Optical Fiber Communications-Unit 3

OPTICAL SOURCES AND DETECTORS: Introduction, LED, LASER diode, light source linearity
and reliability; Photo detectors: principles of photodiodes, Photo detector noise, Response
time, Structure of InGaAs APDs, Temperature effect on Avalanche Gain, double
heterojunction structure, Comparison of photo detectors.

Optical Sources

Optical sources are devices that generate and emit light energy in the form of photons, which
can be used for optical communication, sensing, or illumination.

Types of Optical Sources

1. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs):

Function: Emit incoherent, non-monochromatic light.
Applications: Used in short-distance, low-cost optical communication systems.
Advantages: Low power consumption, long lifespan, low cost.
2. Laser Diodes (LDs):
Function: Emit highly coherent, monochromatic light with a narrow beam.
Applications: Long-distance optical communication, fiber optic systems, and
precision applications.
Advantages: High intensity, long-distance propagation, and precise control over beam
properties.

Difference Between LED and LASER

Parameter LED (Light Emitting Diode) LASER (Light Amplification
by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation)

Principle of Operation Emits light through Emits light through

spontaneous emission. stimulated emission.

Coherence Light emitted is incoherent Light emitted is coherent

(waves are out of phase). (waves are in phase).

Monochromaticity Light is not strictly Light is monochromatic

monochromatic (broader (narrow spectrum, single
spectrum). wavelength).

Beam Divergence High beam divergence, light Low beam divergence,

spreads out quickly. focused beam with minimal
spread.

Power Output Low power output (a few High power output (can
milliwatts). reach several watts).

Efficiency Moderate efficiency in High efficiency in specific

converting energy to light. applications.

Cost Low cost, inexpensive to High cost due to precision

manufacture. manufacturing.

Application Used for short-distance, Used for long-distance

low-power applications like communication, cutting,
indicators, displays, and surgery, and precision
optical fibers. applications.

Construction Simple construction, no Complex construction,

optical cavity. includes an optical cavity
with mirrors.

Lifespan Longer lifespan with Shorter lifespan due to

minimal degradation. high-intensity operation.
Optical Detectors

Optical detectors are devices that sense, receive, and convert light signals (photons) into
electrical signals for further processing.

Types of Optical Detectors

1. Photodiodes (PIN Diodes):

Function: Converts light into electrical current.
Applications: Used in fiber optic systems and optical receivers.
Advantages: High sensitivity, fast response time, and low cost.
2. Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs):
Function: Amplify the photocurrent produced by incoming light.
Applications: Long-distance optical communication, requiring higher sensitivity.
Advantages: High gain, high sensitivity.

Optical Sources generate light energy (e.g., LEDs, laser diodes).

Optical Detectors sense and convert light energy into electrical signals (e.g., photodiodes,
APDs).

Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) :

For optical communication systems requiring bit rates less than approximately 100–200 Mb/s
together with multimode fiber-coupled optical power in the tens of microwatts,
semiconductor light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are usually the best light source choice. These
LEDs require less complex drive circuitry than laser diodes as no thermal or optical
stabilization circuits are needed (see Sec. 4.3.6), and they can be fabricated less expensively
with higher yields.

LED Structure:
 in fiber transmission applications, an LED must have a high radiance output, a fast
emission response time, and a high quantum efficiency.
To achieve a high radiance and a high quantum efficiency, the LED structure must
provide a means of confining the charge carriers and the stimulated optical emission to
the active region of the pn junction where radiative recombination takes place.
Carrier confinement is used to achieve a high level of radiative recombination in the
active region of the device, which yields a high quantum efficiency.
Optical confinement is of importance for preventing absorption of the emitted radiation
by the material surrounding the pn junction.
Fig. 4.8. This is referred to as a double-heterostructure (or heterojunction) device
because of the two different alloy layers on each side of the active region.
By means of this sandwich structure of differently composed alloy layers, both the
carriers and the optical fi eld are confined in the central active layer.
The bandgap differences of adjacent layers confine the charge carriers .
while the differences in the refractive indices of adjoining layers confine the optical field
to the central active layer.
This dual confinement leads to both high efficiency and high radiance.

The two basic LED configurations being used for fiber optics are surface emitters (also called
Burrus or front emitters) and edge emitters.

