MATH 140 - Final Review

COUNTING
1) How many lists of length 5 can be made from the letters S,T, U, V,W,X, Y,Z, with
(i)repetition is allowed
(ii)repetition is not allowed
(iii) repetition is not allowed and the list must contain S
(iv) repetition is allowed and the list must contain S
Answer:
(i) 85
(ii) 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4
(iii) 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 + 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 + 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 + 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 + 7 · 6 · 5 · 4
(iv) 85 − 75

2) If you toss a coin, roll a six-sided die, and pick a card from a 52-card deck.
(i) How many total outcomes are there?
(ii) How many outcomes where the dice lands on an odd number?
(iii) How many outcomes are there where the dice lands on an odd number and the card is a king?
Answer:
(i) 2 · 6 · 52
(ii) 2 · 3 · 52
(iii) 2 · 3 · 4

3) A student ID is a list of length 8 where the first 4 entries are letters and the last 4 entries
are digits (0-9). How many possible student IDs are there?
Answer: 264 · 104

4) Compute the following:

(i) 4!
7!
(ii)
5!
9!
(iii)
6! 
6
(iv)
 4
8
(v)
5
Answer:
(i) 24
(ii) 42
(iii) 504
(iv) 15
(v) 56

5) How many
 3-element subsets does the set a, b, c, d, e, f, g have?
7
Answer: = 35
3

1 CC BY: Tatyana Khodorovskiy

 6) How many
 5-element subsets does a set with 10 elements have?
10
Answer: = 252
5
7) How many 5-card hands that can be dealt off of a 52-card deck, such that two cards are
clubs and 3 arehearts?
 
13 13
Answer: · = 22, 308
2 3
8) How many 5-card hands that can be dealt off of a 52-card deck, such that two cards are
jacks or higher
 and 3 are not?
16 36
Answer: · = 856, 800
2 3
9) There is a group of 7 physics students and 9 chemistry students. How many ways are to
select a group
 consisting
  of 3 physics students and 3 chemistry students?
7 9
Answer: · = 2, 940
3 3
10) Write the expansion of (x + y)4 .
Answer: x4 + 4x3 y + 6x2 y 2 + 4xy 3 + y 4

11) Write the expansion of (x + 2a)5 .

Answer: x5 + 5x4 (2a) + 10x3 (2a)2 + 10x2 (2a)3 + 5x(2a)4 + (2a)5 = x5 + 10x4 a + 40x3 a2 + 80x2 a3 +
80xa4 + 32a5

3 10
12) What
 is the coefficient of x in the expansion of (5 + x) ?
10
Answer: · 57
3
7 20
13) What
 is the coefficient of x in the expansion of (3 + x) ?
20
Answer: · 313
7
DIRECT PROOFS
14) Show using a direct proof: Prop. If n is an odd integer, then n3 + n is even.
Answer: Proof.
Suppose n is odd, then n = 2k + 1, for some k ∈ Z.
Then n3 + n = (2k + 1)3 + (2k + 1) = 8k 3 + 12k 2 + 6k + 1 + 2k + 1 = 8k 3 + 12k 2 + 8k + 2 =
2(4k 3 + 6k 2 + 3k + 1).
So n3 + n = 2b, where b = 4k 3 + 6k 2 + 3k + 1 is an integer.
By definition, n3 + n must even. 

15) Show using a direct proof: Prop. The sum of two odd integers is even.
Answer: Proof.
Suppose m and n are odd integers.
Then m = 2k + 1 and n = 2l + 1, for some k, l ∈ Z.
Then, m + n = (2k + 1) + (2l + 1) = 2k + 2k + 2 = 2(k + l + 1).
So, m + n = 2b, for b = k + l + 1 an integer.
By definition, the sum of two odd integers, m + n, is even. 

2 CC BY: Tatyana Khodorovskiy

 16) Show using a direct proof: Prop. The sum of any three consecutive integers is divisible
by 3.
Answer: Proof.
Suppose we have 3 consecutive integers: n, n + 1, n + 2.
Then, their sum is n + (n + 1) + (n + 2) = 3n + 3 = 3(n + 1).
So, n + (n + 1) + (n + 2) = 3k, where k = n + 1 an integer.
By definition, the sum is divisible by 3. 

