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Intermodal Freight Transportation
About WCTRS
WCTRS (World Conference on Transport Research Society) started in
Rotterdam in 1977 as a forum of bridging transport researchers and practitio-
ners. It is registered as an international academic and non-profit society under
the Swiss Law. WCTRS provides a forum for the interchange of ideas among
transport researchers, managers, policy makers, and educators from all over the
world, from a perspective which is multi-modal, multi-disciplinary, and multi-
sectoral. The Society has become a primary forum for such international ex-
changes in transportation. It now includes eminent scholars covering all modes
of transport, all approaches from engineering, economics to policymaking as
well as from practice to theory, and all regions from developing, emerging to de-
veloped countries. This “Diversity” with “Cooperative bridging between differ-
ently characterized people” is the most noteworthy “Asset” of WCTRS, which
cannot be found anywhere else in the world. For more information, please visit
www.wctrs-society.com.
Vasco Reis
Research Fellow, Instituto Superior Técnico,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Rosário Macário
Transportation Professor and Research Fellow,
Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa,
Lisbon, Portugal
C-MAT-TPR, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
Elsevier
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Notices
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experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or
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Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
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To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-814464-0
Dr. Vasco Reis is a research fellow at the Instituto Superior Técnico of the
University of Lisbon. His research interests include the real-time integration
and simulation of freight transport systems. He has been involved as executive
director or partner in more than twenty-five national and international R&D
projects. He has published diverse scientific papers in both journals and con-
ferences, besides contributing to several book chapters. He is a member of the
Freight and Logistics Committee of the European Transport Conference, as
well as member of Transport Research Board’s Intermodal Transfer Facilities
Committee. He is an Editorial Board Member of Elsevier’s Case Studies on
Transport Policy.
xi
Preface
xiii
Chapter 1
FIG. 1.1 Evolution of management techniques. (Adapted from Hesse, M., Rodrigue, J.-P., 2004.
The transport geography of logistics and freight distribution. J. Transp. Geogr. 12(3), 171–184.
doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2003.12.004.)
the focus of the supply chain moved closer toward customers. Customers’ needs
and expectations now drove all changes throughout the firms’ internal and ex-
ternal linkages.
The 1990s were also characterized by profound and rapid technological
developments, of which the Internet is undoubtedly the most important. The
Internet, which had taken its first steps in the previous decades, now began its
rapid worldwide growth. Specific protocols of communication and electronic
data interchange were developed and implemented, resulting in the complete
electronic integration of the supply chains. The consequences were immediate
and immense. Sales, stocks, transport, and production rhythms became visible
almost instantaneously. Production and distribution could be adjusted to actual
consumer demands and did not need to be forecast. Stocks could be further
streamlined, as the actual patterns of consumption and transport were known.
Inefficiencies could be spotted and corrected.
The 2010s marked the beginning of the so-called 4th Industrial Revolution,
which is characterized by significant technological developments, which began to
blur the lines between the physical, digital, and biological domains—collectively
these are referred to as cyber-physical systems. Several technological break-
throughs have been achieved, such as robotics, artificial intelligence, nanotech-
nology, quantum computing, biotechnology, the Internet of Things, blockchain,
fifth-generation wireless technologies (5G), additive manufacturing, 3D printing,
and or fully autonomous vehicles. Parallel to this, the progressive digitalization
of societies and economies is leading to new trends in automation and data ex-
change, with the development of new business and market opportunities, such as
e-commerce and the shared economy.
Today, the production processes in industry involve a multiplicity of firms
located in different countries (and continents), all committed to the production
and sale of the final product. Goods are transported successively between these
actors, from the source (the raw material) to the finished product; at each level,
value is added to the product. The establishment of these relationships among
all partners of a logistics chain has led to the development of the concept of
Supply Chain Management (Fig. 1.1). Supply Chain Management encompasses
all firms as a unified “virtual business” entity.
Despite the importance of Supply Chain Management in today’s indus-
trial sector, no single definition of Supply Chain Management has yet been
established. Mentzer and his colleagues (2001) have defined Supply Chain
Management as the systemic, strategic coordination of the traditional business
functions and the tactics across these business functions within a particular
company and across businesses within the supply chain, for the purposes of im-
proving the long-term performance of the individual companies and the supply
chain as a whole.
One may, hence, consider that Supply Chain Management refers to the man-
agement of all actors involved in the production and distribution of a given
product, having the aims of optimization of the system and maximization of
4 Intermodal Freight Transportation
the benefits for the overall Supply Chain—even if this means that some ac-
tors do not see maximization of their benefits. The concept of Supply Chain
Management has been used to describe three different purposes: (1) the pur-
chasing and supply activities of manufacturers; (2) transport and logistics func-
tions of the merchants and retailers; and (3) all value-adding activities (from the
raw materials extractors to the end users, including recycling).
Supply Chain Management is a complex activity (Fig. 1.2). It includes a
wide array of activities, such as marketing, sales, research and development,
forecasting, planning, production, assembly, purchasing, logistics, information
systems, finance, and customer service. A considerable set of flows move up
and downstream in terms of the agents in the supply chain, including products,
services, information, financial resources, demand, or forecasts (Tan, 2001).
The goals of Supply Chain Management include to achieve customer satisfac-
tion by providing greater value for money, in order to secure a competitive ad-
vantage over other supply chains.
It is important to note that one of the activities of Supply Chain Management
is logistics. Again the literature is populated with definitions. Accordingly to
the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (2014), logistics is that
part of the Supply Chain Management that plans, implements, and controls the
efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and
related information between point of origin and point of consumption in or-
der to meet customers’ requirements. Christopher (2011) defines logistics as
FIG. 1.2 Activities of Supply Chain Management. (Adapted from Mentzer, J.T., DeWitt, W.,
Keebler, J.S., Min, S., Nix, N.W., Smith, C.D., Zacharia, Z.G., 2001. Defining supply chain manage-
ment. J. Bus. Logist. 22(2), 1–25. doi:10.1002/j.2158-1592.2001.tb00001.x.)
Forces shaping the freight transport sector Chapter | 1 5
FIG. 1.3 Hierarchical location of transport. (Adapted from Rodrigue, J.-P., 2012. Supply chain
management, logistics changes and the concept of friction. In: Hall, P., Hesse, M. (Eds.), Cities,
Regions and Flows, vol. 270. Routledge, Oxon.)
6 Intermodal Freight Transportation
a. The concept and properties of road transport are discussed in Section 2.2.
Forces shaping the freight transport sector Chapter | 1 7
blockchain technology, which has been used to track and trace goods, along
the tens or hundreds of suppliers within a supply chain, in a reliable and
secure way. Key trends include automation of vehicles in all modes of trans-
port (e.g., drones); high-capacity communication systems (e.g., 5G); stan-
dardization of loading units (i.e., containers and swap bodies) for transport
operations, which is fundamental for ensuring and enhancing transport ef-
ficiency—not only does it result in the acceleration of transhipping proce-
dures (requiring less labor and less time), but it also better protects goods
against adverse weather conditions or illicit acts; increase of capacities in
intercontinental transport, through the development of larger ships; automa-
tion of warehouses and in-house transport, through the increasing utilization
of robots and autonomous vehicles.
● Economic drivers—relates to the development of world and regional econo-
mies and the increasing sophistication of economic and financial markets
worldwide. Key trends include growth in the economic well-being of world
regions; the increasing dependence of international and national trade pat-
terns on intergovernmental agreements; the emergence of economic mega
hubs (i.e., the high concentration and specialization of industries and ser-
vices) in certain regions around the world; and the progressive replacement
of humans by machines and robots in certain manufacturing industries.