Surface Emitter:
 In the surface emitter, the plane of the active light-emitting region is oriented
perpendicularly to the axis of the fiber.
In this configuration, a well is etched through the substrate of the device, into which a
fiber is then cemented in order to accept the emitted light.
The circular active area in practical surface emitters is nominally 50 mm in diameter and
up to 2.5 mm thick.
The emission pattern is essentially isotropic with a 120° half-power beam width.
This isotropic pattern from such a surface emitter is called a lambertian pattern.
In this pattern, the source is equally bright when viewed from any direction, but the
power diminishes as cos q, where q is the angle between the viewing direction and the
normal to the surface .
Thus, the power is down to 50 percent of its peak when q = 60°, so that the total half-
power beam width is 120°.

Edge Emitter:

The edge emitter depicted in Fig. 4.10 consists of an active junction region, which is the
source of the incoherent light, and two guiding layers.
The guiding layers both have a refractive index lower than that of the active region but
higher than the index of the surrounding material. This structure forms a waveguide
channel that directs the optical radiation toward the fiber core.
 To match the typical fiber-core diameters (50–100 mm), the contact stripes for the edge
emitter are 50–70 mm wide.
Lengths of the active regions usually range from 100 to 150 mm.
The emission pattern of the edge emitter is more directional than that of the surface
emitter.
In the plane parallel to the junction, where there is no waveguide effect, the emitted
beam is lambertian (varying as cos q) with a half-power width of theta= 120°.
In the plane perpendicular to the junction, the half-power beam theta has been made as
small as 25–35° by a proper choice of the waveguide thickness.

Light Source Materials:

1. Direct Bandgap in Semiconductors

A direct-bandgap semiconductor is a material in which electrons in the conduction band

can recombine directly with holes in the valence band without the need for a third
particle (like a phonon) to conserve momentum.
This property is critical for optical sources (LEDs and lasers) because radiative
recombination (emission of photons) is significant only in direct-bandgap materials.
Single-element semiconductors like Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) have an indirect
bandgap, making them inefficient for optical emission.

2. III-V Compound Semiconductors

Binary compounds formed from group III elements (e.g., Al, Ga, In) and group V elements
(e.g., P, As, Sb) are direct-bandgap materials.
These compounds are ideal candidates for optical sources because they support efficient
radiative recombination.

Examples of Binary Compounds:

GaAs (Gallium Arsenide)

InP (Indium Phosphide)

3. Ternary and Quaternary Alloys

To further tune the properties (e.g., wavelength) of optical sources, ternary and quaternary
alloys are created:

Ternary Alloys:
These are formed by mixing two binary compounds.
Example: Ga{1-x}AlxAs
Here, x determines the ratio of aluminum arsenide (AlAs) to gallium arsenide (GaAs).
By varying xxx, the bandgap energy can be adjusted, which in turn changes the
emission wavelength of the optical source.
For wavelengths between 800–900 nm (infrared region):
The principal material used is Ga{1-x}​Alx​As.
Typically, x=0.08x = 0.08x=0.08 produces an emission wavelength of 810 nm.
 Full-Width Half-Maximum (FWHM):
FWHM defines the spectral width at half of the peak emission power.
For Ga1−x_{1-x}1−x​Alx_xx​As LEDs, FWHM is typically 36 nm.
Quaternary Alloys:
These are created using four elements to provide greater flexibility for achieving different
wavelengths.
Example: In1−x_{1-x}1−x​Gax_xx​Asy_yy​P1−y_{1-y}1−y​
By varying the mole fractions xxx and yyy, LEDs with peak output powers at
wavelengths between 1.0 and 1.7 μm (longer infrared wavelengths) can be
constructed.
Simplified Notations:
Common notations for these alloys include:
GaAlAs (or AlGaAs, Ga1−x_{1-x}1−x​Alx_xx​As)
InGaAsP In{1-x}​Gax​Asy​P{1-y}

4. Lattice Matching for Heterostructures

Optical sources are typically made as heterostructures that combine two or more
materials.
Lattice Matching:
The lattice constants (spacing between atoms) of the two materials at the
heterostructure interface must match closely.
If there is a mismatch, interfacial defects and strain will occur, reducing radiative
efficiency and the lifetime of the light source.
A proper combination of binary, ternary, and quaternary materials allows for near-perfect
lattice matching.
5. Peak Emission Wavelength and Bandgap Energy

The relationship between the bandgap energy Eg​(in electron volts) and the emission
wavelength λ(in micrometers) is given by:

λ(μm)=1.240/Eg (eV)

Where:

Eg​= Bandgap energy in electron volts (eV).

λ= Emission wavelength in micrometers (μm).

This equation is derived from the quantum mechanical relationship between energy EEE,
frequency vvv, and wavelength λ\lambdaλ:

E=hv=hc/λ

Here:

hhh = Planck’s constant.

ccc = Speed of light.
λ\lambdaλ = Wavelength.

Summary

1. Direct-bandgap materials are required for efficient photon emission.

2. III-V binary, ternary, and quaternary alloys are used for optical sources.
3. Ga1−x_{1-x}1−x​Alx_xx​As is used for wavelengths between 800–900 nm.
4. In1−x_{1-x}1−x​Gax_xx​Asy_yy​P1−y_{1-y}1−y​is used for longer wavelengths (1.0–1.7 μm).
5. Lattice matching in heterostructures minimizes defects and improves efficiency.
6. The emission wavelength depends on the bandgap energy, calculated using the
relationship λ=1240Eg\lambda = \frac{1.240}{E_g}λ=Eg​1.240​.

Quantum Efficiency and LED Power and Modulation of LED: refer screenshots.
Laser Diodes:

For optical fiber systems the laser sources used almost exclusively are semiconductor
laser diodes. the output radiation is highly monochromatic and the light beam is very
directional.
the basic principle of operation is the same for each type of laser. Laser action is the
result of three key processes: photon absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated
emission.
in Fig. 4.17, where E1 is the ground-state energy and E2 is the excited-state energy.
According to Planck’s law, a transition between these two states involves the absorption
or emission of a photon of energy hv12=E2 – E1.
Normally, the system is in the ground state. When a photon of energy hn12 impinges on
the system, an electron in stateE1 can absorb the photon energy and be excited to state
E2, as shown in Fig. 4.17a. Since this is an unstable state, the electron will shortly return
to the ground state, thereby emitting a photon of energy hn12. This occurs without any
external stimulation and is called spontaneous emission.
The electron can also be induced to make a downward transition from the excited level
to the ground state level by an external stimulation. if a photon of energy hv12 impinges
on the system while the electron is still in its excited state, the electron is immediately
stimulated to drop to the ground state and give off a photon of energy hn 12 . This
emitted photon is in phase with the incident photon, and the resultant emission is known
as stimulated emission.

Population Inversion : In thermal equilibrium the density of excited electrons is very small.
Most photons incident on the system will therefore be absorbed, so that stimulated emission
is essentially negligible. Stimulated emission will exceed absorption only if the population of
the excited states is greater than that of the ground state. This condition is known as
population inversion.Since this is not an equilibrium condition, population inversion is
achieved by various “pumping” techniques. In a semiconductor laser, population inversion is
accomplished by injecting electrons into the material at the device contacts or through an
optical absorption method by means of externally injected photons.
Laser Diode Modes and Threshold Conditions:

For optical fiber communication systems requiring bandwidths greater than

approximately 200 MHz, the semiconductor injection laser diode is preferred over the
LED. Laser diodes typically have response times less than 1 ns, can have spectral widths
of 2 nm or less, and are capable of coupling from tens to hundreds of milliwatts of useful
luminescent power into optical fi bers with small cores and small mode f i eld diameters.
Virtually all laser diodes in use are multilayered heterojunction devices.
The more rapid evolvement and utilization of LEDs as compared with laser diodes lies in
the inherently simpler construction, the smaller temperature dependence of the emitted
optical power, and the absence of catastrophic degradation in LEDs (see Sec. 4.6). The
construction of laser diodes is more complicated, mainly because of the additional
requirement of current confinement in a small lasing cavity.
Stimulated emission in semiconductor lasers arises from optical transitions between
distributions of energy states in the valence and conduction bands. This differs from gas
and solid-state lasers, in which radiative transitions occur between discrete isolated
atomic or molecular levels. The radiation in one type of laser diode configuration is
generated within a Fabry-Perot resonator cavity,
Here the cavity is approximately 250–500 mm long, 5–15 mm wide, and 0.1–0.2 mm thick.
These dimensions commonly are referred to as the longitudinal, lateral, and transverse
dimensions of the cavity, respectively.
 As illustrated in Fig. 4.19, two fl at, partially refl ecting mirrors are directed toward each
other to enclose the Fabry-Perot resonator cavity.
The purpose of the mirrors is to establish a strong optical feedback in the longitudinal
direction. This feedback mechanism converts the device into an oscillator (and hence a
light emitter) with a gain mechanism that compensates for optical losses in the cavity at
certain resonant optical frequencies.
The sides of the cavity are simply formed by roughing the edges of the device to reduce
unwanted emissions in the lateral directions.
As the light refl ects back and forth within the Fabry-Perot cavity, the electric fi elds of
the light interfere on successive round trips.
Those wavelengths that are integer multiples of the cavity length interfere constructively
so that their amplitudes add when they exit the device through the right hand facet.
All other wavelengths interfere destructively and thus cancel themselves out.
The optical frequencies at which constructive interference occurs are the resonant
frequencies of the cavity.
Consequently, spontaneously emitted photons that have wavelengths at these resonant
frequencies reinforce themselves after multiple trips through the cavity so that their
optical fi eld becomes very strong.
The resonant wavelengths are called the longitudinal modes of the cavity because they
resonate along the length of the cavity.
 Figure 4.20 illustrates the behavior of the resonant wavelengths for three values of the
mirror reflectivity.
The plots give the relative intensity as a function of the wavelength relative to the cavity
length.
The width of the resonances depends on the value of the reflectivity. That is, the
resonances become sharper as the reflectivity increases.

Distributed Feedback (DFB) Lasers: Overview

A Distributed Feedback (DFB) Laser is a type of semiconductor laser that utilizes a periodic
structure within the active region to provide feedback for lasing action. Unlike traditional
Fabry-Pérot lasers that use mirrors to reflect light, the DFB laser incorporates a grating
structure that acts as a distributed reflector, enabling stable and single-wavelength
operation.

Key Features of DFB Lasers

1. Distributed Feedback Mechanism:
The periodic grating structure acts as a distributed reflector, providing feedback over
the length of the laser cavity.
This eliminates the need for discrete mirrors at the ends of the laser.
2. Single-Mode Operation:
DFB lasers are known for their single longitudinal mode operation.
The grating suppresses unwanted modes and ensures that only one wavelength is
amplified and emitted.
3. Wavelength Stability:
The feedback mechanism leads to highly stable output at a specific wavelength,
determined by the grating's pitch and the material's refractive index.
This makes DFB lasers ideal for applications requiring precise wavelength control.
4. Compact Design:
The grating is integrated into the semiconductor structure, resulting in a highly
compact laser design.

Working Principle

1. Bragg Grating:
A periodic variation of the refractive index (grating) is created along the laser cavity.
The grating reflects light at a specific wavelength (Bragg wavelength) determined by
the condition: λB=2nΛ\lambda_B = 2 n \LambdaλB​=2nΛWhere:
λB\lambda_BλB​: Bragg wavelength
nnn: Effective refractive index of the medium
Λ\LambdaΛ: Grating period
2. Feedback and Gain:
As the light propagates through the active region, the grating reflects light back at the
Bragg wavelength.
This distributed feedback provides the necessary optical gain for lasing at a single
mode.
3. Suppression of Other Modes:
The grating ensures that only the mode matching the Bragg condition is amplified,
while other modes experience destructive interference, suppressing their intensities.

Advantages of DFB Lasers

1. Single-Mode Emission: Ensures clean, stable emission at a specific wavelength.

2. High Spectral Purity: Narrow linewidth with low noise.
3. Wavelength Stability: The emission wavelength remains stable over time and under
varying operating conditions.
4. Compact and Reliable: Integrated design suitable for long-term use in various
applications.

Applications of DFB Lasers

1. Telecommunications:
 DFB lasers are widely used in optical fiber communication systems due to their
single-mode operation and precise wavelength control.
Used as sources in Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) systems.
2. Spectroscopy:
Used in high-resolution spectroscopy for detecting specific gases or molecules by
emitting at precise wavelengths.
3. Sensing Applications:
Employed in gas sensing, temperature sensing, and other environmental monitoring
systems.
4. Laser Diodes in Datacom:
Used in optical networks for high-speed data transmission.
5. Medical and Industrial Applications:
DFB lasers are employed in medical diagnostics, imaging, and industrial laser systems.

Photodetectors:

At the output end of an optical transmission line, there must be a receiving device that
interprets the information contained in the optical signal. The fi rst element of this
receiver is a photodetector. The photodetector senses the luminescent power falling
upon it and converts the variation of this optical power into a correspondingly varying
electric current. Since the optical signal is generally weakened and distorted when it
emerges from the end of the fi ber, the photodetector must meet very high performance
requirements. Among the foremost of these requirements are a high response or
sensitivity in the emission wavelength range of the optical source being used, a minimum
addition of noise to the system, and a fast response speed or suffi cient bandwidth to
handle the desired data rate. The photodetector should also be insensitive to variations
in temperature, be compatible with the physical dimensions of the optical fi ber, have a
reasonable cost in relation to the other components of the system, and have a long
operating life.
Several different types of photodetectors are in existence. Among these are
photomultipliers, pyroelectric detectors, and semiconductor-based photoconductors,
phototransistors, and photodiodes.
The two types of photodiodes used are the pin photodetector and the avalanche
photodiode (APD).

The pin Photodetector:

 The most common semiconductor photodetector is the pin photodiode, shown
schematically in Fig. 6.1. The device structure consists of p and n regions separated by a
very lightly n-doped intrinsic (i) region. In normal operation a sufficiently large reverse-
bias voltage is applied across the device so that the intrinsic region is fully depleted of
carriers. That is, the intrinsic n and p carrier concentrations are negligibly small in
comparison with the impurity concentration in this region.
When an incident photon has an energy greater than or equal to the bandgap energy of
the semiconductor material, the photon can give up its energy and excite an electron
from the valence band to the conduction band. This absorption process generates
mobile electron–hole pairs, as Fig. 6.2 shows. These electrons and holes are known as
photocarriers, since they are photon-generated charge carriers that are available to
produce a current fl ow when a bias voltage is applied across the device.
The number of charge carriers is controlled by the concentration level of impurity
elements that are intentionally added to the material .
 The photodetector is normally designed so that these carriers are generated mainly in
the depletion region (the depleted intrinsic region) where most of the incident light is
absorbed. The high electric fi eld present in the depletion region causes the carriers to
sepa rate and be collected across the reverse-biased junction. This gives rise to a current
fl ow in an external circuit, with one electron fl owing for every carrier pair generated.
This current fl ow is known as the photocurrent.
As the charge carriers fl ow through the material, some electron–hole pairs will
recombine and hence disappear. On the average, the charge carriers move a distance L n
or L p for electrons and holes, respectively. This distance is known as the diffusion length.
The time it takes for an electron or hole to recombine is known as the carrier lifetime and
is represented by t n and t p , respectively. The lifetimes and the diffusion lengths are
related by the expressions L n = (D n t n ) ^1/2 and L p = (D p t p ) ^1/2 where D n and D p
are the electron and hole diffusion coeffi cients (or constants), respectively, which are
expressed in units of centimeters squared per second.
The dependence of the optical absorption coeffi cient on wavelength is shown in Fig. 6.3
for several photodiode materials. 13 clearly show, a s As the curves depends strongly on
the wavelength. Thus a particular semiconductor material can be used only over a limited
wavelength range.

Avalanche Photodiodes:
 Avalanche photodiodes (APDs) internally multiply the primary signal photocurrent
before it enters the input circuitry of the following amplifier.
This increases receiver sensitivity, since the photocurrent is multiplied before
encountering the thermal noise associated with the receiver circuit.
In order for carrier multiplica tion to take place, the photogenerated carriers must
traverse a region where a very high electric f i eld is present. In this high-fi eld region, a
photogenerated electron or hole can gain enough energy so that it ionizes bound
electrons in the valence band upon colliding with them. This carrier multiplication
mechanism is known as impact ionization.
 The newly created carriers are also accelerated by the high electric fi eld, thus gaining
enough energy to cause further impact ionization. This phenomenon is the avalanche
effect.
A commonly used structure for achieving carrier multiplication with very little excess
noise is the reach-through construction 14–16 shown in Fig. 6.5. The reach-through
avalanche photodiode (RAPD) is composed of a high-resistivity p-type material
deposited as an epitaxial layer on a p + + (heavily doped p-type) substrate.
A p-type diffusion or ion implant is then made in the high-resistivity material, followed by
the construction of an n (heavily doped n-type) layer.
For silicon, the dopants used to form these layers are normally boron and phos phorus,
respectively. This confi guration is referred to as p + ppn + reach-through structure.
The term “reach-through” arises from the photodiode operation. When a low reverse-bias
voltage is applied, most of the potential drop is across the pn + junction. The depletion
layer widens with increasing bias until a certain voltage is reached at which the peak
electric fi eld at the pn + junction is about 5–10 percent below that needed to cause
avalanche breakdown. At this point, the depletion layer just “reaches through” to the
nearly intrinsic p region.
In normal usage, the RAPD is operated in the fully depleted mode. Light enters the
device through the region and is absorbed in the p material, which acts as the collection
region for the photogenerated carriers. Upon being absorbed, the photon gives up its
energy, thereby creating electron–hole pairs, which are then separated by the electric fi
eld in the p region. The photogenerated electrons drift through the p region in the pn +
junction, where a high electric fi eld exists. It is in this high-fi eld region that carrier
multiplication takes place.
The average number of electron–hole pairs created by a carrier per unit distance
traveled is called the ionization rate.

Double-Heterostructure Photodiodes: