
• Anxiety, a physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and
behavioral components. These components combine to create the feelings that are
typically recognized as fear, apprehension, or worry.

• Drug abuse, including alcoholism.

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Career Opportunities in Biopsychology
• Choose to work in research where they might work at a university, drug company,
government agency, or other industry.
• Others choose to work with patients to help those who have experienced some type of
brain damage or disease that has had an impact on their behavior and functioning.

The following are just a few of the career specializations that are related to biopsychology:
• Behavioral neuroscientist: Analyzes how the brain, nervous system, and other organs
impact behavior
• Cognitive neuroscientist: Investigates brain activity and scans to research how people
think, learn, and solve problems
• Comparative psychologist: Looks at the behaviors of different species and compares
them to each other and to humans
• Evolutionary psychologist: Examines the evolutionary bases of behavior
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Methods in biopsychology
1. Comparative approach (Human and Non-human subjects)
2. Experiments and Non-Experiments quasiexperimental studies

3. Case studies
case studies
4. Pure and Applied research methods

These are briefed below

1. Comparative approach
• Both human and nonhuman animals are the subject of biopsychological research.
• Of the nonhumans, mice and rats are the most common subjects; however, cats, dogs,
and nonhuman primates are also commonly studied.
• Humans have several advantages over other animals as experimental subjects of
biopsychological research.
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 Group 1 Group 2
between-subjects design A B

2. Experiments (and Non-Experiments) within-subjects design A A

The experiment is the method used by scientists to study causation, that is, to find out
what causes what.

As such, it has been almost single-handedly responsible for the knowledge that is the basis
for our modern way of life.

It is paradoxical that a method capable of such complex feats is so simple.

To conduct an experiment involving living subjects, the experimenter first designs two or
more conditions under which the subjects will be tested.

Usually, a different group of subjects is tested under each condition (between-subjects

design), but sometimes it is possible to test the same group of subjects under each
condition (within-subjects design).
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2.Experiments (and Non-Experiments)
The experimenter assigns the subjects to conditions, administers the treatments, and
measures the outcome in such a way that there is only one relevant difference between
the conditions being compared.

This difference between the conditions is called the independent variable.

The variable measured by the experimenter to assess the effect of the independent
variable is called the dependent variable.

If the experiment is done correctly, any differences in the dependent variable between the
conditions must have been caused by the independent variable

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3. Case Studies

Studies that focus on a single case or subject are called case studies.

Because they focus on a single case, they often provide a more in-depth picture than that
provided by an experiment or a quasiexperimental study, and they are an excellent source
of testable hypotheses.

However, there is a major problem with all case studies: their generalizability—the degree
to which their results can be applied to other cases.

Because humans differ from one another in both brain function and behavior, it is
important to be skeptical of any biopsychological theory based entirely on a few case
studies.
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4. Pure and Applied research
Biopsychological research can be either pure or applied.

1. Pure research and applied research differ in a number of respects, but they are distinguished less by
their own attributes than by the motives of the individuals involved in their pursuit.

2. Pure research is motivated primarily by the curiosity of the researcher—it is done solely for the
purpose of acquiring knowledge.

3. In contrast, applied research is intended to bring about some direct benefit to humankind.

Many scientists believe that pure research will ultimately prove to be of more practical benefit than
applied research.

1. Their view is that applications flow readily from an understanding of basic principles and that
attempts to move directly to application without first gaining a basic understanding are shortsighted.

2. Of course, it is not necessary for a research project to be completely pure or completely applied;
many research programs have elements ofGBboth
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approaches.
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5. Research methods in Bio Psy are
• Ablation
• Histological methods
• Psychophysiological methods
• Electrical stimulation
• Chemical Stimulation
• Neuro psychological assessment

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Ethics in Bio Psychology

Derived from the Greek word “ethos”, which means “way of living”, ethics is a branch of philosophy
that is concerned with human conduct, more specifically the behaviour of individuals in society.

Ethics examines the rational justification for our moral judgments; it studies what is morally right or
wrong, just or unjust.

The American Psychological Association (APA) publishes the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and
Code of Conduct which outlines aspirational principles as well as enforceable standards
that Psychologists should use when making decisions.
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Ethics in Bio Psychology

‘Ethical conduct’ literally means simply doing the right thing, but in reality, it means more.

It involves acting in the right spirit, out of an unending respect and concern for one's fellow
creatures. Research ethics govern the standard of a scientific researchers.

In case of biopsychological research, it involves both human and animal as a research

subject.

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APA's 2002 Ethics Code, (which has been revised till 2020), mandates that psychologists who
use animals in research. These ethics are-

1. Acquire, care for, use and dispose of animals in compliance with state and local laws and
regulations, and with professional standards.

2. Ensure that all individuals under their supervision who are using animals have received
instruction in research methods and in the care, maintenance and handling of the
species being used, to the extent appropriate to their role.

3. Make reasonable efforts to minimize the discomfort, infection, illness and pain of animal
subjects.

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4. Use a procedure subjecting animal to pain, stress or privation only when an alternative
procedure is unavailable and the goal is justified by its prospective scientific, educational
or applied value.

5. Perform surgical procedures under appropriate anesthesia and follow techniques to

avoid infection and minimize pain during and after surgery.

6. Proceed rapidly when it is appropriate that an animal's life be terminated, with an effort
to minimize pain and in accordance with accepted procedures.

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• Moreover, psychologists trained in appropriate research methods and experienced in the
care of laboratory animals must supervise all procedures involving these animals and are
"responsible for ensuring appropriate consideration of their comfort, health and humane
treatment," says the code.

• Human research involves significant risks and it is possible for things to go wrong.

• In 1964, the World Medical Association (WMA) established recommendations guiding

medical doctors in biomedical or psychological research involving human subjects.

• The Declaration governs international research ethics and defines rules for ‘research
combined with clinical care’ and ‘non-therapeutic research.’

• The Declaration of Helsinki was revised in 1975, 1983, 1989, and 1996, and is the basis for
Good Clinical Practices used today.
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Issues addressed in the declaration of Helsinki include :

• Research with humans should be based on the results from laboratory and animal
experimentation.

• Research protocols should be reviewed by an independent committee prior to initiation.

• Informed consent from research participants is necessary.

• Research should be conducted by medically / scientifically qualified individuals.

• Risks should not exceed benefits.

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1. Respect for Persons

• Under the first principle, researchers must ensure that participants understand the goals
of the research project and the process for data collection: what the research is for, what
will be done to them, and what possible risks or benefits may be experienced during or
after the study.

• Once all this information is provided, participants are then asked to provide informed
consent.

• In order to respect a person’s autonomy – or their right to make decisions for themselves
– it is important that research participants are aware of their rights and are free to join or
leave a study without feeling under pressure.

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2. Concern for Welfare

• Under the second principle, researchers must ensure that their studies do not lead to excessive
risk or harm for the participants.

• This is especially true for younger children, because they are often unable to express their needs
or defend their interests.

• Young participants are also more likely to experience long-lasting benefits or potential harm to
their development or education.

• Research on children that involves high-risk procedures, such as surgery, can only be carried out if
the research is intended to provide a diagnosis or medical treatment and therefore benefit the
child.

• Conducting research that involves risk but no benefit to children is considered unethical.
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3. Justice

• The third principle states that particular groups of people should not be unfairly targeted
by or excluded from research.

• This could include young people, people of a minority group, or people with disabilities.

• In the past, children were often excluded from research in order to protect them, due to
fears of unforeseen negative consequences.

• However, the more we learn about the unique needs and physiology of children, the more
research involving children is recognized as essential, and ethical, to discover medications
specifically for children.

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3. Justice

• To ensure that research is conducted in an ethical manner, researchers are required to

submit a detailed description of their research project to a group of specialists known
collectively as the “Research Ethics Board” (or REB).

• Members of the REB can prevent a research study from taking place if they believe that
any of the ethics principles outlined above are not being followed.

• Because of this kind of ethical oversight, many more research studies are now being
conducted with children and researchers can feel confident that they are doing so in the
safest possible manner.

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 Physiological psychology

Psychopharmacology
Neuro psychology
Divisions of biopsychology. Psychophysiology
Cognitive neuroscience
Comparative psychology

Physiological psychology:

• Physiological psychology uses controlled experimental conditions to stimulate the brain

and study its effects on behavior.

• It involves direct manipulation and recording of the brain by primarily using surgical or
electrical stimulation on animals for research.

• Their aim is to develop theories about how neural mechanisms control behavior

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Psychopharmacology:

• Psychopharmacologists use drugs to stimulate neural systems and then observe their
effects on behavior.

• The purpose is to study the interaction between brain and behavior, but majorly the
experiments are applied in nature, focusing on developing therapeutic drugs and reduce
drug use

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Neuropsychology:

Neuropsychologists study the patients who have had some head injury or trauma and are
suffering from brain damage.

The neuropsychological tests help to diagnose the impairments and work out a suitable
treatment for dealing with it.

This sub-discipline specially uses case studies and quasi-experimental studies of patients
with brain damage caused due to disease, accident or neurosurgery.

The focus of these studies is cerebral cortex, the most prominent part of mammalian brain
which consists of cellular layers on the outer surface of cerebral hemispheres.

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Psychophysiology:

• Psychophysiologists use non-invasive techniques (the physiological activity is recorded

from the surface of the body) to examine the relationship between physiological activity
and psychological processes as attention, learning, memory, emotions in human
participants.

• Various measures that are used are like, scalp electroencephalogram (EEG), muscle
tension, eye movement, galvanic skin response (GSR), heart rate, blood pressure, and
pupil dilation.

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Cognitive Neuroscience:
• Cognitive neuroscientists study the neural bases of cognition and higher order cognitive processes,
like, thinking, memory, attention as well as perceptual processes.

• Hence, human participants are taken for research. The techniques used are non-invasive.
Functional brain imaging is the main method of recording the brain activity.

Comparative Psychology:
• Comparative psychologists study the behavior of different species to understand their behavior
from evolutionary, genetic and adaptation perspective.

• Behaviour is studied in either laboratory condition or it may be observed in its natural

environment. The latter is known as ethological research.

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