17) Show using a direct proof: Prop. Suppose n, a, b ∈ Z, if n|a and n|(a + b), then n|b.
Answer: Proof.
Suppose n|a and n|(a + b).
By definition, a = nk and (a + b) = nl, for k, l ∈ Z.
We have a + b = nl ⇒ nk + b = nl ⇒ b = nl − nk = n(l − k).
So, b = nx, where x = l − k an integer.
By definition, n|b. 

18) Show using a direct proof: Prop. Suppose a, b, c ∈ Z, if a2 |b and b3 |c, then a6 |c.
Answer: Proof.
Suppose a2 |b and b3 |c.
By definition, b = a2 k and c = b3 l, for some k, l ∈ Z.
Then, we have c = b3 l = (a2 k)3 l = a6 k 3 l = a6 (k 3 l).
So, c = a6 m for m = k 3 l an integer.
By definition, we have a6 |c. 

5x4 + 6x2 − 1
19) Show directly that the function f (x) = is an even function.
x2 + 1
5(−x)4 + 6(−x)2 − 1 5x4 + 6x2 − 1
Answer: f (−x) = = = f (x). Since f (−x) = f (x), then f (x)
(−x)2 + 1 x2 + 1
is an even function.

20) Show directly that the function g(x) = 4x5 − 3x3 + x is an odd function.
Answer: g(−x) = 4(−x)5 − 3(−x)3 + (−x) = −4x5 + 3x3 − x = −(4x5 − 3x3 + x) = −g(x). Since
g(−x) = −g(x), then g(x) is an odd function.

21) Show using a direct proof: Prop. If n ∈ Z, then n3 + 5n + 3 is odd. (Hint: use cases.)
Answer: Proof.
Case 1: Suppose n is even.
Then n = 2k, for some k ∈ Z.
We have n3 + 5n + 3 = (2k)3 + 5(2k) + 3 = 8k 3 + 10k + 3 = 8k 3 + 10k + 2 + 1 = 2(4k 3 + 5k + 1) + 1.
So, n3 + 5n + 3 = 2b + 1, for b = 4k 3 + 5k + 1 an integer.
By definition n3 + 5n + 3 is odd.
Case 2: Suppose n is odd.
Then n = 2m + 1 for some m ∈ Z.
We have n3 + 5n + 3 = (2m + 1)3 + 5(2m + 1) + 3 = 8m3 + 12m2 + 6m + 1 + 10m + 5 + 3 =
8m3 + 12m2 + 16m + 9 = 8m3 + 12m2 + 16m + 9 + 1 = 2(4m3 + 6m2 + 8m + 4) + 1.
So, n3 + 5n + 3 = 2a + 1 for a = 4m3 + 6m2 + 8m + 4 an integer.

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By definition, n3 + 5n + 5 is odd.
Since in both cases, if n is even or n is odd, the number n3 + 5n + 3 is odd, then for all integers n,
n3 + 5n + 3 is odd. 

22) Show using a direct proof: Prop. If n ∈ Z, then n2 is of the form 4k or 4k + 1. (Hint: use
cases.)
Answer: Proof.
Case 1: Suppose n is even.
By definition, n = 2a, for some a ∈ Z.
Then, n2 = (2a)2 = 4a2 .
So, n2 is of the form 4k, where k = a2 , an integer.
Case 2: Suppose n is odd.
By definition, n = 2b + 1, for some b ∈ Z.
Then, n2 = (2b + 1)2 = 4b2 + 4b + 1 = 4(b2 + b) + 1.
So, n2 is of the form 4k + 1, where k = b2 + b an integer.
Since in both cases, if n is even or n is odd, the number n2 is either of the form 4k or 4k + 1, then
for all integers n, the number n2 is of the form 4k or 4k + 1. 

CONTRAPOSITIVE PROOFS
23) Prove by contrapositive: Prop. Suppose n ∈ Z, if 2 - n, then n is odd.
Answer: Proof.
Suppose n is not odd.
Then n must be even, and so n = 2k, for some k ∈ Z.
Then, by definition, 2|n .
So, it is not the case that 2 - n. 

24) Prove by contrapositive: Prop. Suppose n ∈ Z, if 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.

Answer: Proof.
Suppose n is not odd.
Then, n is even, and n = 2k, for some k ∈ Z.
Then 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1).
So, 3n + 2 = 2a, for a = 3k + 1 an integer.
By definition, 3n + 2 is even.
So, 3n + 2 is not odd. 

25) Prove by contrapositive: Prop. If a + b is odd, then a is odd or b is odd.

Answer: Proof.
Suppose it is not the case that a is odd or b is odd.
Then it must be the case that a is even and b is even.
Then, a = 2k and b = 2l, for some k, l ∈ Z.
We have a + b = 2k + 2l = 2(k + l).
So, a + b = 2m, for m = k + l an integer.
By definition, a + b is even.
So, a + b is not odd. 

26) Prove by contrapositive: Prop. Suppose x ∈ R. If x3 − x > 0, then x > −1.

Answer: Proof. Suppose it is not the case that x > −1.

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Then, we have x ≤ −1 ⇒ x + 1 ≤ 0.
We have x3 − x = x(x2 − 1) = x(x − 1)(x + 1).
The first factor x is negative since, x ≤ −1 < 0.
The second factor is negative since x ≤ −1 ⇒ x − 1 ≤ −2 < 0
The third factor x + 1 ≤ 0.
So, x3 − x = x(x2 − 1) = x(x − 1)(x + 1) ≤ 0
We have x3 − x ≤ 0.
Then, it is not the case that x3 − x > 0. 

27) “If f (x) is continuous at x = a, then f (x) is defined at x = a.” Show, using the contrapos-
1
itive of the statement above, that f (x) = is not continuous at x = 2.
x−2
Answer: Since f (x) is not defined at x = 2, then by the above statement it is not continuous at
x = 2.

PROOF BY CONTRADICTION
28) Prove by contradiction: Prop. Suppose n ∈ Z, if n3 + 5 is odd, then n is even.
Answer: Proof.
Suppose n3 + 5 is odd and n is not even.
Then, n must be odd, and n = 2k + 1, for some k ∈ Z.
Then, n3 + 5 = (2k + 1)3 + 5 = 8k 3 + 12k 2 + 6k + 1 + 5 = 8k 3 + 12k 2 + 6k + 6 = 2(4k 3 + 6k 2 + 3k + 3).
So, n3 + 5 = 2b, with b = 4k 3 + 6k 2 + 3k + 3 an integer.
By definition, n3 + 5 is even.
This is a contradiction, since we assumed that n3 + 5 is odd. 

29) Prove by contradiction: Prop. Suppose n ∈ Z, if 3n + 2 is even, then n is even.

Answer: Proof.
Suppose 3n + 2 is even and n is not even.
Then n must be odd, so n = 2k + 1, for some k ∈ Z.
Then, 3n + 2 = 3(2k + 1) + 2 = 6k + 3 + 2 = 6k + 4 + 1 = 2(3k + 2) + 1.
So, 3n + 2 = 2b + 1, for b = 3k + 2 an integer.
By defintion, 3n + 2 is odd.
This is a contradiction, since we assumed that 3n + 2 is even. 

30) Prove by contradiction: Prop. Suppose x ∈ R. There is no solution to the equation

x2 + 3x + 1
= x.
x+3
Answer: Proof.
x2 + 3x + 1
Suppose there is x ∈ R, such that = x.
x+3
Multiplying both sides by (x + 3), we get x2 + 3x + 1 = x(x + 3) ⇒ x2 + 3x + 1 = x2 + 3x.
Subtracting x2 + 3x from both sides, we get 1 = 0.
This is a contradiction. 

31) Prove by contradiction: Prop. Suppose x, y ∈ R If x + y > 5 then either x > 2 or y > 3.
Answer: Proof. Suppose x + y > 5 and it is not the case that x > 2 or y > 3.
Then, it must be the case that x ≤ 2 and y ≤ 3.
We have x + y ≤ 2 + 3 = 5.

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This is a contradiction, since we assumed that x + y > 5. 
a b
32) Prove by contradiction: Prop. Suppose a, b ∈ R+ , then + ≥ 2
b a
Answer: Proof.
a b
Suppose it is not the case that + ≥ 2.
b a
a b
Then, + < 2.
b a
a2 + b 2
We have < 2.
ab
Case 1: Suppose ab > 0, then we can multiply the inequality by ab and get: a2 + b2 < 2ab.
Subtracting 2ab from both sides we get: a2 + b2 − 2ab < 0 ⇒ (a − b)2 < 0.
This is a contradiction since (a − b)2 is always positive.
Case 2: Suppose ab ≤ 0.
Then either a or b must be negative or zero, but we assumed a, b ∈ R+ . 

PROOF BY INDUCTION
33) Suppose you want to show the following statement using induction: “ If n ∈ N and n ≥ 2,
then P (n) : n2 ≥ 2n”. What is the statement P (n + 1) in this case?
Answer: P (n + 1) : (n + 1)2 ≥ 2(n + 1)

34) Prove by induction: Prop. The sum of the first n even integers is n(n + 1)
Answer: Proof.
(1) Basis step: for n = 1, the first even integer is 2, so we have 2 = 1(1 + 1), which is true.
(2) Inductive step: we will assume that P (n) : 2 + 4 + 6 + · · · 2n = n(n + 1) is true and use that to
show P (n + 1) : 2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 2(n + 1) = (n + 1)((n + 1) + 1) is true.
We have 2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 2(n + 1) = 2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 2n + 2(n + 1) = n(n + 1) + 2(n + 1) =
(n + 2)(n + 1) = (n + 1)((n + 1) + 1)
Thus, P (n + 1) is true. 
4n − 1
35) Prove by induction: Prop. 1 + 4 + 42 + · · · + 4n−1 =
3
41 − 1
Answer: Proof. (1) Basis step: for n = 1, we have 1 = , which is true.
3
4n − 1
(2) Inductive step: we will assume that P (n) : 1 + 4 + 42 + · · · + 4n−1 = is true, and use that
3
n+1
4 −1
to show that P (n + 1) : 1 + 4 + 42 + · · · + 4n = is true.
3
4n − 1 4n − 1 3 · 4n
We have 1 + 4 + 42 + · · · + 4n = 1 + 4 + 42 + · · · + 4n−1 + 4n = + 4n = + =
3 3 3
n n n n+1
4 −1+3·4 4·4 −1 4 −1
= = .
3 3 3
Thus, P (n + 1) is true. 

MORE ON PROOFS
36) Consider the following statement: “If n is odd, then 8|(n2 − 1)”. Classify the following
first lines of different proofs, as the beginning of a direct, contrapositive, or contradiction proof:
(i) Suppose 8 - (n2 − 1)...
(ii) Suppose n is odd...

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(iii) Suppose n is odd and 8 - (n2 − 1)...
Answer:
(i) Contrapositive
(ii) Direct
(iii) Contradiction

37) Consider the following statement: “If n ∈ N and 2n − 1 is prime, then n is prime”. Classify
the following first lines of different proofs, as the beginning of a direct, contrapositive, or contra-
diction proof:
(i) Suppose 2n − 1 is prime and n is not prime...
(ii) Suppose n is not prime, ...
(iii) Suppose 2n − 1 is prime, ...
Answer:
(i) Contradiction
(ii) Contrapositive
(iii) Direct

38) Consider the following statement: “Suppose a, b, c ∈ Z. If a2 + b2 = c2 , then a or b is even”.

Classify the following first lines of different proofs, as the beginning of a direct, contrapositive, or
contradiction proof:
(i) Suppose a2 + b2 = c2 ...
(ii)Suppose a and b are both odd...
(iii) Suppose a2 + b2 = c2 and both a and b are odd...
Answer:
(i) Direct
(ii) Contrapositive
(iii) Contradiction

39) Suppose one is asked to prove the statement “Suppose n ∈ Z. If n is odd, then n2 is odd.
Is it correct to prove this by stating that 12 = 1, 32 = 9, and 52 = 25 are all odd? Why or why not?
Answer: No, one needs to prove this statement for all integers n, so it is enough to show that the
statement is true for a few numbers.

40) Consider the statement “If f (x) is differentiable at x = a, then f (x) is continuous at
x = a”. Is the following correct application of that statement: “f (x) = |x| is not differentiable at
x = 0 because f (x) is not continuous at x = 0” ?
Answer: No. Not differentiable does not imply not continuous. Rather, not continuous implies
not differentiable. Also, f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0.

7 CC BY: Tatyana Khodorovskiy