● Environmental drivers—relates to the growing awareness for environmental
protection and sustainable development. Albeit at different paces and lev-
els of commitment, governments worldwide are gradually acknowledging
the negative impact of human activity on our planet, including depletion of
natural resources, emission of greenhouse gases, and changes in weather
patterns. The European Union, in particular, has adopted very clear and am-
bitious strategic objectives regarding environmental protection. By way of
example, for 2020, the European Union has set three key targets: a 20%
cut in greenhouse gas emissions (from 1990 levels), achieving 20% of EU
energy from renewables, and a 20% improvement in energy efficiency. This
must be further improved upon by 2030 as follows: at least a 40% reduc-
tion in greenhouse gas emissions (from 1990 levels), at least a 27% share
for renewable energy, and at least a 27% improvement in energy efficiency.
Despite the targets, at the European Union level, emissions continue to grow;
between 1990 and 2016, the emissions generated by the transportation sec-
tor chapter increased by 18%, while international aviation and international
navigation grew 113% and 22%, respectively.
● Political drivers—relates to the changes in the regulatory and political envi-
ronment both at national and international levels. Traditionally, governments
have regulated their national transport chapter tightly, as it was regarded
essential to economic development and social cohesion, and a cornerstone
of independence and sovereignty. That tradition is still very visible in in-
ternational aviation and shipping, which are largely dependent on bilateral
and multilateral agreements. A major political trend has been the gradual
Forces shaping the freight transport sector Chapter | 1 9
system with a hub and satellite parcel networks (as goods are now packaged
individually, which results in smaller flows). The increase in direct delivery
favors freight integrated carriers, as it involves the door-to-door transport of
multiple small parcels to different destinations. When companies decide to
outsource their transport, the logistic service providers are also capable of
offering such services.
● Wider geographical sourcing of suppliers and wider distribution of finished
products—Over recent decades, companies enjoying growing freedom have
expanded the geographic scale of their sourcing and distribution operations.
This has resulted in a lengthening of the transport links and, consequently,
in an increase of the transport costs. However, this has been compensated by
the growing value of the goods to be transported (there has been the emer-
gence of a new generation of high-value manufactured products) for which
the transport costs are less important; the location of manufacturing in low-
cost labor locations; and a continuous decrease in international transport
costs due to overcapacities, the relaxation of legal barriers, and technologi-
cal advances.
● Growth in nominated same-day deliveries and timed deliveries—By oper-
ating a nominated day delivery system, firms can achieve higher levels of
transport efficiency, as they force customers to adhere to an ordering and
delivery timetable. Moreover, the concentration of deliveries in particular ar-
eas on particular days enables suppliers to achieve higher levels of load con-
solidation, drop density and vehicle utilization, and significant reductions in
traffic levels. Along with nominated day delivery, the scheduling of freight
movement has become more tightly disciplined owing to the introduction of
timed delivery at factories, warehouses, and shops.
● Circular supply chains and logistics—in opposition to the traditional des-
ignation of “linear supply chain and logistics” in which goods flow from an
origin to a destination, modern supply chains and logistics are increasingly
looking to the recycling and utilization of used products as raw materials.
The reutilization of used products and materials is also known as reverse
logistics. Reverse logistics involves the return movement of product back
along the supply chain. In developed countries, an increasing proportion of
end-of-life products and packages is being returned for recycling and re-
use, due to environmental considerations (growing awareness of societies
and governments with respect to the environment and the use of resources).
Given that legal requirements oblige producers and distributors to take back
the end-of-life product and packaging, they tend to use the existing distribu-
tion channels, thus not introducing any major changes in transport patterns.
It must be said, however, that the effect of recycling on freight transport
levels at the European level has not yet been properly investigated. Waste
usually tends to be of low value, with transport representing a large propor-
tion of the selling value.
Forces shaping the freight transport sector Chapter | 1 11
References
Bayly, C., 2004. The Birth of the Modern World, 1780-1914, first ed. Blackwell, Oxford, England.
Christopher, M., 2011. Logistics and Supply Chain Management. Financial, Pearson.
Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals, 2014. CSCMP’s Definition of Logistics Man-
agement. http://cscmp.org/about-us/supply-chain-management-definitions.
Janic, M., 2007. Modelling the full costs of an intermodal and road freight transport network.
Transp. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ. 12 (1), 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2006.10.004.
Mentzer, J.T., DeWitt, W., Keebler, J.S., Min, S., Nix, N.W., Smith, C.D., Zacharia, Z.G., 2001. Defining
supply chain management. J. Bus. Logist. 22 (2), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2158-1592.2001.
tb00001.x.
Tan, K.C., 2001. A framework of supply chain management literature. Eur. J. Purch. Supply Man-
age. 7 (1), 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-7012(00)00020-4.
Technical University of Berlin, 2002. SULOGTRA—Final Publishable Report.
Further reading
Hesse, M., Rodrigue, J.-P., 2004. The transport geography of logistics and freight distribution.
J. Transp. Geogr. 12 (3), 171–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2003.12.004.
Lee, H., Padmanabhan, V., Whang, S., 1997. The bullwhip effect in supply chains. Sloan Manage.
Rev. 38 (3), 93–102.
Rodrigue, J.-P., 2012. Supply chain management, logistics changes and the concept of friction. In:
Hall, P., Hesse, M. (Eds.), Cities, Regions and Flows. vol. 270. Routledge, Oxon.
Chapter 2
Shipper
Nonintegrated transport service
Terminal
Terminal
Border
Exporter Customs
authorities
Transport Leg 3
company
Receiver
that transport agents have to attempt to navigate through. The following are just
some of the conventions established for the various modes of transport:
● Road transport—the Convention on the Contract for the International
Carriage of Goods by Road (CMR), signed in 1965, regulates the liability in
a contract for the carriage of goods by road in vehicles for reward when the
place of initial reception of the goods and the place designated for delivery,
as specified in the contract, are situated in two different countries, of which
at least one is a contracting party to CMR;
● Air transport—the Warsaw Convention, signed in 1929, regulates liability in
the international carriage of persons, luggage or goods performed by aircraft
for reward;
● Rail transport—the Convention concerning International Carriage by Rail,
signed in 1980, which deals with international rail transport law (passenger
and freight traffic), the carriage of dangerous goods, contracts for the use
of vehicles, contracts for the use of railway infrastructure, the validation
of technical standards and adoption of uniform technical specifications for
railway equipment, the removal of obstacles to the crossing of frontiers in
international rail transport and participation in the preparation of other inter-
national conventions concerning rail transport;
● Sea transport—United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International
Carriage of Goods Wholly or Partly by Sea (or the Rotterdam Rules), signed
in 2009, which establishes a uniform legal regime governing the rights and
obligations of shippers, carriers, and consignees under a contract for door-
to-door shipments that involve international sea transport;
● Multimodal transport—the United Nations Convention on International
Multimodal Transport of Goods, signed in 1980, establishes a uniform
legal regime (e.g., on documentation, liability, claims and actions, or cus-
toms) governing multimodal shipments that involve more than one mode of
transport.
With the aim of minimizing the uncertainty associated with different in-
terpretations of the various national and international laws, the International
Chamber of Commerce drew up a set of commercial terms and contracts for
commercial transaction or procurement. These are referred to as INCOTERMS
or International Commercial Terms. INCOTERMS define the tasks, costs, and
risks involved in the transport and delivery of the goods of the consignor and
consignee. The first INCOTERMS were published in 1936. The current ver-
sion dates from 2010 and is the eighth version. Today, INCOTERMS contracts
are recognized by many governments, legal authorities, and transport agents
worldwide.
A total of 11 terms are considered in the current version of INCOTERMS.
Each INCOTERM is designated by a three-letter code (Fig. 2.2) and indicates the
limits of liability of the consignor [in blue (dark gray in print version)] and con-
signee [in green (light gray in print version)]. The terms take into consideration
Understanding the freight transport sector Chapter | 2 17
FIG. 2.2 INCOTERMS 2018. (Adapted from International Chamber of Commerce, 2018.
Incoterms® 2018. https://iccwbo.org/.)
a wide spectrum of liability coverage, ranging from cases in which the con-
signee is the responsible for the entire transport (INCOTERM EXV) to those
where the consignor is the responsible for only one stretch (INCOTERM DDP).
The most commonly used INCOTERMS agreements are FOB (Free on
Board) and CIF (Cost, Insurance, and Freight). The main difference between
these two lies in who is responsible for the goods during the transit legs. In
CIF agreements, it is the seller who assumes insurance and other costs, includ-
ing liability and costs associated with transit operations up until the goods are
delivered to the buyer. Interpretation of the term final delivery may vary: in
18 Intermodal Freight Transportation
some cases it is the port of destination, in others it is when the goods are in the
effective possession of the buyers. In FOB agreements, the responsibility of the
seller ceases the moment the goods are shipped, i.e., in technical terms, they
have “passed the ship’s rail.” The buyer assumes all liability and this enables it
to negotiate cheaper prices for transport and insurance choosing a forwarder of
his choice. A well-known strategy within the international trader community is
to buy FOB and sell CIF.
Language: Portuguese
CÔRTE NA ALDEIA
E
noites de inverno
por
volume ii
16.ª serie—numero 63
LISBOA
COMPANHIA NACIONAL EDITORA
successora de david corazzi e justino guedes
40—Rua da Atalaya—52
FILIAES: Praça de D. Pedro, 127, 1.º andar, PORTO
38, rua da Quitanda, Rio de Janeiro
1890
LISBOA
typographia da companhia nacional editora
309, Rua da Rosa, 309
1890
INDICE
CÔRTE NA ALDEIA
E
NOITES DE INVERNO
DIALOGO IX
da pratica e disposição das palavras
(Continuação)
—De maneira (disse D. Julio) que temos averiguado que falar
vulgar, e propriamente, é falar bem: e na verdade, da boa linguagem
a principal parte é a clareza; e o mais d’ella consiste em fugir d’esses
atoleiros. Mas ainda eu tenho por peior de todos o da prolixidade, de
cujas partes se tocou o principal na noite passada.—Ha muitos
homens (proseguiu Leonardo) tão palavrosos, que vos não deixam
tomar carta na conversação; e são tão amigos de levarem um
comprimento até o fundo, que nem com o silencio vos defendeis dos
seus; e é vicio, de que se ha de fugir como de peste da discrição. E
já me occorreu por que razão chamariam aos faladores paroleiros,
ou homens de parola; que posto que a phrase seja italiana, lhe acho
uma mais secreta galanteria; e é que, como a lingua de Italia é mais
copiosa, ornada, e comprida nas razões; aos que na nossa falam
muito, áquella semelhança chamaram homens de parola, como se
lhe chamaram italianos.—Boa está a derivação (tornou o fidalgo)
porém vamos á brevidade, que eu me não atrevera a culpar, se
agora vos não ouvira.—Não sou eu o primeiro (respondeu elle) que o
disse; que já o poeta se queixou que quando queria ser breve ficava
escuro. E verdadeiramente a pratica comprida não a comprehende a
memoria; e a mais breve do necessario cega o entendimento; e ha
muitos, que, por abreviarem o que dizem, não declaram o que
querem: que posto que a brevidade seja louvada, e por ella se
avantajassem os laconicos na linguagem dos outros gregos, o
cortezão nem ha de dizer as cousas em tres palavras, nem em
trezentas.—Dizeis bem como em tudo (accudiu o doutor) que ha
alguns, que, por quererem atar tudo em um feixe (como disse o
proverbio) desconcertam o que com poucas palavras mais podia ser
bem dito: e muito se me parece esse erro de abreviar com o de
enfeitar as palavras, que é como perder um por carta de menos,
outro por a ter de mais. Posto que o mesmo vicio (proseguiu elle) se
tratou a noite que falámos das cartas, não o deixarei passar agora
sem outra lembrança, porque é um trabalho não sómente escusado,
mas odioso, que a pratica artificiosa embaraça aos que sabem
pouco, e não agrada mais ao discreto, e serve de nevoa para as
cousas que se tratam; que com o ornamento das razões se perde
muitas vezes o sentido principal d’ellas: e é tão culpavel o feitio, que
n’isso se perde, como o que as mulheres usam em desmentir as
graças da natureza com fingida formosura, que nunca aos bem
entendidos pode parecer verdadeira. E deixando esta parte,
passemos á principal, e que mais pertence ao discreto, que é não se
descuidar com a confiança; porque ha muitos, que de confiados em
sua sufficiencia, falam por si, e não pesam as palavras com o receio,
que para bem ha de ser sempre a balança d’ellas. E assim hora
dizem algumas pouco decentes á honestidade da conversação;
outras, escandalosas a algum dos ouvintes; outras, que, por serem
fóra de tempo, perdem o logar, e elle na opinião dos que escutam o
que com muitos outros tem alcançado.
O primeiro descuido da confiança, e o que fica mais em
descredito do cortezão, é quando entre mulheres principaes usa de
algumas palavras que ou no som ou na materia, offendam a
honestidade de seu estado; culpa, em que cahem muitos confiados,
mórmente nas visitas de desposorios e nascimento de filhos, e em
outras semelhantes, em que é mais necessario ao discreto as redias
na mão, porque elle não perca os estribos e a ellas se não mude a
côr. E tambem sou de opinião que antes fuja de dizer algumas
cousas que de lhes mudar o nome, como chamar ás pernas
sustinentes ou andadeiras; porque, nomeando estas partes das
mulheres deante d’ellas, não é cortezia.—Parece (perguntou
Pindaro) que nomeando logo as pernas dos homens não será erro,
ainda que seja deante d’ellas?—Não (respondeu elle) porque nas
mulheres é parte occulta, e nos homens manifesta; e o trajo de cada
um ensina esta cortezia: e muitos ha, que, de escrupulosos n’ella
dão em disparates: como me contaram ha pouco de um mestre de
grammatica, que, desculpando-se um discipulo seu que não viéra ao
estudo, porque aquelle dia parira sua mãe, o mandou castigar,
dizendo que em publico não se haviam de falar palavras mal soantes
á honestidade. E outros, que fazem cortezia de mudarem os nomes
ás cavalgaduras, e por se desencontrarem de um asno, darão mil
rodeios.—N’iso tem elles muita razão (acudiu D. Julio) porque não vi
eu peior azar que esse encontro. E devia de ser inventada esta
maneira de cortezia, por não nomearem asno deante de algum que
o parecesse, por guardar a advertencia do rifão, em casa de ladrão
não lembrar baraço: sendo assim, que nos animaes nojentos, e as
sevandijas nomeam por o seu nome, ainda que isto não usára eu
entre donas e damas delicadas, a quem com menos occasião se
enoja o estomago.—Mui bem trazida está essa lembrança (proseguiu
Leonardo) e continuando com as outras, me parece que o segundo
descuido é quando o discreto fala, ou allega latins entre pessoas que
o não sabem, ou que não tem obrigação de o entender, como são
mulheres: ou conta deante d’ellas historias da India, ou de outras
regiões remotas, onde esteve, dizendo as cousas com muitas
palavras dos nomes proprios d’aquellas partes; que ha alguns, que
em colhendo na pratica Ormuz, Malaca ou Sofala, não sabem dar um
passo sem palanquins, bajús, catanas, bois, larins e bazarucos; e
outras palavras, que deixam em jejum o entendimento dos ouvintes,
sem os seus por isso ficarem melhor acreditados. O ultimo descuido
e mais perigoso, é que motejando em materia que possa offender a
terceiro, não advirta, antes de falar, se está na presença a quem
toque por sangue ou amizade a offensa que se faz ao ausente, ainda
que seja em materia leve; ou se está alli outro do mesmo estado de
que se murmura, do mesmo cargo, vicio ou costume; que, não
tendo esta vigilancia, lhe poderia nascer da sua graça uma resposta.
—Pois se offereceu (disse D. Julio) falardes em graça, dando côr de
que na murmuração se acha mais certa, estimarei saber que é o que
chamam sal os discretos, que é um termo de falar muito ordinario
entre elles.—A resposta d’isso (tornou Leonardo) está por conta do
doutor, que parecem esquecidos da noite passada: com elle o haveis
de haver; que eu vou já dando fim ao que me cahiu em sorte.—Sou
contente (disse o doutor) de me chamardes por parte n’esta
pergunta do sr. D. Julio por o servir a elle, e dar occasião a Solino de
saber a vantagem que n’isso nos tem a todos. Primeiramente o sal,
a quem um auctor chamou conducto de todos os outros, é o que dá
sabor, e faz appetite ao desejo para todos elles.—Muito se parece
n’isso com a fome (acudiu Solino).—Assim é (disse o doutor) porém
tem demais que os conserva e sustenta com sua força; pelos quaes
attributos Homero e Platão chamaram ao sal divino: e assim como
os mantimentos sem elle não obrigam a vontade; assim tambem por
elle (como disse Plinio) significamos os effeitos do animo; chamando
homem sem sal, pratica sem elle, riso em sosso, e ainda formosura
sem sal, como escreveu Catullo, de Quincia que pintando-a formosa,
branca e comprida, diz que em toda aquella figura não havia uma
pedra de sal. De maneira que, conforme a este sentido, o sal é uma
graça, e composição da pratica, do rosto ou do movimento do andar,
que faz as pessoas apraziveis. E esta, segundo alguns,
particularmente se declara no que obriga a riso e alegria, com um
modo de murmuração leve. D’onde Seneca disse que o sal da
conversação dos amigos não havia de ter dentes: e assim como os
mantimentos que tem mais sal, fazem maior sede a quem os come;
assim a conversação que tem mais d’elle, é mais appetitosa e
desejada dos ouvintes: e como sem sal todas as iguarias são
semsabores e desgostosas, assim a pratica onde a sua graça falta, é
puro fastio. Porém, quanto a mim, o que da tenção d’estes auctores
convém mais com o seu modo de falar, sal quer dizer graça, que é o
contrario da frieza e semsaboria: e dizemos do gracioso que é
salgado; e do bemdito que tem muito sal, e do que o não é, que não
tem nenhum.—Porque razão (perguntou Feliciano) sendo o sal cousa
tão excellente, os egypcios não queriam usar d’elle em nenhum
mantimento, e até o amassavam sem sal, tendo-o por inimigo?—Os
egypcios o faziam (respondeu elle) por lhes parecer que observavam
n’isso a castidade, attribuindo á virtude do sal a fecundidade e o
appetite carnal, por razão do calor, a cujo respeito fingiram os
poetas que Venus nascera do sal, que é da espuma marinha; e
alguns naturaes disseram que só com comerem e usarem muito do
sal, concebiam alguns animaes. Outro auctor diz que os egypcios o
faziam por sobriedade e abstinencia, tirando o sabor e gosto ás
iguarias, em lhe não deitarem sal: mas a verdade é que, se elles o
tinham por inimigo da vida, não ha cousa n’ella mais saborosa:
porque as duas cousas que a sustentam, como escreveu um auctor
grave, são sal e sol: e ainda depois da morte o sal conserva os
corpos sem corrupção e os sustenta inteiros sem deixar apartar os
membros da sua compostura: por as quaes propriedades o fizeram
os antigos symbolo da amizade (como diz Pierio Valeriano nos seus
jeroglificos) que ella, assim como o sal, tempera todas as cousas da
vida entre os humanos. E a primeira cousa que se punha aos amigos
na mesa era o sal; costume que ainda agora se usa, posto que se
não saiba em muitas partes a razão d’elle; nem a porque se enojam
e enfadam os hospedes, de se derramar o sal pela meza; que n’este
nosso reino querem fazer particular agouro dos Mendoças, sendo a
causa geral: porque lhes parecia aos antigos que se apartava e
perdia a amizade, entornando-se o sal, que na mesa fazia a figura
d’ella. E á semelhança tinham por boa sorte derramar-se o vinho,
que, como era symbolo da alegria e contentamento, desejavam que
entre todos se espalhasse. Com isto tenho dito do sal o que me
perguntastes, posto que, para lhe dar mais solidos louvores, o
pudéra levar á Escriptura Sagrada, onde não só significa
confederação e amizade, mas por elle se entende a doutrina
evangelica; e aos mesmos apostolos e prégadores d’ella chama
Christo sal. E pois para falar d’este tomei mais tempo do que
quizera, é bem que vos deixe livre este, que fica, para que todos nos
aproveitemos de vos ouvir.—Pouco pudéra eu dizer (respondeu
Leonardo) se não fosse acostado á vossa erudição e auctoridade. E
do sal me não fica outra cousa que advertir mais, que haver-se de
maneira com elle o cortezão que não seja a pratica toda de graças,
nem sem ella: se não uma certa liga, com que se componha o
galante e o sizudo, que é uma differença, que sempre fiz do
engraçado ao gracioso; porém como isto ha de ser em conformidade
das materias, occasiões e pessoas com que se pratica, não posso
dar a isso regra ordenada. Fica além d’isto que advertir ao discreto a
mecanica geral dos termos, e nomes dos principaes instrumentos
com que se exercitam as artes mais nobres, como a pintura,
esculptura, architectura, arithmetica, astrologia e musica: saber as
peças e os nomes d’ellas, com que se arma um cavalleiro: as que
pertencem ao jaez e arreio de um cavallo: os logares, ordens e
disposição de um esquadrão formado: o maneio militar de uma galé
bogante: os nomes de um edificio bem fabricado, e de uma fortaleza
bem guarnecida: saber a côr e o nome a todas as pedras de valia:
os quilates do ouro; o peso dos metaes, a melhoria d’elles; e outras
cousas semelhantes a estas, que, como andam sempre na praça
ordinaria da conversação, não é justo que faltem ao discreto
palavras, com que mostre que tem conhecimento de todas. Com
estas lembranças me hei por despedido d’esta materia, posto que
fiquem de fóra algumas cousas d’ella, como são contos, historias e
novellas dos cortezãos, e agudeza de ditos; que cada uma pedia
mais compridas horas de pratica: porém com a minha voz tenho a
todos cançados, sem eu ficar ocioso.—O das historias (disse Pindaro)
podeis vós, senhor, dilatar, mas não vos escusareis de as dizer,
mórmente quando pela inculca, que de mim fizestes, me importa
mais que a todos saber o particular d’ellas.—Fiquem essas
guardadas para ámanhã (disse Solino) e se temeis que até então se
damnem, obrigae ao doutor que do muito sal, que aqui lançou, á
minha conta deite n’ellas algum.—Boa lembrança foi (acudiu o
doutor) eu confesso a culpa de não applicar o que disse á vossa
graça e galantaria, que é o sal com que vos convidei, e que a todas
as praticas d’esta nossa conversação faz parecer agradaveis e
saborosas a todo o entendimento.—Vós, senhor doutor, replicou elle,
me tendes feito um saleiro com vossos louvores; e com a vangloria
d’elles não me tenho por seguro no assento de qualquer logar.—Se
entornardes o sal (acudiu Pindaro) não será a primeira vez que
déstes má conta da amizade.—De confiado na minha (tornou elle)
falaes contra o que entendeis d’ella, que mais se acredita nas obras
que nas palavras.—A verdade é (disse Leonardo) que sois bom
amigo, ainda que com muito sal; e que sem encarecimento vos
podiam chamar o mesmo nome.—Ainda (disse elle) me haveis aqui
de converter em sal.—Antes (acudiu Pindaro) no que disse Marco
Varrão que o sal era a alma do porco; e eu sei, e todos da vossa
graça, e ninguem dará fé que tenhaes alma.—Essa (tornou Solino)
está agora no purgatorio de vos ouvir: e porque estes senhores já
com uns bocejos dissimulados dão signaes de que tem necessidade
de repouso, fique a demasia para ámanhã.
Todos então se levantaram mostrando que ainda o faziam com
pouca vontade, porque nas praticas de gosto primeiro cansam os
sentidos, que os desejos.
DIALOGO X
da maneira de contar historias na
conversação