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MUSIC THEORY
MUSIC THEORY
Guitarists of all levels will find a wealth of practical music knowledge in this special book and audio
package. Veteran guitarist and author Tom Kolb dispels the mysteries of music theory using plain and HAL LEONARD
simple terms and diagrams. The accompanying audio provides 94 tracks of music examples, scales,
modes, chords, ear training, and much more!
The price of this book includes access to audio
GUITAR METHOD Everything You Ever Wanted to Know But Were Afraid to Ask
BY TOM KOLB
tracks online for download or streaming, using
the unique code inside the book.
AUDIO ACCESS INCLUDED
BY TOM KOLB
HL00695790
ISBN 978-0-634-06651-1
—Tom Kolb
Recording Credits:
All guitars, bass, keyboards, and drum programming: Tom Kolb
All musical examples composed and arranged by Tom Kolb
Assistant Recording Engineer: Dan Brownfield
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I’d like to thank my wife Hedy and my daughter Flynnie for their unconditional love and support; my parents for their encouragement
in my formative years; Hal Leonard Corporation; all at Guitar One magazine; the staff and students at Musicians Institute, Hollywood;
and all the musicians I have had the privilege of playing with over the years.
The guitar is a fretted, six-string instrument, tuned low to high: E–A–D–G–B–E. The frets represent half-step increments (see Chapter
4, Intervals), so playing along one string (from “open” to the twelfth fret) produces all twelve pitches of the chromatic scale (see Chapter
12). The twelfth fret represents an octave (see Chapter 4, Intervals) above the starting point (open string), at which the pitches start
over again, until ending at frets 21 or 22 (on most electric guitars). Unlike on a piano, the same note can be played at several different
points on the guitar. This is demonstrated below.
Fig. 2
& 44 œ #œ œ #œ œ œ #œ œ
œ œ #œ œ #œ œ #œ œ
T
A 0 1 2 3 4
0
5
B 0 1 2 3 4
0
5
1
6
2
7
3
8
4
9
5
10
6
11
7
12
8
13
9
14
10
15
œ œ #œ œ #œ œ #œ œ
& #œ œ #œ œ œ #œ œ #œ
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
16 17 18 19 20 21 22
œ #œ œ #œ œ œ #œ œ œ #œ œ
œ #œ œ
8va
#œ
& Œ
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
17 18 19 20 21 22
22
& 4 Œ
˙ ˙ ˙
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
Fig. 3B
& 444 .. ˙
16.
˙ ˙ ˙18 ˙ ˙ ˙ ..
..
&T 4 21. ˙ ˙ ˙
17 19 20 21 22
22
A
B
T . 17
.
.
22 22
A .
14 17 14
T 22 22
. .
19 19
B
A 17
12
19
14 14
19
12
B 17
12 12
˙ ˙ ˙
& 44 an ..important revelation that
Here’s ˙ many overlook:
˙ The tuning system used for guitar follows ˙a pattern of ascending,
˙ ..
perfect-fourth
intervals (see˙ Chapter˙4, Intervals): low E up to A (4th); A to D (4th); D to G (4th); G to B (major 3rd, the exception); and B˙to E (4th). It
goes to follow that parallel notes (at the same fret) on adjacent strings (other than the G and B strings), are also perfect fourths (major
4
reference pitch reference pitch reference pitch reference pitch reference pitch
. ..
Whether you to another instrument (such as piano), or an electronic tuner, always fine-tune your
&
A 4
. ˙ ˙ ˙0
tune the fretted low E string tune the open D string tune the open G string tune the open B string the open0high E string
T
guitar to itself once you’ve finished. Here’s a step-by-step process to0 help you double-check
4
0
your guitar’s 5
tuning:
T 0 5 0 5
B
A
Use the0A string as5the master pitch 5
source. Play
0 4
0 the open5A string and fret the low E string at fret 5. Then adjust the tuning of the low
EBstring so that the5 fifth fret matches the open A string.
0 5
T . 22 22
17
.
Now
B
.
A reverse 14 at the fifth fret and adjust the pitch of the open D.
the process and play19the A string .
14Continue this process throughout the
19
remainder of17the strings:
12 12
Fret the D string at the fifth fret and tune the open G string to pitch.
Fret the G string at the fourth fret and tune the open B string.
Fret the B string at the fifth fret and tune the open high E string.
For more accuracy, let both notes ring together and tune with your right (picking) hand.
Fig. 4
w w w w
& w w w w
w w
reference pitch reference pitch reference pitch reference pitch reference pitch
tune the fretted low E string tune the open D string tune the open G string tune the open B string tune the open high E string
0
T 0 5
A 0 5
0 4
B 0
5
5
Intonation
No amount of tuning will suffice if your guitar is not intonated properly. Intonation at the nut is best left to the hands of your local
repairman, but bridge intonation in most cases is a do-it-yourself job. (If your bridge does not have adjustable saddles, this explanation
won’t work for you. In this case, visit your repairman.)
Start by putting on a new set of strings (many intonation problems are solved by this simple procedure) and tune them to pitch. The
next step is to adjust the bridge saddle either forward or backward, until the twelfth-fret harmonic of each string (half-way point
between the bridge and the nut) corresponds to the note fretted at the twelfth fret.
For example: Strike the twelfth-fret harmonic of the low E string and tune it to pitch (use an electronic tuner for this). Now, fret the low
E string at the twelfth fret and check the tuning. If it’s right on, there’s no need to adjust the saddle. However, if it registers flat (lower),
the string length (between bridge and nut) needs to be shortened. Do this by adjusting the bridge saddle forward (toward the neck)
until the fretted note is in tune with the harmonic. If the note registers sharp (higher), the string needs to be lengthened. This is achieved
by adjusting the bridge saddle back (away from the neck) until the fretted note is in tune. Follow the same procedure for each string.
If you still encounter tuning problems, here are a few troubleshooting tips:
• Make sure you aren’t pressing too hard when you fret the strings. This can cause the strings to go sharp. (This problem is
common with jumbo frets and guitars with scalloped fretboards.)
• Intonation may be off at the nut. In this case, it is wise to seek a good repairman.
• Always stretch your strings (pull up on each string, away from the fretboard) after tuning. This will take up any slack,
which may accumulate at the tuning peg. After stretching the strings, repeat the tuning process.
MELODY
The Staff
Standard music notation is written on a grid consisting of five lines and four spaces, called a staff. The lines are counted from the
bottom up (1–2–3–4–5), as are the spaces (1–2–3–4).
Fig. 1
5 4
4 3
3 2
2 1 5
1 4 4
3 3
5 2 4 2
4 1 3 1
3 2
2
1 staff you’ll find a symbol called a clef. There are 1many different types of clefs, but guitar music is notated on
At the beginning of every
the treble clef, or G clef (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2
&
&
&
Each line and space of the staff is assigned a letter name. On the treble clef, the lines are (in order from bottom to top): E–G–B–D–F,
&
as in “Every Good Boy Deserves Favor.” The spaces are (in order from bottom to top): F–A–C–E, which of course spells “face.”
F E
Fig. 3 D C
B A
&
G F F
E D E
&
B C
F G E A
D E C F
B A
G F
E
Many of the notes on the guitar fretboard extend beyond the staff. These pitches are notated using ledger lines—short lines that act
as temporary staff extensions. (The only non-ledger-line notes that appear outside the staff are G, directly above the staff, and D,
directly below the staff.) Check out Fig. 4 to see how they are used to represent some of the lowest and highest notes on the neck.
(For an explanation of how tablature corresponds to the musical staff, refer to Fig. 20 in this chapter, and also the Guitar Notation
Legend located at the back of the book.)
Notice that towards the end of Fig. 4 the notes drop back down and start climbing again. This is done when the ledger lines become
too high and therefore impractical to read quickly. The notation “8va” indicates that these notes are to be played one octave higher
than written. The use of 8va is left up to the discretion of the musical notator, but generally speaking the G note on the fourth ledger
line is a good place to switch.
G A B C
œ
D
œ œ
E
œ
F œ
G A B C
œ
D
œ
œ œ œ œ
8va
œ
& œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ
E F G A B C D
10G 12A B 15C
œ
D
œ œ
E
œ
20F œG A B C
œ
D
œ
œ œ
3 5 7 8 13 17 19 22
T
œ œ œ
8va
A
&
0
B
œ œ œ
0 2 3
œ œ œ
0 1 3
œ
E F G A B C D
3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15 17 19 20 22
Accidentals T
A 0
B of0 seven
The musical alphabet consists 1 letters,
3
0 as 2is clearly
but, 3 evident on the guitar fretboard, there are actually twelve
possible tones. The five other pitches are named according to how they relate to their “natural-note” (A, B, C, D, E, F, G) neighbors. This
note-naming process is achieved with the help of an accidental symbol. For instance, there is a note between A and B. This can either
be named A˜ (spoken as A sharp), or B¯ (spoken as B flat). The “˜ ” symbol raises the note by a half step (one fret), while the “¯”
F˜ B¯ B G˜ G
symbol# œlowers the note by a half step. (Refer to Fig. 1, Chapter 1, for an illustration of this process.)
& bœ nœ #œ nœ
There is a third accidental symbol called the natural sign (see Fig. 5 for accidental examples). The natural sign cancels previous sharps
or flats, returning the note to its natural position. (Note: Accidentals always appear before the notehead in music notation.)
Fig. 5
F˜ B¯ B G˜ G
#œ bœ nœ
& #œ nœ
Quiz #1
On the following quiz sheet (Fig. 6), fill in the note name above the staff, and the string/fret location on the tablature staff. You can refer
to the neck diagram from Chapter 1, but try to do this by yourself. (With the exception of the high E string, the note locations don’t go
beyond the fourth fret.) To help get you started, the first few answers are included. When you’re finished, check your answers in the
“Answer Key” section located in the back of the book.
Fig. 6
F E G D
œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ
& œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ
0
T 3
A 3
0
B
œ œ
bœ nœ #œ nœ œ bœ nœ
& œ
bœ nœ #œ nœ
& 44
barline double barline terminal barline
& 44
barline double barline terminal barline
At the beginning of a piece of guitar music (just to the right of the treble clef) is a pair of numbers, one on top of the other. This is called
the time signature. The top number represents the number of beats (counts) per measure; the bottom number indicates the type of
note receiving the beat. (See Fig. 8.) Sometimes the capital letter C is substituted in place of the time signature. This indicates common
& 44 & 34
time, or 4/4 time.
4 beats per measure 3 beats per measure
& 44 & 34
Fig. 8
Quarter note q = one beat Quarter note q = one beat
4 beats per measure 3 beats per measure
Quarter note q = one beat Quarter note q = one beat
& 68 & c
44
J
6 beats per measure Common time: same as
& 68 & c
œ
Eighth note = one beat
44
J
6 beats per measure Common time: same as
œ
Eighth note = one beat
Note Values
As stated above, the location of a notehead on the staff indicates the pitch. The duration (or value) of the note, however, is indicated
by the “shape” of the note. Fig. 9 offers a breakdown of the most common note values.
Fig. 9
Whole note w = 4 beats
h = 2 beats
Half note
Quarter note q = 1 beat
Whole note w = 4 beats J
Eighth note œ = 1/2 beat
Half note h = 2 beats j̊
Sixteenth note œ = 1/4 beat
Quarter note q = 1 beat
J
Rests Eighth note œ
= 1/2 beat
j̊
Whole rest Half rest Quarter rest Eighth rest Sixteenth rest
Sixteenth 4note œ = 1/4 beat2 beats
beats 1 beat 1/2 beat 1/4 beat
∑ Ó Œ ‰ ≈
Rests indicate the length of silence between notes. Fig. 10 depicts the most common types of rests.
Fig. 10 &
Whole rest Half rest Quarter rest Eighth rest Sixteenth rest
4 beats 2 beats 1 beat 1/2 beat 1/4 beat
& ∑ Ó Œ ‰ ≈
j j j j j j j j
10
& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ = & 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +
j j j j j j j j
& 44 œ œ œ 2 œ œ œ œ œ = & 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
1345962 INTERIOR.indd 10
1 + &
2 4 +
œ 3 œ +œ 4œ +œ œ œ œ 1
=+ &2 24 + œ 3 œ + œ 4 œ + œ œ
2/2/21 11:25 AM œ œ
Whole rest Half rest Quarter rest Eighth rest Sixteenth rest
4 beatsWhole rest 2 beats Half rest 1 beatQuarter rest1/2 beatEighth rest1/4 beat
∑ 4 beats Ó 2 beats Œ 1 beat ‰ 1/2 beat ≈ 1/4 beat
Sixteenth rest
&
& ∑ Ó Œ ‰ ≈
Beams and Partial Beams
Notes that are less than one beat in value are often grouped together with the help of beams and/or partial beams (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11
j j j j j j j j
& 44 œ œ jœ jœ jœ jœ jœ jœ j j = & 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 4 œ 2 œ + œ 3 œ+ œ 4 œ + œ œ
1& 1 & 4+
+ 2 + 3 + 4 +
=
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +
& 24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ = & 24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
2 œ+ œ a œ 2 œ e œ+ œ a œ œ 2 œ+ œ a œ 2 œ e œ+ œ a œ œ
1 & 4e = 1 & 4e
1 e + a 2 e + a 1 e + a 2 e + a
j j̊ j̊ j̊ j̊ j j̊ j̊ j̊ j j̊
& 44 œ œ jœ œ j̊œ j̊œ j̊ j̊‰ j œ œ œ j̊œ j̊ j̊œ j = j̊ & 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ
(1e)&
44 œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰
+ a 2 e (+a) (3e)
œ œ œ a œ œ =(1e)& +44 aœ 2 œ e œ(+a)œ(3e)œ +œ a ‰ 4 œ(e+)œ aœ œ œ
+ a 4 (e+)
(1e) + a 2 e (+a) (3e) + a 4 (e+) a (1e) + a 2 e (+a) (3e) + a 4 (e+) a
Triplets
A triplet is a group of three notes that occupies the same duration as two notes of the same value (Fig. 12).
˙ Half note
= œ œ
Quarter notes
= œ œ œ £
˙ = œ œ = œ œ œ
Quarter note Eighth notes
£
Eighth note triplets
œQuarter note
= œ œ
Eighth notes
= œ œEighthœ note£ triplets
œ = œ œ = œ œ œ
Eighth note
j Eighth note
Sixteenth notes
£
Sixteenth note triplets
œ j = œ œ
Sixteenth notes
= œ œ œ £
Sixteenth note triplets
œ = œ œ = œ œ œ
Dotted Notes
A dot (placed immediately after and parallel to the notehead) increases the value of that note (or rest) by one-half its original duration
(Fig. 13).
Œ + ‰ = Œ.
Fig. 13
J
q + œ q.
≈
=
œ
J
+ œ =
j̊
q. ‰ + = ‰.
h + œ = h. Ó + Œ = Ó.
œ œ œ
11
+ 4 +
œ œ œ
1345962 INTERIOR.indd 11 2/2/21 11:26 AM
Ties
A tie is a curved line that connects two notes of the same pitch (not to be confused with a slur, which connects two notes of different
pitch: refer to the Guitar Notation Legend for “slur”). A tie indicates that the two notes are treated as one, with the second one sustained
as an extension of the first (Fig. 14).
Fig. 14
& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œj œ œ œ ˙. œ œ œ.
j
œ ˙
COUNT: 1 2 3 + 4 1 2 + 3 4 + 1 2 3 4 + 1 2 + 3 4
& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œj œ œ œ ˙. œ œ œ.
j
œ ˙
Quiz #2
œ. œ œ
COUNT: 1 2 3 + 4 1 2 + 3 4 + 1 2 3 4 + 1 2 + 3 4
clues,œ refer
œ œ ˙
4 j j œœ œ œ J œ œ . J
œ ‰ œ Œ
On the following quiz sheet (Fig. 15), fill in the missing barlines in 4/4 time. For to the topics covered in Figures 7–14. You’ll
& the
find 4 answer
˙. . theœbook.
key in the backœ of
œ 3
Fig. 15
œ œ œ œ. œ œ ˙
4 j j œ œ œ œ œ œ . J
& 44 ˙ . œ œ . œ œ ‰‰œ j J jŒ
&4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙. 3 œ œ œ. œ ˙
2 +j 3 +j 3
& 44 œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œ œ‰ œœ ˙œ œ œ œ ˙œ. œ œ œ œœ œ œ . œ ˙
COUNT: 1 2 3 + 4 1 4 + 1 2 3 4 + 1 2 4
In guitar music, harmony (two or more notes played at the same time) can be notated three different ways: 1) chord stacks (notes
written on top of each other on the staff); 2) chord names (chord qualities written above the staff);. and 3) chord frames (guitar neck
œœ chordœœ voicings).
4 œœœdepicting œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœj ˙˙ œœ œœœ. œœ œœœ œœœ œ œœ œ w w œ œ ˙
& 4 œ œ œ œ
& 4 œœ˙ . œœ œ œœ œœ œœœ. œ œœ œ ‰ œ œœ ˙
diagrams
j œ œ œ œ ˙œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ w
w J Œ
Jœœœ œœœ œœœ œœœ œœœ œœœ w
œ œ œ œ œJ œ . ˙
j œ .
3
Chord4 Stacks œ
j œ œ œ œ
& 4 ˙.
Chord stacks
. œ ‰ harmony.
are theœ traditionalœ form œof notating
œ J Œ
Following the same rules that3 apply to pitch notation, the notes are simply
stacked onCtop of each other. (See Fig. 16.)
F G7 C
&4 á4
Fig. 16
á á á á á á á á Ü á á á á á á |
œœC œœ œœ œœ œœ œœF œœ œœ œœ ˙˙ œœG7œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ w
& 44 œœœ œœœ œœœ œœœ œœœ œœ œœ œœ œœ ˙˙ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ w
w
w
w
C
œ œ œ œ œ œ
& 444 œœá œœá œœá œœá œœá œœá œœá œœá œœá ˙˙Ü œœœá œœœá œœœá œœœá œœœá œœœá w
w|
&4 œœœ œœœ œœœ œœœ œœœ œœ œœ œœ œœ ˙˙ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ w
w
œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ w
Chord Names
Fig. 17 offers a more modern approach to notating guitar harmony. Here, the chord names (see Chord Construction, Chapter 7) are
written above the staff, while the rhythms are notated with rhythm slashes (or hash marks) just below the chord names, or on the staff
itself.
C F G7 C
4
& 4 áC
Fig. 17
á á á á áF á á á Ü áG7 á á á á á |
C
& 44 á á á á á á á á á Ü á á á á á á |
12
& 44
x xx Fret-hand
fingering:
1 = index
2 = middle
3 2 1 3211 32 1 3 2 1 3 = ring
4 =3 2pinky 1
C |
3 2 1 3211
& 44
xx
& 44
8fr
Fig. 19
C3 2 1 1
xx C
8fr xx
8fr
3 21 1
3 21 1
TABLATURE NOTATION
Tablature (Tab for short) is a graphic system that visually represents the guitar fretboard. Each horizontal line represents a string
(bottom line is low E; top line is high E). Numbers are used to indicate where that string is to be fretted (“0” indicates an open string).
In this book, tablature is written directly under the musical staff. Note: As the music staff contains the rhythmic information, there’s no
need to repeat it in the tablature staff (Fig. 20).
Fig. 20
œœ œœ œœ
& 44 œ œ œ œ œœ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œ œ œ
E 1 1 3
T
œœ
B 1 0 0 1 1 3
œœ œœ
&B44 œœ
G
A 2 0 0 2 2 4
œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œ œ œ œœ
0 2 3
œ
D
œ œ œ 4 œœ œœ ‰ œœ ‰
A 3
& 4 œ œ œ œ
E
œ
E 1 1 3
B T
Tablature is an excellent system for indicating guitar nuances
1
E2
0such as bends, 0slides, hammer-ons,
1 pull-offs,
1 and specific
3 note place- 1
G
A 0 0 2 2 4
D ment in general. For a thorough
0 explanation
2 3 of tablature
B T
terms and symbols, refer to the Guitar Notation Legend2 located
1 0 at the back of 00 1
A
E
B
this book.
3 G
D A 0 2 3
0 2
A
E
B 3
13
Repeat Signs
Repeat signs are placed at the beginning and ending of a section which is to be replayed (Fig. 21).
Fig. 21
& .. ..
&
& ... ...
If the section is to be played more than twice, the amount of times is indicated above the repeat sign at the end of the section (Fig. 22).
& 22 .. ..
.. ..
Fig.
& Play 4 times
& .. ..
Play 4 times
. .
.. ..
Play 4 times
&
&
First and Second Endings
Play 4 times
First and. second ending directions are written above the last measures of a section of music. The first ending appears just before the
..
& signs . and means to repeat the section, skip the first ending, then play the second ending (Fig. 23). [Note: Third Play 4 times
4
... ...
1. 2.
&
&44
1. 2.
& 44 .. 1. .. 2. D.C.
& 44 ..
& ..
D.C. and D.S.
D.C.
444 (Da Capo) sign means to return to the beginning and continue playing (Fig. 24).
D.C.
& D.C.
&
The
Fig. 24
% D.C.
& 44 %
%
D.C.
& 44
&4
& 4 D.S.
& D.S. (Dal Segno) sign means to return to the sign and continue playing (Fig. 25).
The D.S.
%
D.S.
&
Fig. 25
&
& 44 %
& 44
% D.S.
& 44
&
%%
D.S.
&4
& 44
& To Coda fi D.S. al Coda
To Coda fi
To Coda fi
14&
& fi Coda
D.S. al Coda
%
D.S. al Coda
& 44fi
&
fi
& Coda
& 44 Coda
%
&
1345962 INTERIOR.indd 14
To Coda fi D.S. al Coda
2/2/21 11:26 AM
%
& 44 Play 4 times
& .. ..
D.S.
Al Coda
&
Often D.C. and D.S. instructions are accompanied with the term “al Coda” (to the coda). This means to follow the D.C. or D.S. instruc-
tions and when the “To Coda” sign is encountered, skip to the Coda (ending section). (Note: Always play through the “To Coda” sign
the first time. In other words, you ignore the “To Coda” sign until the “D.S. al Coda” or “D.C. al Coda” signs instruct you to look for it.
Fig. 26
%
& 44
1. 2.
& 44 .. ..
To Coda fi D.S. al Coda
&
fi Coda
& D.C.
& 44
fi
p (piano): Soft.
Ritard: Gradually slow the tempo. To Coda D.S. al Coda
&
fi
Rubato: Take liberties with the tempo.
Simile: Play in a similar fashion.
Coda
Staccato (Fig. 27): Play the note and quickly mute it.
& Tacet: Don’t play!
Tutti: Everyone plays the figure.
Fig. 27
>
œ
accent: œ
>
crescendo:
decrescendo:
œ.
staccato:
œ.
15
MAJOR SCALES
A scale is a succession of notes that are arranged in a specific order of intervals, from its tonic (root, or central note) to its octave. The
major scale is a diatonic scale. That is to say it contains all seven notes of the musical alphabet. These notes of the scale are called
scale degrees or scale steps. The intervallic formula (order of intervals) for the major scale goes as follows: whole step–whole step–half
step–whole step–whole step–whole step–half step (W–W–H–W–W–W–H). (See Fig. 1).
Fig. 1
octave
(tonic) octave
(tonic)
(tonic) (tonic)
W = Whole 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (8)1
W
H == Half
Whole 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (8)1
H = Half
W W H W W W H
W W H W W W H
A great way to visualize the intervallic formula of the major scale is to play it along a single string. Fig. 2 lays the notes of the C major
scale along the A string. As you play it, take note of the half-step locations between the 3rd and 4th degrees, and between the 7th and
8th (octave). Also, notice that the C major scale contains all natural notes (no sharps or flats).
Fig. 2
C D E F G A B C
&
C D E F
œœ
G
œœ œœ
A
œœ
B
œœ
C
& œœ œœ œœ
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (1)
T
T
A
A
B 3 5 7 8 10 12 14 15
B 3 5 7 8 10 12 14 15
16
Fig. 3
open string
nut
2fr
5fr
7fr
8fr
“Fretted” version of
open-position pattern
12fr
& œ œ #œ #œ œ
œ œ #œ
1 W 2 W 3 H 4 W 5 W 6 W 7 H 8(1)
T 17
A
B 0 2 4 5 7 9 11 12
12fr
12fr
KEY SIGNATURES
The formula for the major scale remains the same regardless of the key (letter name of the tonic, or root) on which the scale is based.
Taking into account that the C major scale contains all natural notes, this means that if a major scale starts on any note other than C,
some (or all) of the notes need to be modified (raised or lowered) in order to fit the formula. For example, apply the major scale formula
to the key of A (play along the A string, remembering to account for every letter name along the way), and you’ll encounter three notes
that fall between the cracks: C˜, F˜, and G˜ (Fig. 4).
& 4 œ œ #œ #œ œ
#œ
Fig.
œ œ
& œ4 œ #œ #œ œ
1œ W œ2 W
# œ3 H W 5 W 6 W 7 H 8(1)
T 1 W 2 W 3 H 4 W 5 W 6 W 7 H 8(1)
A
B
T 0 2 4 5 7 9 11 12
A
B 0 2 4 5 7 9 11 12
Now, play the B¯ major scale along the same string, and you’ll encounter two oddball notes: B¯ (of course) and E¯ (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5
& bœ œ œ œ bœ
bœ œ œ
& b œ4 œ œ œ bœ
b 1œ W œ2 W œ3 H W 5 W 6 W 7 H 8(1)
T 1 W 2 W 3 H 4 W 5 W 6 W 7 H 8(1)
A
B
T 1 3 5 6 8 10 12 13
A
B 1 3 5 6 8 10 12 13
Judging by just these two examples, one would assume that a piece of music that wasn’t in the key of C would be cluttered with an
abundance of sharps or flats. This would be confusing indeed. What is needed is a system to organize accidentals. That system is called
a key signature.
A key signature (placed on the staff just after the treble clef) indicates the notes that are to be raised or lowered throughout a piece of
music. For example, we discovered that the A major scale calls for three notes to be raised a half step (C˜, F˜, and G˜). Instead of
writing a sharp sign before every one of those notes in a song though, those sharps are placed at the beginning of the music, in the
key signature (Fig. 6).
All Fs are sharped
###
Fig. 6 All Gs are sharped
&
All Fs are sharped
###
All Gs are sharped
All Cs are sharped
All Fs are sharped
&
###
All Gs are sharped
All Cs are sharped
&
Fig. 7 depicts all of the sharp key signatures, in order, from G to C˜. (The key of C requires no key signature.)
All Cs are sharped
The “right” side of the circle (from G to F˜) lists the keys containing sharps, while the “left” side (from F to G ¯) lists the flat keys. The
numbers along the inside of the circle indicate the number of sharps or flats in the corresponding key. (For example C contains no
sharps or flats; D major contains 2 sharps; B¯ has 2 flats; and the keys of F˜ and G¯ contain 6 sharps and 6 flats, respectively.) The
bracketed letters from F to B show the order of sharps as they appear on the staff. The bracketed letters from B¯ to G¯ show the order
of flats. (After G¯, the order “jumps” back up to C and, finally, F.)
Fig. 9
First ˜ C
F 0 G
1 1
First ¯
B¯ 2 2 D
¯ ˜
E¯ 3 Keys Keys 3 A
A¯ 4 4 E
5 5
D¯ 6 B
G¯/F˜
To get the most out of the circle of fifths, it’s best to memorize it so you can visualize it in your mind’s eye. A popular memorization
tool is word association. For example, you could memorize the order of sharps by assigning a word to each letter name. Experts say
“the sillier, the better,” so here’s one: Fat Cats Go Down Alley Endings Boldly Fighting. As for the order of flats, the first four letters
spell “BEAD,” so your formula could go something like this: BEAD Games Come First.
19
B 1
1
2
T 2
A 1
1
B 1
1
To memorize sharp key signatures, start on G on the third fret of the high E string and descend in 4ths until you arrive at F˜ on the low E
string (Fig. 11). This gives you the order and names of the sharp keys (when you get to F˜, just remember that C˜ is the last sharp key).
Fig. 11
œ œ
& œ œ œ #œ
œ œ
& 3 œ œ
T
A
3
2
2
œ #œ
B 2
2
3
T 3
A 2
2
B 2
MINOR SCALES 2
For every major scale, there is a minor scale counterpart, or relative minor scale. (“Relative” means that the two scales share the same
notes.) The relative minor scale is constructed by starting on the 6th degree of the major scale. For example, in Fig. 12 you’ll find two
octaves of the C major scale. Notice that the 6th degree is A. “Reassigning” the root of the C major scale to “A” creates the A minor
scale (A–B–C–D–E–F–G). In other words, the A minor scale is constructed from the notes of the C major scale, starting on A.
Fig. 12
A minor scale
C major scale
C D E F G A B C D E F
œ
G
œ
A
œ œ
B
œ
C
œ œ œ œ œ
& œ œ œ œ œ
20
Fig. 13
C major scale
& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
T
A 7 9 10 10 9 7
B 8 10
7 8 10 10 8 7
10 8
A minor scale
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
T 8 10 10 8
A 7 9 10
7 9 10 10 9 7
10 9 7
B
Here are five patterns of the A minor scale as they appear along the fretboard (Fig. 14). (Notice that, visually, they are the same as the C
major scale patterns from Fig. 3. The only difference is the location of the roots. If you’re confused, remember that the A minor scale and
the C major scale are relative, meaning they are comprised of the same notes. This relativity is explored in depth in Chapter 11, “Modes.”)
Fig. 14
nut
2fr
4fr
7fr
8fr
It’s important to note that these, and the major scale patterns we saw earlier in Fig. 3, are movable to any key. Simply slide the selected
pattern up or down the fretboard until the roots (circled notes) align with the desired tonic. (Example: The second A minor scale pattern
placed at the fourth fret creates the B minor scale, because B is now the root.)
21
The scale formula for the major scale is 1–2–3–4–5–6–7. These numbers correspond to the seven scale steps that make up the major
scale. (The number “8” isn’t included because it is simply the octave, where the scale starts over again.) These numbers also signify
the intervallic formula of the major scale: W–W–H–W–W–W–H.
In Fig. 13 we discovered that the minor scale has a different intervallic formula from the major scale. This difference can be notated
in the scale formula simply by adjusting the numbers. For example, take a look at Fig. 15.
Fig. 15
Scale formula
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (1)
C D E F G A B C
C major scale Intervallic formula
W W H W W W H
Scale formula
1 2 ¯3 4 5 ¯6 ¯7 8 (1)
C D E¯ F G A¯ B¯ C
C minor scale
W H W W H W W
Scale formula
The first system depicts the notes of the C major scale, with the scale formula written above, and the intervallic formula written below.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (1)
In the second system you’ll find the notes of the C minor scale. Notice that the 1st, 2nd, 4th, and 5th scale steps (C, D, F, and G) are
C D E F G A B C
the same, but theC others
majorarescaledifferent. This is because the intervallic structure of the minor scaleformula
Intervallic is different, and causes a “shift” in
the formula.EThis shift results in a lowering
W ofWthe 3rd, 6th,
H minor and
W 7th degrees
W C˜Wminor H of the major scale by a half step.D˜This half-step lowering
# ¯# #¯ # # be converted #to#a
minor B minor F˜ G˜ minor minor A˜ minor
is indicated in# the scale formula# with the use of flats: # # #
¯ # #
# and 7th degrees # by aformula & ## & # ## & # ## & # ## #
1–2– 3–4–5– 6– 7. This means that any major scale can
& by lowering the &
minor scale 3rd, 6th, & Scale half step.
1 2 ¯3 4 5 ¯6 ¯7 8 (1)
D minor C
G minor D E¯ C minor
F G A¯ F minor
B¯ C B¯ minor E¯ minor A¯ minor
MINOR KEY SIGNATURES
b
C minor scale
b b
b W H & bW b W H & b Wb b W & b b b b b b b
b bb b b b b b bb b b
& & & &
Minor key signatures correspond to their relative major key signatures. In other words, the D minor scale is relative to the F major
scale, so the key signature for D minor is the same as F major: one flat (B¯). Fig. 16 provides a reference guide for minor key signatures.
Fig. 16
22
& œ œ œ œ œ & bb œ œ bœ œ œ bœ
W W H W W W H W H W W H W W
A major scale
###
1 2 3 4
œ œ #œ #œ
5 6 7
œ
8 (1)
œ œ
& œ œ #œ & œ #œ œ œ œ œ
W W H W W W H
œ œ œ œ
& œ œ œ bœ & œ bœ œ œ œ bœ
bœ œ
œ œ #œ #œ œ œ bœ œ œ
& œ #œ #œ & œ œ œ œ
œ bœ bœ œ œ œ bœ
& œ œ bœ bœ & bœ œ œ bœ bœ
& œ œ œ #œ œ & œ bœ bœ œ
œ œ #œ œ œ bœ œ
œ bœ bœ œ œ bœ
& œ #œ #œ #œ œ & bœ bœ
œ #œ #œ
& œ #œ œ œ œ
œ #œ œ
23
INTERVAL NAMES
An interval is the distance between two notes. The smallest interval in Western music is the half step (the distance of one fret on the
guitar). All intervals can be measured by the amount of half steps they contain, but the most common way to identify intervals is to
refer to them by their proper names. The names of the intervals are based on the scale steps of the major scale. Take a look at Fig. 1.
Fig. 1
œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ
& œ œ œ œ œ
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8(1) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8(1)
maj 2nd
major 3rd
perfect 4th
Simple
Intervals perfect 5th
major 6th
major 7th
perfect octave
major 9th
major 10th
Compound
perfect 11th
Intervals perfect 12th
major 13th
major 14th
perfect 15th
Written on the staff are two octaves of the C major scale, with the scale steps written above. The brackets below the staff
measure the major minor
distance between the tonic andperfect diminished
the other notes of the scale. Intervals augmented
major within the first octave ofperfect augmented
the scale are called simple
3rd 3rd 5th 5th 2nd 2nd 4th 4th
4
intervals. Notice that the names of these
& 4 theœ tonic œand theœsecondb œ scale step
intervals
œ
directly
b œ
correspond to the scale steps. For instance, the distance
the distance between the tonic and the thirdœstep is called# aœ major
3rd; etc. Once the octave is reached, higherœ numbers takeœ over. These “beyond
between is called a major 2nd;
œ theœ octave” # œ are œcalled compound
œ intervals œ intervals. In
all cases, the number (2nd, 5th, 7th, etc.) describes the interval quantity (number of scale steps); and the adjective (major, minor,
perfect, etc.) describes the interval quality (number of half steps).
Augmented
Major Perfect
2, 3, 6, 7 1, 4, 5, 8
augmentation diminution
Minor
Diminished
24
augmented diminished
‹œ
5th 5th
∫œ
1345962 INTERIOR.indd 24 2/2/21 11:26 AM
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Syksymmällä saapui Kultarantaan vielä yksi suruviesti.
Kesämatkoilta palaavat kauppiaat tiesivät kertoa, että Kulkija-Helkky
ei saavu tänä syksynä Suomeen. Hän oli lähtenyt Hedebystä
kauppiaitten mukana etelän maille. "Yhden ainoan illan hän viipyi
viime syksynä ja nyt hän ei tule ollenkaan", huokailivat Kultarannan
naiset, ja Impinkin otsalle nousi surunpilvi.
SUOMEN SANKARIT.
*****
*****
"Kuulen kyllä."
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kuljeksivaa laulajaa. Oi, kuinka syvästi hän rakastikaan laulajaansa!
— Sitten tuli aika, jolloin meidän kummankin täytyi lähteä
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kuivuivat kyynellähteetkin silmistäni. Elämä on niin kolkkoa, tyhjää,
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"Oletkin käynyt nyt etelän mailla, Helkky, koska taas laulat siitä
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"Niin minulla oli kerran äiti ja isä, mutta nyt minulla ei ole
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"Samana päivänä!"
Impi oli ollut asialla Käkölässä ja palasi nyt sieltä. Hän kulki lehtojen
läpi kohti Kultarantaa. Linnut lauloivat ja aamuaurinko loi kultaansa
polulle. Impi mietti itsekseen, miten ihmeen hauska oli tämä kevät
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Mistähän sekin mahtoi johtua? Oli tavattoman kaunistakin. Kaikki
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"En."
Koko päivän tuntui Impistä niin hyvältä, kun vihdoinkin oli tullut
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Impin silmissä kaikki pimeni, tuntui ihan kuin olisi maakin vajonnut
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Impistä tuntui, ettei tämä voinut olla totta. Kiharainen pää oli
hänen sylissään ja hän veti sen lähemmäksi, mutta hän ei uskaltanut
aukaista silmiään, sillä hänestä tuntui, että jos hän aukaisisi, niin
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"Hirvoko?"
Ja Impistä tuntui niin herttaisen somalta, kun hän sai kysyä: "Niin
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"Niin, sade siitä nyt tulee, ja minä kun olin ajatellut, ettemme
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"Mitähän se lienee?"