Optical Fiber Communication-Unit 2

TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBRES: Introduction, Attenuation,

absorption, scattering losses, bending loss, dispersion, Intra model dispersion and Inter-
model dispersion, International standards and Optical Fiber Measurements

Attenuation in Optical Fibers

Attenuation in an optical fiber refers to the gradual reduction in the power intensity of the
light signal as it travels through the fiber. It is typically measured in decibels per kilometer
(dB/km) and is caused by a combination of material properties, structural imperfections, and
external factors.

Attenuation limits the effective range and performance of the fiber optic communication
system, as the light signal weakens and may require amplification or regeneration over long
distances.

Basic Attenuation Mechanisms in Optical Fibers

1. Absorption Loss :related to fiber material

Definition: Absorption loss occurs when optical energy is converted into other forms
of energy, such as heat, due to impurities or intrinsic material absorption in the fiber.
Causes:
Intrinsic Absorption: Results from the inherent properties of the glass material,
primarily caused by vibrations of atomic bonds like Si-O in the fiber material.
Extrinsic Absorption: Caused by impurities like hydroxyl ions (OH⁻), which absorb
light at specific wavelengths (water peak absorption around 950 nm, 1240 nm, and
1380 nm).
Effect: Leads to energy dissipation and reduces signal power over the fiber's length.
2. Scattering Loss: both with the fiber material structural imperfections in the waveguide
Definition: Scattering loss is caused by microscopic variations in the material density
and composition, which scatter the propagating light.
Types:
Rayleigh Scattering : Dominant in silica fibers for wavelengths below 1,300 nm,
caused by small-scale inhomogeneities smaller than the wavelength of light.
It follows a λ−4\lambda^{-4}λ−4 dependency (higher loss at shorter
wavelengths).
Mie Scattering: Results from larger inhomogeneities, such as structural defects,
dirt, or bubbles in the fiber.
Effect: Scattered light deviates from its path, leading to a loss of usable signal power.
3. Radiative or Bending Loss: from perturbations small bend microscopic /macroscopic
Definition: Radiative loss, also known as bending loss, occurs when the fiber bends
beyond its critical curvature, causing some light to escape the core into the cladding
or outside.
Types:
 Macrobending Loss: Happens due to large-radius bends, causing gradual leakage of
light from the core.
Microbending Loss: Caused by small, microscopic bends or imperfections in the
fiber, often due to external pressure or stress.
Effect: Light rays traveling at angles close to the critical angle fail to undergo total
internal reflection, leading to power loss.

Summary Table

Mechanism Cause Impact on Signal Mitigation Methods

Absorption Material impurities Loss of power Use high-purity

and intrinsic silica, avoid OH⁻
properties ions

Scattering Microscopic Light scattering Improve material

inhomogeneities quality
and defects

Radiative/Bending Bending beyond Light leakage Avoid tight bends;

critical curvature use protective
coatings

Attenuation Units

As light travels along a fiber, its power decreases exponentially with distance. If P(0)is the
optical power in a fiber at the origin (at z= 0), then the power P(z)at a distance z farther down
the fiber is

P(z)=P(0)e^-αp*z

where αp = 1/z*ln[P(0)/P(z)] is the fiber attenuation coefficient given in units of, for example,
km-1.
Power is also expressed in units dBm ie decibal power level referred to 1 milliwatt

P in dbm= 10 log P/ 1*10^-3 watts

Absorption :

Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms:

1. Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition.

2. Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material.

3. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material

Absorption by Atomic Defects in the Glass Composition:

The basic response of a fiber to ionizing radiation is an increase in attenuation owing to the
creation of atomic defects, or attenuation centers, that absorb optical energy. The higher the
radiation level, the larger the attenuation, as

Definition: This refers to absorption caused by imperfections or irregularities in the

atomic structure of the glass material.
Mechanism:
Glass fibers are made from silica or doped silica, and during manufacturing, defects
such as missing atoms, dislocations, or bonding irregularities can occur.
These defects create localized energy states that interact with photons, leading to the
absorption of light at specific wavelengths.
 Impact: This type of absorption contributes to loss primarily in the visible and infrared
spectrum but is typically minimized with high-quality manufacturing techniques.

2. Extrinsic Absorption by Impurity Atoms in the Glass Material:

Definition: Absorption caused by the presence of foreign atoms (impurities) within the glass.

Mechanism:
Common impurities include elements such as iron (Fe), copper (Cu), or transition
metals.
Water molecules (OH⁻ ions) are particularly significant impurities that absorb strongly
at specific wavelengths, such as around 1.39 µm.
Impurities can absorb light energy, converting it into heat, leading to signal
attenuation.
Impact: Modern fiber production methods strive to reduce impurity levels, but extrinsic
absorption remains a challenge, especially in older or lower-grade fibers.
The ultraviolet edge of the electron absorption bands of both amorphous and crystal
line materials follow the empirical relationship

alpha(uv)=C*e^E/E0

which is known as Urbach’s rule. Here, C and E0 are empirical constants and E is the photon
energy

3. Intrinsic Absorption by the Basic Constituent Atoms of the Fiber Material:

Definition: Absorption that occurs due to the fundamental interaction of light with the
atoms that make up the fiber material (typically silica).
Mechanism:
Intrinsic absorption is determined by the electronic and vibrational resonances of the
material.
In the ultraviolet (UV) region, photons have high energy and are absorbed by
electronic transitions in silica.
In the infrared (IR) region, intrinsic absorption is due to vibrational transitions of the
silica molecules.
Impact: Intrinsic absorption defines the fundamental limits of transparency for the fiber
material. The operating wavelengths (e.g., 1.3 µm and 1.55 µm) are chosen to lie in regions
 of minimal intrinsic absorption.

αIR = 7.81*10^11*exp(-48.48/ λ)

Summary:The total absorption loss in optical fibers is a combination of these three

mechanisms. While absorption by atomic defects and extrinsic impurities can be minimized
through advanced manufacturing and material purity, intrinsic absorption represents the
unavoidable fundamental limits of the material properties.

Scattering Losses:

Scattering losses in glass arise from microscopic variations in the material density, from
compositional fluctuations, and from structural inhomogeneities or defects occurring during
fiber manufacture.

glass is composed of a randomly connected network of molecules. Such a structure naturally

contains regions in which the molecular density is either higher or lower than the average
density in the glass. In addition, since glass is made up of several oxides, such as SiO2, GeO2,
and P2O5 compositional fluctuations can occur. These two effects give rise to refractive-
index variations that occur within the glass over distances that are small compared with the
wavelength. These index variations cause a Rayleigh-type scattering of the light.
Bending Losses:

Radiative losses occur whenever an optical fiber undergoes a bend of finite radius of
curvature. Fibers can be subject to two types of curvatures: (a) macroscopic bends having
radii that are large compared with the fiber diameter, such as those that occur when a fiber
cable turns a corner, and (b)random microscopic bends of the fiber axis that can arise when
the fibers are incorporated into cables.
Signal Dispersion in Fibers:

Signal dispersion in optical fibers refers to the broadening of optical pulses as they travel
through the fiber. This broadening can degrade the signal quality and limit the data rate and
distance over which the signal can be transmitted. Dispersion occurs because different
components of the signal travel at different speeds, causing them to spread out in time.
Intermodal delay (or simply modal delay) :

appears only in multimode fibers.

Definition: Dispersion caused by the propagation of light through multiple modes in a

multimode fiber.
Mechanism:
Each mode travels a different path through the fiber (straight vs. zigzagging paths).
Modes with longer paths take more time to reach the end, while modes with shorter
paths travel faster.
Impact:
Intermodal dispersion is significant in multimode fibers because different modes
arrive at the receiver at different times, causing pulse broadening.
It does not occur in single-mode fibers, as they support only one mode.
Intramodal dispersion or chromatic dispersion:

is pulse spreading that takes place within a single mode. This spreading arises from the finite
spectral emission width of an optical source. The phenomenon also is known as group
velocity dispersion, since the dispersion is a result of the group velocity being a function of
the wavelength.

Definition: Dispersion that occurs within a single mode of light due to the wavelength
dependence of the refractive index and group velocity.

Mechanisms:

Material Dispersion:
Caused by the wavelength-dependent refractive index of the fiber material.
Different wavelengths of light travel at different speeds, even within the same mode.
Significant in multi-wavelength systems and becomes prominent at shorter
wavelengths.
Waveguide Dispersion:
Caused by the fiber's geometry (core-cladding structure).
Light of different wavelengths is confined differently in the core and cladding,
resulting in variations in group velocity.
Impact:

Intramodal dispersion affects both single-mode and multimode fibers.

It is the dominant dispersion mechanism in single-mode fibers.

The two main causes of intramodal dispersion are as follows:

1. Material dispersion arises due to the variations of the refractive index of the core material
as a function of wavelength. Material dispersion also is referred to as chromatic dispersion,
since this is the same effect by which a prism spreads out a spectrum. This refractive index
property causes a wavelength dependence of the group velocity of a given mode; that is,
pulse spreading occurs even when different wavelengths follow the same path.

2 . Waveguide Dispersion: Dispersion arises because the difference in core-cladding spatial

power distributions, together with the speed variations of the various wavelengths causes
change in propagation velocity for each spectral component: Shorter wavelengths are more
completely confined to the fiber core, whereas a larger portion of the optical power at longer
wavelengths propagates in the cladding. The refractive index is lower in the cladding than in
the core, so the fraction of light power propagating in the cladding travels faster than the
light confined to the core.

Polarization-Mode Dispersion (PMD)

Polarization-Mode Dispersion (PMD) is a type of signal distortion that occurs in optical fibers
due to differences in propagation speeds between two polarization states of light. It is a key
limiting factor in high-speed and long-distance fiber-optic communication systems,
especially in single-mode fibers.

1. What Causes PMD?

PMD arises because light traveling through an optical fiber can split into two orthogonal
polarization modes. These modes experience slightly different propagation speeds due to:

a. Birefringence:

Optical fibers are not perfectly symmetric due to:

Manufacturing imperfections.
External stresses (e.g., bending, twisting, temperature variations).
Variations in core and cladding geometry.
These imperfections cause birefringence, where the refractive index differs slightly for
each polarization mode.

b. Randomness in Fiber Properties:

Birefringence is not uniform along the length of the fiber and changes randomly with time
and environmental conditions.
This randomness leads to differential group delay (DGD) between the two polarization
modes.