Unit-4

Sensors and Transducers

Introduction:
Sensor:
1. It is defined as an element which produces signal relating to the quantity being measured.
2. sensor can be defined as “A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified measured.”
Transducers:
1. It is defined as an element when subjected to some physical change experiences a related change or an
element which converts a specified measured into a usable output by using a transduction principle.
2. It can also be defined as a device that converts a signal from one form of energy to another form.

Solenoids:
• A solenoid is a long piece of wire which is wound in the
shape of a coil.
• When the electric current passes through the coil it creates
a relatively uniform magnetic field inside the coil.
• Solenoid switches and controls mechanical devices and it is
particularly useful as switches or controls in mechanical
devices (such as a valve).
• The solenoid can create a magnetic field from electric
current and this magnetic field can be used to generate a
linear motion with the help of a metal core.
• This simple device can be used as an electromagnet, as
an inductor or as a miniature wireless receiving antenna in
a circuit.
Working Principle:
• The solenoid simply works on the principle of
“electromagnetism”.
• When the current flow through the coil magnetic field is
generated in it, if you place a metal core inside the coil the
magnetic lines of flux is concentrated on the core which
increases the induction of the coil as compared to the air
core.
• To enhance the magnetic strength of a solenoid, you can do
one of two things: either increase the density of its turns or
increase the amount of current passing through it.
• As with all magnets, the active solenoid is composed of two poles: a positive and a negative pole, to
attract or repel objects, respectively.

Function:
• During the passage of electric current through the coils of a solenoid, a magnetic field is generated.
• The number of coils that the solenoid has an effect on the strength and amplitude of the magnetic field
generated by a solenoid.
• Solenoid armatures can move in response to the voltage applied to the coils, increasing the flux coupling
between the coils and the armature.
• It accomplishes this by bridging the air gap that exists between the two cores.
• The movable core, also known as the armature, is spring-loaded, which means that when the voltage to
the solenoid is turned off, the armature retracts to its original position.
Types:
AC Laminated Solenoid:
• The metal core and wire coil make up an AC laminated solenoid. Composite metal cores are used to
reduce stray currents and improve the solenoid’s performance.
• The AC laminated solenoid has the benefit of delivering a large force on the initial stroke. They come in
various sizes and generate a clear buzzing sound while in use.
• Medical equipment, locks, cars, industrial equipment, printers and various household appliances all use
AC laminated solenoids.
DC C-Frame Solenoid:
 • The particular C frame pertains to the design of the solenoid. It is merely a C-shaped frame by which the
coil is surrounded.
• Several daily applications have made use of the DC C-Frame solenoid, which is distinguished by its
controlled stroke. Despite the fact that they are classified as DC, their application can be found in
equipment that is powered by alternating current.
DC D-Frame Solenoid:
• A two-piece frame protects the coils.
• On AC power, the D-frame solenoid has a controlled stroke just like a C-frame solenoid.
Application:
• Solenoids are used in a wide range of applications, ranging from electronic hobbies to household
appliances and beyond.
• A common application for these devices is an electric lock or latch, which requires an automatic on/off
feature to function properly.
• Solenoids are also commonly found in a variety of appliances throughout your home or office, such as
your washing machine and copy machine, among other places.
• They are found in a variety of applications, including automobiles and pinball machines.
• When we apply current to a solenoid, the magnet becomes even more powerful. When it comes to
locking mechanisms, solenoids are widely used. Door locking in hotels, offices and secure areas,
vending machines, remote access systems, turnstiles, car parks and access obstacles are just a few of the
obvious applications.

Electro-Pneumatics Systems:
Proximity Sensor:
Operating Principles:
Detection Principle of Inductive Proximity Sensors
Inductive Proximity Sensors detect magnetic loss due to
eddy currents that are generated on a conductive surface by
an external magnetic field. An AC magnetic field is
generated on the detection coil, and changes in the
impedance due to eddy currents generated on a metallic
object are detected. Other methods include Aluminum-
detecting Sensors, which detect the phase component of the
frequency, and All-metal Sensors, which use a working coil
to detect only the changed component of the impedance.
There are also Pulse response Sensors, which generate an eddy current in pulses and detect the time change in
the eddy current with the voltage induced in the coil. The sensing object and Sensor form what appears to be a
transformer-like relationship.

Operating Principles:
Detection Principle of Capacitive Proximity Sensors
Capacitive Proximity Sensors detect changes in the capacitance between the sensing object and the Sensor. The
amount of capacitance varies depending on the size and distance of the sensing object. An ordinary Capacitive
Proximity Sensor is similar to a capacitor with two parallel plates, where the capacity of the two plates is
detected. One of the plates is the object being measured (with an imaginary ground), and the other is the
Sensor's sensing surface. The changes in the capacity generated between these two poles are detected. The
objects that can be detected depend on their dielectric constant, but they include resin and water in addition to
metals.
Limit Switches:
• Limit switch definition is an electromechanical switch that operates by any physical force or the
movement of a machine.
• These switches are very helpful in detecting the absence or presence of
an object, counting, detecting speed, detecting movement range, travel
limit, positioning, etc.
• The controlling of this switch can be done by different factors like
temperature, position, and pressure.
• This switch is mainly designed to operate only once a fixed limit is
achieved, and it is generally activated through contact by using an object
like a cam. The limit switch symbol is shown in fig.
• These switches include three terminals NO (Normally Open), NC (Normally Open) & Common.
Construction:
The construction of a limit switch can be done by using different components like an actuator, cover, built-in
switch, and a switch case.

Actuator:
The actuator is an essential part of the limit switch which comes
in contact physically with the object. The connection of an
actuator within this switch can be done by connecting to an
operating head which translates a linear, rotary otherwise
perpendicular motion to control the electrical contacts of the
switch.

Cover:
Connect the cover once you have connected the outside
connection cable to the built-in switch terminal. To seal the
connection between the switch case and the cover, rubber
packaging is used.

Built-in Switch:
The built-in switch can directly switch ON/OFF by using its
snap-action mechanism. The exterior force reverses the variable
spring & shifts the moving contact from the upper NO contact &
to the lower NC contact.

Switch Case:
The switch case of the limiter switch encloses for safety. These
cases are designed with resin or metal to enhance mechanical
strength. At the bottom of this switch, a special connector can be
connected to the opening of the conduit to protect the outside
cable connection into position and to form a protecting seal for the inside components.

Working Principle:
• A limit switch working principle is similar to a sensor to
identify the presence & absence of an object.
Limit switches are electromechanical devices consisting of an
actuator mechanically linked to an electrical switch.
• This switch can be triggered mechanically by
communicating with other substances.
• When an object contacts the actuator, the switch will
operate causing an electrical connection to make or break.
• Most of these switches are mechanical in their operation &
include heavy-duty contacts which are capable of
switching high current.
• This switch can be arranged in your furnace’s supply plenum. So, this switch reads the plenum’s
temperature & waits until it gets hot properly.
• Once the plenum achieves a specific temperature, then this switch transmits a signal to the air handler to
start running & transmitting warm air to your home.
• The limit switch commonly operates at an upper limit of 160°F and a lower limit of 130°F.

Types of limit switches:

In general, there are Two Types of Limit switches

Mechanical – These switches are controlled by a physical movement (typically using a lever). This often
makes them suitable for delicate equipment because they don’t require any power to operate. However, they
can be more prone to wear and tear than electronic versions.

Electronic – Electronic limit switches are powered by batteries or mains electricity and use sensors to detect
when an object crosses a certain point.
Advantages:
• Limit switch installation is simple.
• Its size is compact.
• It controls several loads.
• It consumes less electrical energy.
• It is applicable in many industries.
• It has accuracy, repeatability & high precision.
• It works in the toughest environmental conditions.
• The maximum current it can switch is upto 10A.
Disadvantages:
• Wear and tear
• Requires physical contact with the target.
• Chances of contact bounce.
• The response is slow compared with non-contact sensors such as proximity sensors.
Applications:
• Plant automation or machinery Interlocking applications.
• Limit switches are often used in machine tools to limit the travel of a machine axis.
• Used in materials handling applications, to indicate the passage of material from one platform to
another.
• Used in overhead cranes.
• Used in control panels to control the lighting.

Piezoelectric:

• A piezoelectric transducer (also known as a piezoelectric sensor) is a device that uses the piezoelectric
effect to measure changes in acceleration, pressure, strain, temperature or force by converting this
energy into an electrical charge.
• A transducer can be anything that converts one form of energy to another. The piezoelectric material is
one kind of transducers.
• When we squeeze this piezoelectric material or apply any force or pressure, the transducer converts this
energy into voltage. This voltage is a function of the force or pressure applied to it.

Working Principle:
• A piezoelectric transducer utilizes the principle of
the piezoelectric effect. Hence the name is a
piezoelectric transducer.
• The piezoelectric transducer consists of a quartz
crystal that is made up of SiO2 i.e. Silicon dioxide
or Barium Titanate Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT)
or Rochelle salt.
• The piezoelectric effect is the effect in which when
force or pressure is applied on certain material’s
surface, an electrical output in form of electric voltage is received from the other two surfaces.
• The produced voltage is the function of the applied force or pressure. Because a piezoelectric transducer
produces the output in the form of electric
voltage, a piezoelectric transducer is a type of
electric transducer.
• When there is no force or no pressure applied to
the piezoelectric transducer, the output electric
voltage produced is also 0 i.e. no output is
produced.
 • From the next two figures, it is very clear that the application of force or pressure produces a voltage.
• Now if we look at both pictures, then we can see one major difference. The difference is in the
application of the force or pressure’s direction.
• The given picture shows the polarity of voltage
when tensile force applies to a piezoelectric
sensor.
• The below-given picture shows the polarity of
voltage when compressive force applies to a
piezoelectric sensor.
• Sometimes it compression and tension. So as
there is a change in the direction of the force or pressure, there is a change in the polarity of the electric
voltage produced.
• The magnitude of the electric voltage produced is dependent on the magnitude of the applied force or
pressure.
• As the amount of the applied force or pressure increases, an increase in the magnitude of the output
electric voltage is also observed.
• While there is a decrease in the amount of the applied force or pressure, the output electric voltage also
decreases.
• This means that the higher the amount of the force or pressure, the higher the output voltage and vice-
versa.
• The output electric voltage produced by the piezoelectric transducer is so small that this small electric
voltage cannot be directly utilized. A circuit to amplify these output electric voltage is necessary.
• The circuit used to amplify the electric voltage produced by the piezoelectric transducer is the amplifier
circuit which is very famous and available easily in the markets.

Piezoelectric Transducer Formula:

• The orientation of the crystal also effects the amount of
voltage generated.
• Crystal in a transducer can be arranged in longitudinal
position or transverse position.
Longitudinal and Transverse Effect
• In the longitudinal effect, the charge generated is given by
Q=F*d
Where,
F is the applied force,
d is the piezoelectric coefficient of the crystal.
Piezoelectric coefficient d of quartz crystal is around 2.3 * 10-12 C/N.

• In the transverse effect, the charge generated is given by

Q = F * d * (b/a)
When the ratio b/a is greater than 1 the charge produced by transverse arrangement will be greater than the amount
generated by longitudinal arrangement.

Advantages:
1. No need for an external force
2. Easy to handle and use as it has small dimensions
3. High-frequency response it means the parameters change very rapidly

Disadvantages:
1. It is not suitable for measurement in static condition
2. It is affected by temperatures
3. The output is low so some external circuit is attached to it
4. It is very difficult to give the desired shape to this material and also desired strength
Applications:
1. In microphones, the sound pressure is converted into an electric signal and this signal is
ultimately amplified to produce a louder sound.
2. Automobile seat belts lock in response to a rapid deceleration is also done using a piezoelectric
material.
 3. It is also used in medical diagnostics.
4. It is used in electric lighter used in kitchens. The pressure made on piezoelectric sensor creates
an electric signal which ultimately causes the flash to fire up.
5. They are used for studying high-speed shock waves and blast waves.
6. Used infertility treatment.
7. Used in Inkjet printers
8. It is also used in restaurants or airports where when a person steps near the door and the door
opens automatically. In this, the concept used is when a person is near the door pressure is
exerted person weight on the sensors due to which the electric effect is produced and the door
opens automatically.

Hall Effect:
• Hall voltage is discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879. Hall Effect is caused due to the nature of current in a
conductor.
• Many inventions used this Hall Effect theory. This theory is also used in current sensors, pressure
sensors, Fluid flow sensors etc…
• One such invention that can measure magnetic field is the Hall Effect sensor.

Definition:
• Hall-effect sensors are the
linear transducers that are used to measure the
magnitude of the magnetic field.
• Working on the principle of Hall Effect, these
sensors generate a Hall voltage when a
magnetic field is detected, which is used to
measure the magnetic flux density.
• Linear sensors can measure the wide range of
magnetic fields. Besides magnetic fields,
these sensors are also used for detecting
proximity, position, speed.
• For these sensors output voltage is directly proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field.

Working Principle:

• The principle of Hall voltage is used as a

working principle of the Hall Effect sensor.
On a thin strip of a conductor, electrons flow
in a straight line when electricity is applied.
• When this charged conductor comes in contact
with the magnetic field which is in a
perpendicular direction to the motion of
electrons, the electrons get deflected.
• Some electrons get collected on one side while
some on another side. Due to this, one of the
conductor’s plane behaves as negatively charged while the other behaves as positively charged.
• This creates potential difference and voltage is generated. This voltage is called the Hall voltage.
• The electrons continue to move from one side of the plane to other till a balance is achieved between the
force applied on charged particles due to an electric field and the force that caused magnetic flux that
caused this change.
• When this separation stops, the hall voltage value at that instant gives the measure of magnetic flux
density.
• Based on the relation between hall voltage and magnetic flux density, Hall Effect sensors are of two types.
• In the linear sensor, the output voltage is linearly related to magnetic flux density.
• In the threshold sensor, at each magnetic flux density, the output voltage will have a sharp decrease.
• Hall Effect sensors can be viewed as linear transducers. To process the sensor’s output these require a
linear circuit that can provide a constant driving current to the sensors and also amplifies the output signal.
Benefits:
• Long life, Reliability, Affordable, Versatile
• Perform in harsh environments
• True solid state
• No moving parts
• Minimal power consumption
• Small footprint
• Distance sensing
• Operates in extreme temperatures

Applications:
Offering low power consumption and the ability to withstand harsh environments in a small footprint, Hall
Effect sensors are cost effective and versatile. They are found in a variety of applications, which include the
following:
• Process and packaging machines
• Electronics
• Marine vessels
• Agricultural machinery
• Computers
• Appliances, Sewing machines
• Automobiles
• Aircraft
• Construction Equipment
• Machine tools
• Medical equipment
• Assembly lines and conveyer systems
• Inspection Equipment

Strain Gauges:
• The strain in an element is a ratio of change in
length in the direction of applied load to the
original length of an element.
• The strain changes the resistance R of the
element.
• ∆R/R α ε; ∆R/R = G ε
• G is the constant of proportionality and is called
as gauge factor.
• In general, the value of G is considered in
between 2 to 4 and the resistances are taken of
the order of 100 Ω.
• Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance as per the equation. It comprises of
a pattern of resistive foil arranged as shown in Figure.
• These foils are made of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a backing
material plastic (ployimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced epoxy.

Applications of strain gauges:

• Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis on machines and failure analysis.
• multi-axial stress fatigue testing
• proof testing • residual stress
• vibration measurement • torque measurement
• bending • deflection measurement • Compression • tension measurement and strain measurement.

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT):

• Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a
primary transducer used for measurement of linear
displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400
mm in general.
• It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube.
• The central coil is primary coil and the other two are secondary coils.
• Secondary coils are connected in series in such a
way that their outputs oppose each other.
• A magnetic core attached to the element of which
displacement is to be monitored is placed inside the
insulated tube.
• Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary
coil, alternating electromagnetic forces (emfs) are
generated in secondary coils.
• When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its
half portion in each of the secondary coil regions
then the resultant voltage is zero
• If the core is displaced from the central position as shown in Figure say, more in secondary coil 1 than in coil
2, then more emf is generated in one coil.
• If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the value of resultant voltage increases in proportion with the
displacement

Applications of LVDT sensors:

• Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications.
• To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders.
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM.

Differential Pressure Transducer:

• A differential pressure transducer is a type
of pressure sensor or transducer designed to
measure the difference in pressure between
two points in a fluid or gas system.
• It converts the applied pressure
difference into an electrical signal that can
be used for monitoring, control, or data
acquisition purposes.
• A differential pressure transducer, as the
name suggests, measures the difference in
pressure between two points in a fluid or gas system.
• It calculates the pressure differential by comparing the pressure at one point with the pressure at another
point.
• It does not provide the absolute pressure value but focuses solely on the difference between the two
pressures being measured.
• Where, P0 = vacuum pressure, P1 = atmospheric pressure and P = pressure (measured on the specific
spot where you want to measure).

Differential pressure transducer working:

• A differential pressure transmitter measures the difference in pressure between two points in a fluid or
gas system.
• It consists of three main components: a pressure-sensing element, a signal-conditioning circuit, and an
output circuit.
• Here's a simplified explanation of how a differential pressure transmitter works:

1. Pressure-Sensing Element: Like in a differential pressure transmitter, the pressure-sensing element of a

differential pressure transducer detects the pressure difference between two points in the system. It
typically employs diaphragms, strain gauges, or other sensing technologies that deflect in response to
the applied pressure.
 2. Deflection and Force Balance: The pressure-sensing element deflects in proportion to the differential
pressure, creating a force imbalance. This deflection is used to convert the mechanical pressure into an
electrical signal.
3. Signal Conditioning: The electrical signal generated by the pressure-sensing element is conditioned
using signal-conditioning circuitry. This circuitry may include amplifiers, filters, linearization
techniques, and other components to enhance the accuracy, stability, and linearity of the signal.
4. Output Circuit: The conditioned electrical signal is converted into a standardized output signal, such as
4-20 mA current or a 0-10 V voltage signal, which can be easily transmitted to a control system, data
acquisition device, or display. The output signal represents the measured differential pressure.
5. Calibration and Adjustment: Similar to a differential pressure transmitter, a differential pressure
transducer is calibrated to ensure accurate measurement. Calibration involves adjusting the transducer's
output to correspond accurately with known pressure differentials. Some transducers may have
calibration options or adjustment mechanisms to fine-tune the output.
• By measuring the differential pressure and converting it into an electrical signal, the differential pressure
transmitter provides a reliable and proportional representation of the pressure difference between
the two points in the system.
• This information is crucial for monitoring, control, and automation of various processes in industries
ranging from HVAC to manufacturing.

Advantages:
1) They are economical, robust, and fast response.
2) They have excellent accuracy, great stability, regulated output, and appropriate linearity.
3) They are fast response, highly sensitive, and tiny size measurement instruments.

Disadvantages:
1) They have moderate accuracy subject to drift or instability.
2) They have delayed response to shock and vibration conditions.
3) They work at a narrow temperature range, with moderate accuracy and sluggish response.

Applications:
• These transducers are suitable in any liquid power application, which needs an accurate and high-
resolution force determination.
• These transducers are employed where a force measurement is needed with a joined digital display.
• These transducers are utilized in closed-loop pumps for checking pump operation characteristics.
• These transducers are applied as an electronically changeable pressure switch.
• These transducers are appropriate within closed-loop applications like electronic pressure
compensation, which calculate force upstream and downstream of a comparable metering tap to
measure pressure fall accurately.
• Building automation
• Filter cleanness status
• Piping
• Hydraulic systems
• Pneumatics
• Mechanical and plant engineering

Optical and Digital Transducers:

Optical Transducer:
• An optical transducer converts light rays into an
electronic signal.
• The purpose of an optical transducer is to
measure a physical quantity of light and,
depending on the type of transducer, then
translates it into a form that is readable by an
integrated measuring device.
• They are also called as photoelectric
transducers.
• The optical transducer can be classified as
 1. Photo emissive
• The photo emissive devices operate on the principle that radiation falling on a cathode causes
electrons to be emitted from the cathode surface.
2. Photoconductive
• The photoconductive devices operate on the principle that whenever a material is illuminated,
its resistance changes.
3. Photovoltaic transducers.
• The photovoltaic cells generate an output voltage that is proportional to the radiation intensity.
The radiation that is incident may be x-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet, infrared or visible light
Working Principle:
• The operating principle is the transmitting and receiving of light in an optical sensor, the object to be
detected reflects or interrupts a light beam sent out by an emitting diode.
• Depending on the type of device, the interruption or reflection of the light beam is evaluated.
• This makes it possible to detect objects independently of the material they are constructed from (wood,
metal, plastic or other).
• Special devices even allow for a detection of transparent objects or those with different colors or
variations in contrast.
• Interruption and reflection of light depends on type of devices used.
• According to this optical transducers or sensor are of three types as given below: -

1. Through-Beam Sensors:
• The system consists of two separate
components the transmitter and the receiver
are placed opposite to each other.
• The transmitter projects a light beam onto
the receiver.
• An interruption of the light beam is
interpreted as a switch signal by the receiver.
It is irrelevant where the interruption occurs.
2. Retro-Reflective Sensors:
• Transmitter and receiver are both in the same
house, through a reflector the emitted light
beam is directed back to the receiver.
• An interruption of the light beam initiates a
switching operation. Where the interruption
occurs is of no importance.
• Retro-reflective sensors enable large
operating distances with switching points,
which are exactly reproducible requiring little mounting effort.

3. Diffuse Reflection Sensors:

• Both transmitter and receiver are in one
housing.
• The transmitted light is reflected by the
object to be detected

APPLICATIONS:
• Electro-optical sensors are used whenever light needs to be converted to energy.
• Smart phones, where sensors are used to adjust screen brightness
 • Smart watches, in which sensors are used to measure the wearer's heartbeat.
• Optical sensor is to measure the concentration of different compounds by both visible and infrared
spectroscopy.
• Optical sensors can be found in the energy field to monitor structures that generate, produce, distribute,
and convert electrical power

DIGITAL TRANSDUCER:

• The output of digital transducers is discrete and may give frequency type or digitally coded output, of
binary or some other type.

Advantages:

1. Use of digital computer – easy for data manipulation.

2. Digital signals – don’t depend on signal amplitude so easy to transmit without distortion and external
noise.
3. Increased accuracy in pulse count.
4. Ergonomic advantages in presenting digital data.

Frequency Domain Transducers:

• The output is in the form of pulses or sinusoidal waveforms, the frequency of which is a measure of
magnitude of physical variable.
• Frequency can be measured by a frequency or pulse counter.
• Types as:
1. Electromagnetic F.D.T.
2. Opto-electrical F.D.T.
3. Vibrating string transducer
1. Electromagnetic Frequency Domain
Transducers:
• Used for speed measurement.
• It consists of permanent magnet or
solenoid.
• Gear is of ferromagnetic material.
• Change in gap length changes the flux
density and a voltage pulse is induced in
the coil.
• Pulse frequency equals speed N times the
number of teeth T.
2. Opto-electrical Frequency Domain
Transducers:
• Used for both rotary and linear motion
measurement.
• Shaft has half dark and half white or
shining portion.
 • When white portion is in front of light source, the light is reflected which falls on photo-electric
transducer.
• It gives an electrical pulse output.
• Frequency of pulses is thus a measure of
speed of rotation.
• Linear motion measurement uses a
transparent scale with a grating.
• Moving object is attached to transparent
scale.
• Light from a source passes through the
scale & a slit and then falls on photo-
electric transducer.
3.Vibrating String Transducers:
• Used to measure force applied to a metal
string, which is kept vibrating, the
frequency of which is dependent on the
force applied.
• The natural frequency f of a string is given
by ρ = mass density of wire material a =
area of cross-section P= applied force L =
length of string

• One end of string is fixed and other can be moved relative to it, due to force applied.
• The frequency f gets changed due to change in magnitude of force P. the frequency is measured by a
frequency counter and is a measure of force applied.
• Initial string vibrations are obtained by an electro-magnetic device.
• The transducer can be used for measurement of force, displacement and pressure as well.
Binary Codes:
• Digital output is usually required to be in binary
form.
• Natural Binary Code system.
• Binary coded decimal (BCD) code.
• Gray code.

Conversion from natural binary to gray code:

a) MSB is unchanged during conversion.
b) Gray code bit for other bits in natural binary is same if
digit to the left in natural binary is 0.
c) The bit is changed if the bit to the left is 1.
Conversion from gray code to natural binary code:
a) MSB is unchanged during conversion.
b) For every other bit in Gray code, natural binary is same
if the number of 1s to the left is even.
c) The bit is changed if the number of 1s to the left is odd.

Smart Sensors:
• In instrumentation systems, sensors are very essential devices. At present, most of the types of
sensors are smart.
• In these sensors, the sensing elements & electronics are integrated on the same chip. So, the integration
of electronics and sensors to make an intelligent sensor is known as a smart sensor.
• This sensor can make some decisions. These sensors have many benefits like higher S/N ratio, fast
signal conditioning, auto-calibration, self-testing, high reliability, small physical size, detection &
prevention of failure.
Definition:

• A smart sensor is a device that uses a transducer to gather particular data from a physical environment to
perform a predefined & programmed function on the particular type of gathered data then it transmits
the data through a networked connection.

Features:
• Self-identification, digital sensor data, smart calibration & compensation, multi-sensing capacity, sensor
communication for configuration of remote & remote monitoring, etc.
Architecture:

• A general architecture of smart sensor consists of following important components:

1. Sensing element/transduction element

2. Amplifier

3. Sample and hold

4. Analog multiplexer

5. Analog to digital converter (ADC)

6. Offset and temperature compensation

7. Digital to analog converter (DAC)

8. Memory

9. Serial communication and

10. Processor

Description of Smart Sensor Architecture:

1. Architecture of smart sensor is shown. In the architecture shown A1, A2…An are the amplifiers and S/H1,
S/H2…S/Hn are sample and hold circuit corresponding to different sensing element respectively.
2. To get a digital form of analog signal, the analog signal is periodically sampled and that constant value is
held and is converted into a digital word.
3. Any type of ADC must contain a circuit that holds the voltage at the input to the ADC.
4. ADC starts conversion when it receives start of conversion signal (SOC) from the processor and
after conversion is over it gives end of conversion signal to the processor.
5. Outputs of all the sample and hold circuits are multiplexed together so that we can use a single ADC, which
will reduce the cost of the chip.
6. Dedicating two channels of the multiplexer and using only one ADC for whole system can avoid the addition
of ADC. This is helpful in offset correction and zero compensation of gain due to temperature changes.
7. In addition to this smart sensor also include internal memory so that we can store the data and program
required.

Working Principle

• Smart sensors work by capturing data from physical environments & changing their physical properties
like speed, temperature, pressure, mass, or presence of humans into calculable electrical signals.
• These sensors include a Digital Motion Processor (DMP). Here a DMP is one type of microprocessor
that allows the sensor to perform onboard processing of the smart sensor data like filtering noise
otherwise performing different kinds of signal conditioning.
These sensors have 4 main functions measurement, configuration, verification & communication.
• Measurements are simply taken through detecting physical signals & changing them into electrical
signals. So, this will help in monitoring and measuring things like temperature, traffic, & industrial
applications.
 • Configuration function is a significant feature as it allows the smart sensor to detect position
otherwise installation errors
• The verification function has different uses like nonstop supervision of sensor behaviour, using a set
of supervisory circuits or equipment executed within the sensor.
• Lastly, the communication feature allows the sensor to converse to the main microcontroller/
microprocessor.

Block Diagram:
• This block diagram includes different blocks like sensing unit, signal conditioning, analog to digital
conversion, application algorithms, local user interface, memory, and communication unit or
transceiver.

Sensing Unit:
This unit detects the changes in physical parameters & generates electrical signals equivalent to it. Signal
Conditioning Unit:
The signal conditioning unit controls the signal to meet the necessities of next-level operations without losing
data.
Analog to Digital Converter:
ADC converts the signal from analog to digital format & sends it to the microprocessor.
Local User Interface:
The local user interface or LUI is a panel-mounted device used to allow building operators to monitor & control
system equipment.
Application Algorithm:
The signals from smart sensors reach here & process the received data based on the application programs
previously loaded here & generate output signals.
Memory:
It is used to store media for saving received & processed data.
Communication Unit:
The output signals from the application algorithm or microprocessor are transmitted to the main station through
the communication unit. This unit also gets command requirements from the key station to execute specific
tasks.

Types of smart sensors:

Five main types of smart sensors are commonly used in industrial IoT environments:
• Level sensors: These are used to measure the volume of space taken up in a container. A vehicle's
fuel gauge might be connected to a level sensor that monitors the level of fuel in the tank.
• Temperature sensors: These monitor a component's temperature so a corrective action can be taken
if the temperature gets too high or low. For example, in an industrial setting, a temperature sensor is
used to ensure machinery doesn't overheat.
• Pressure sensors: These are used to monitor the pressure of gases or fluids in a pipeline. A sudden
drop in pressure might indicate a leak or a flow control system issue.
• Infrared sensors: These are used in thermal imaging cameras and noncontact infrared
thermometers are used for temperature monitoring. Other infrared sensors are optical sensors tuned
to a frequency that helps them see light in the infrared spectrum. These sensors are used in medical
equipment, such as pulse oximetry devices, and in electronic devices designed for remote control
operation.
 • Proximity sensors: These are used to detect the location of a person or object in relation to the
sensor. In retail environments, proximity sensors can track customer movements throughout the
store.
Advantages:
• These are small in size
• These sensors are very easy to use, design & maintain
• The performance level is higher
• Speed of communication & reliability is higher due to the direct conversion with the processor.
• These sensors can perform self-calibration & self-assessments.
• These sensors can notice issues like switch failures, open coils & sensor contamination.
• These sensors optimize manufacturing processes easily that need changes.
• They can store many systems data.
Disadvantages:
• Smart sensor’s reliability is one of the major drawbacks because if they are stolen or get damaged
then they can affect a lot of systems badly.
• It needs both sensors & actuators.
• Sensor calibration has to be managed by an external processor.
• High complexity in wired smart sensors, so the cost is also very high
Applications:
• Environmental Monitoring
• Traffic Monitoring and Controlling
• Flood And Water Level Monitoring System
• Precision Agriculture.
• Industrial Applications
• Building And Infrastructure

Thermal Imager: (Thermography)

• Thermal imaging is simply the process of converting infrared (IR) radiation (heat) into visible images
that depict the spatial distribution of temperature differences in a scene viewed by a thermal camera.
Block Diagram:
Advantages:
• Non-destructive test method.
• Capable of catching moving targets in real time.
• Find defects in shafts and other metal parts.
• Measurement in areas inaccessible or hazardous for other methods.
• Help to compare temperatures over a large area.
Limitations:
• Training and staying proficient in IR scanning is time consuming.
• Images is hard to interpret accurately even with experience.
• Quality cameras have a high price range.
Applications: