Sustainability 15 15965

sustainability
Article
Land-Use Dynamics and Water Quality in Andean Basins
Diana Marcela Ruiz-Ordóñez 1, * , Yady Tatiana Solano-Correa 1,2 , Rachael Maysels 1 and
Apolinar Figueroa-Casas 1
1 Environmental Research Group, Biology Department, University of Cauca, Popayán 190003, Colombia;
[email protected] (Y.T.S.-C.); [email protected] (R.M.); [email protected] (A.F.-C.)
2 Grupo de Investigación en Física Aplicada y Procesamiento de Imágenes y Señales (FAPIS), Universidad
Tecnológica de Bolívar, Cartagena de Indias 130001, Colombia
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +57-60-2-8209900
Abstract: Conventional agricultural practices, such as the use of agrochemicals, implementation

of monocultures, and the expansion of crops in strategic ecosystems, have significant impacts in
Andean basins, directly increasing nutrient inputs to waterways, and contributing to ecological
fragility and socioeconomic vulnerability. This complex dynamic is related to land-use change and
production activities that affect the provision of hydrological ecosystem services. This study presents
an integrated analysis of socioecological interactions related to water quality in the Las Piedras River
basin (LPRB), a water supply basin located in the Andean region of southwestern Colombia. The
analysis was conducted over a five-year monitoring period to assess the spatiotemporal variation
and correlation of water quality between streams and agricultural runoff water within the LPRB. Fur-
thermore, water quality indices were calculated based on physicochemical and biological parameters
to evaluate the impact of land-use/land-cover changes and agricultural activities within the basin.
Results demonstrate that different types of actors, productive logics, mechanisms of use, and access
to water within the basin affect water quality and uncertainty for water management, while facing
socioecological conflicts between actors.
Keywords: water pollution; agriculture; drinking water; land use/land cover; monitoring
Citation: Ruiz-Ordóñez, D.M.;

Solano-Correa, Y.T.; Maysels, R.;
1. Introduction
Figueroa-Casas, A. Land-Use
Dynamics and Water Quality in
Basins are considered worldwide to be key environmental units regarding the provision
Andean Basins. Sustainability 2023, 15, of goods and ecosystem services (ES), which are vital for community development [1–4]. In the
15965. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Andean region of South America, the widespread application of conventional agriculture
su152215965 (impacting natural resources and thus ES), exposes a contradiction of interests with which
political decisions of human development are managed [5–7]. Sustainable development is
Academic Editor: Jan Hopmans
a common narrative of decision makers but, in practice, basin development projects and
Received: 20 September 2023 policies tend to prioritize profit [8,9]. In Colombia, the implementation of conventional
Revised: 7 November 2023 agriculture extends to strategic ecological zones such as the area between the Andean
Accepted: 8 November 2023 and páramo forests in the southwest region, which are key to hydrological regulation.
Published: 15 November 2023 Such areas represent the recharge and flow regulation zones that are crucial for national
water supply [10,11]. The expansion of conventional agriculture in the region has been
driven by an economic need, thereby increasing crop productivity, primarily with the
use of agrochemicals [12–15]. As such, conventional agricultural production represents
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
one of the main means of income for socioeconomically vulnerable communities in the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
region. However, conventional agriculture is simultaneously one of the main drivers of
distributed under the terms and
biodiversity loss, especially in the Upper Cauca River Basin (UCRB) in Colombia due to
conditions of the Creative Commons
large areas of monocultures [16,17]. Deforestation and degradation rates are also increasing
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// in the UCRB due to the cultivation of intensive and illegal crops [18–21].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Strategies to increase conventional crop production in the region encourage the use of
4.0/). unsustainable practices, such as deforestation, land-use change, intensive tilling on slopes,
Sustainability 2023, 15, 15965. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152215965 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 15965 2 of 24
monocultures with bare soils, overuse of chemical inputs, and others. These practices
deteriorate basins in a systematic way, affecting the quality of life of rural communities,
as well as the water supply for urban areas [22,23]. To address this problem, the literature
focuses independently on the physicochemical, bacteriological, or biological characteristics
of water through the analysis of spatiotemporal variations in water quality [24,25], which
are aligned with policies that aim at guaranteeing water supply in adequate quality and
quantity as well as access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) for citizens around
the world.
While the results from the literature on water quality provide information on the
impacts that are generated, they are not often analyzed under an integral systems frame-
work, leaving a gap in identifying the causes that trigger these effects [26]. For this reason,
a systemic approach is necessary which addresses the complex relationships between
community actors, the socioeconomic activities they carry out, and the ecosystem services
demands within a basin. Under this view, the authors propose a socioecological networks
(SENs) approach, which attempts to understand the views of communities from within the
basin and the dynamics of their productive systems, as well as the relationships among
social and ecological elements that determine water quality [27]. With a SEN, the infor-
mation gathered can then be applied for more integrated water management strategies
and policies.
There has been an increase in the number of publications worldwide which offer an
integrated view connecting productive activities and water quality (WQ), particularly since
2017. For example, Almansa-Manrique (2018) [28], É.F.; Hairani, A. (2020) [29], and M. Lin
Lawell, C.-Y.C. et al. (2018) [30] have used WQ data to analyze the relationships between
water pollution, income, and political institutions [28–30]. Berrios, F. et al. (2018), Meza-
Salazar, A.M. (2020), Mohamamad, A. and Jalal, K.C.A (2020) have studied the community
structure and composition of macroinvertebrates in order to better understand the ecologi-
cal state of rivers [31–33]. Mendieta-Mendoza, A. et al. (2020) and Torti, M.J. et al. (2020)
studied the relationship between nitrogen and phosphates and their mobilization towards
riverbeds [34,35]; Peluso, J. et al. (2020) analyzed WQ considering the concentrations of
metals and pesticides [36] and Aguirre, M.A. et al. (2020) and Esse, C. et al. (2019) studied
the effects of WQ recreational ecosystem services [37,38]. Additionally, there have been
some initiatives and trends in an integrated land (cover) use-based management analysis
to support decision making for sustainable land management and planning with the use of
agent-based land-use models [39], changes in landscape patterns and ecosystem service
value [40–42], and efforts to understand connections between land use and ES supply [43].
In the context of Colombia, only eight papers can be found that address different per-
spectives of WQ; however, this analysis is not from an integrated systems approach [32,37].
Therefore, there is a clear need to develop strategies that consider the integration of ac-
tivities and components that trigger effects on WQ. Such strategies should also consider
SENs [44], because productive activities are directly related with actors’ perspectives and
can contribute to increasing the sustainability and resilience of agricultural systems [45–47].
This study presents a comprehensive understanding of the socioecological dynamics
related to water quality (WQ) in Andean basins of Colombia, where land-use changes and
conventional agricultural practices affect the provision of hydrological ecosystem services,
using a case study in the Las Piedras River basin, located in the UCRB. The impacts
on WQ were analyzed by subzones to differentiate the productive practices that drive
changes in the basin. This includes evaluating the effects on the physical, chemical, and
biological aspects of aquatic ecosystems. In addition, interactions between soil, vegetation,
and climate were considered focusing on the contribution of pollutants from productive
activities. By studying these interactions, we aim to develop a better understanding of how
socioecological factors contribute to fluctuations in water quality within Andean basins.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 26
2. Materials and Methods

2. Materials and Methods
2.1.
2.1.Study
Study Area
Area
TheThe researchpresented
research presentedininthis thispaper
paper focuses
focuses onon the Las
the LasPiedras
Piedras River
RiverBasin
Basin(LPRB),
(LPRB),
located
located within the municipalities of Popayán and Totoró in the department of Caucainin
within the municipalities of Popayán and Totoró in the department of Cauca
southwestern
southwesternColombia. Colombia.The Thecoordinates
coordinates of the basin
of the basin are arebetween
between7676°31′22″ W–2°28′00″
◦ 310 2200 W–2 ◦ 280 0000 N
Nand and76 76°22′10″ W–2°24′23″
◦ 220 1000 W–2 ◦ 240 2300 N,N,as asshown
shownininFigure
Figure1,1,with withanan extension of 6626 hectares
extension of 6626 hectares and
and a yearly mean temperature that varies from
a yearly mean temperature that varies from 8 C in the upper areas ◦8 °C in the upper areasofof the
the basin
basin toto18.4
18.4◦ C
°Cininthe thelower
lowerareas.
areas. TheThe climate
climate is is typically cold and temperate, with a bimodal
typically cold and temperate, with a bimodal rainfall rainfall
regimen.
regimen.The Thetopography
topographyisismountainous
mountainouswith with steep
steep slopes
slopes in the middle
in the middle and andupper
upperareas,
ar-
eas, contrasting with the flat and concave terrains in the lower areas.
contrasting with the flat and concave terrains in the lower areas. The altitude ranges from The altitude ranges
from 1980–3820
1980–3820 m abovem above sea level.
sea level. The The average
average annualannual rainfall
rainfall in lower
in the the lowerareaarea
of theof basin
the
basin
is 1768 is 1768
mm,mm, 1800–2000
1800–2000 mm mmin inthethe middlearea,
middle area,andand2200
2200 mmmm andand above
aboveininthetheupper
upper
area.
area.Towards
Towards thethe
Paramo
Paramo (high Andean
(high Andeanecosystem)
ecosystem) zone, records
zone, exceed
records 2300 2300
exceed mm of mm av-of
erage
average annual rainfall
annual (Arrayanales
rainfall (Arrayanales weather
weatherstation
stationID IDnumber
number 26015040).
26015040). TheThedrydryperiod
period
isistypically
typicallyduring
duringJune,June,July,
July,andandAugust,
August,thetherainy
rainyperiod
periodisisduring
during April
AprilandandOctober
October toto
December,
December,and andthe thetransition
transitionperiod,
period,which
which presents
presents the average rainfall,rainfall, is
is during
duringJanuary
Janu-
ary
to to March
March and andMayMay and and September.
September. TheThe
soilsoil is largely
is largely composed
composed of volcanic
of volcanic ashashandandsilty
silty
clayclay with with
a pH a pH of 5.0–5.9,
of 5.0–5.9, andand highhigh saturation
saturation of aluminum
of aluminum (up(up to 85%)
to 85%) leading
leading to
to poor
poor fertility
fertility [48].[48].
WithWith respect
respect to to water
water availability
availability forforlocal
localcommunities,
communities,there thereisisnono water
wa-
tertreatment
treatment system
system within
within thethe LPRB.
LPRB.
Figure
Figure 1. 1.
MapMapofof
thethe Las
Las Piedras
Piedras River
River Basin
Basin which
which showcases
showcases the
the most
most representative
representative land
land use
use and
and
land
land covers
covers ofof the
the area.
area.
Thestudy
The studyperiod
periodfor forthe
theanalysis
analysisofofagricultural
agriculturalactivities
activitiesand
andtheir
theirrelation
relationtotoWQ WQ
was 2013–2017 at monthly intervals and climatic periods, which were
was 2013–2017 at monthly intervals and climatic periods, which were identified according identified according
totothe
the multiannual
multiannual variation.
variation. Physicochemical
Physicochemical in situ
in situ samples
samples werewere collected
collected forpe-
for the the
period
riod 2013–2017
2013–2017 in order
in order to analyze
to analyze thethe land-cover
land-cover (LC)
(LC) changes
changes observed
observed from
from available
available
remotesensing
remote sensing data
data inin
thethearea.
area.AA total
total ofof twelve
twelve LCLC classes
classes were
were defined
defined (see
(see Figure
Figure 1),1),
with the following breakdown of the LCs that mainly make up
with the following breakdown of the LCs that mainly make up the LPRB (as per 2017): the LPRB (as per 2017):
20.1%dense
20.1% denseforests
forests(1329
(1329ha),
ha),20.7%
20.7%openopen and
and fragmented
fragmented forests
forests (1370ha),
(1370 ha),23.5%
23.5% natural
natural
grasses (1554 ha), and 35.6% pastures (2353 ha). To analyze WQ,
grasses (1554 ha), and 35.6% pastures (2353 ha). To analyze WQ, three monitoring sites three monitoring sites
were selected. These points were selected based on the morphometric
were selected. These points were selected based on the morphometric conditions, land conditions, land
use/land
use/land cover
cover (LULC),
(LULC), productive
productive activities,
activities, and andto to ensure
ensure representation
representation ofof thethree
the three
areas of the basin. The location of these points can be seen in Figure 1 and are represented
areas of the basin. The location of◦these points can be seen in Figure 1 and are represented
by: (1) Puente Alto (PAL): 76 260 5600 W–2◦ 250 2900 N at 2470 m.a.s.l; (2) Diviso (DIV):
by: (1) Puente Alto (PAL): 76°26′56″ W–2°25′29″ N at 2470 m.a.s.l; (2) Diviso (DIV):
76°27′50″
76 W–2°25′57″
◦ 270 5000 W–2 ◦ 250 5700 N at 2290
N at 2290 m.a.s.l;
m.a.s.l; and
and (3)
(3) Puente
Puente Carretera
Carretera (PCA):
(PCA): 76
76°31′02″ W–
◦ 310 0200 W–
2°26′36″
◦ 0 00 N at 1990 m.a.s.l.
2 26 36 N at 1990 m.a.s.l.
2.2.Methods
2.2. Methods
Tocarry
To carryoutoutthe
theanalysis
analysisofofthe
therelationship
relationshipbetween
betweenproductive
productiveactivities
activitiesand
andwater
water
qualityin
quality inthe
theLas
LasPiedras
PiedrasRiver
Riverbasin,
basin,three
threemain
mainsteps
stepswere
werefollowed
followed(Figure
(Figure2).
2).During
During
the first
the first step,
step, the
the2017
2017LULC
LULCmap mapwas wasutilized
utilized to
toperform
perform aaspatiotemporal
spatiotemporal analysis
analysis to
to
detect
detectLULC
LULCchanges
changesover
overthe
thefive-year
five-yearstudy
studyperiod.
period.Next,
Next,aacharacterization
characterizationwaswascarried
carried
out
outofofthe
thesocioecological
socioecologicalnetwork
network(SEN)
(SEN)based
basedononparticipatory
participatoryworkshops,
workshops,ininwhich
whichthethe
objective
objectivewas wasto toidentify
identifythe
therelationships,
relationships,interactions
interactionsand andconflicts
conflictsbetween
betweensocial
socialactors
actors
through
throughthe theagricultural
agriculturaland
andmanagement
managementactivities
activitiesthat
thatthe
theparticipants
participantsprioritize
prioritizein
inthe
the
LPRB. The
LPRB. The last step joins together the findings from steps one and two to analyze
step joins together the findings from steps one and two to analyze the cor- the
correlations
relations and and interactionsbetween
interactions betweenthe theagricultural
agriculturalactivities,
activities, the
the LULC changes andand the
the
WQ
WQitself.
itself. To
Tothis
thisaim,
aim, WQ
WQ waswas analyzed
analyzed at at key
key points
points throughout
throughout the basin (PAL, DIV, DIV,
and
andPCA).
PCA). Further
Further details
detailscan
canbe
befound
foundin inthe
thenext
nextsection.
section.
Figure2.2.General
Figure Generalblock
blockscheme
schemeof
ofthe
thesteps
stepsfollowed
followedto
toanalyze
analyzethe
thecorrelation
correlationbetween
betweenproductive
productive
activitiesand
activities andwater
waterquality.
quality.
2.2.1.
2.2.1.Land-Cover
Land-Coverand andLand-Use
Land-UseChange
ChangeAnalysis
Analysis
The
The relationship between agriculturalactivities
relationship between agricultural and
activities andWQ WQwas determined
was determined by byanalyzing
analyz-
the LULC changes in LPRB. Landcovers were generated from optical remote
ing the LULC changes in LPRB. Landcovers were generated from optical remote sensing sensing data
(from Sentinel-2 and Landsat sensors) and LULC were analyzed from maps
data (from Sentinel-2 and Landsat sensors) and LULC were analyzed from maps of 2008 of 2008 (initial
year) and
(initial 2017and
year) (final2017
year). Cloud-free
(final images were
year). Cloud-free not available
images were notfor available
the entire for
studytheperiod
entire
as there is frequent cloud cover in the area. The LC maps were available
study period as there is frequent cloud cover in the area. The LC maps were available almost yearly
from
almostexisting
yearlyprojects AQARISC
from existing andAQARISC
projects RICCLISA.and Figure 1 showsFigure
RICCLISA. the LC1 map
shows forthe
2017,
LC
where LCs have been grouped in different mosaics due to spatial resolution limitations
map for 2017, where LCs have been grouped in different mosaics due to spatial resolution
from satellite data. Given the extension of the area, and the socioecological complexity of
limitations from satellite data. Given the extension of the area, and the socioecological
the Andean region, three sub-areas of the basin for studying the changes were considered:
complexity of the Andean region, three sub-areas of the basin for studying the changes
upper, middle, and lower. The upper area corresponds to that located between point PAL
were considered: upper, middle, and lower. The upper area corresponds to that located
and the right limit of the basin in Figure 1. The middle area corresponds to that located
between point PAL and the right limit of the basin in Figure 1. The middle area corre-
between the points DIV and PAL in Figure 1. And the lower area corresponds to that
sponds to that located between the points DIV and PAL in Figure 1. And the lower area
located between the left limit of the basin and the point DIV in Figure 1.
corresponds to that located between the left limit of the basin and the point DIV in Figure
Several methodologies can be found in the literature that take into account time as a
1.
variable in order to detect and quantify changes in landcover [49–53]. For the purposes of
Several methodologies can be found in the literature that take into account time as a
this paper, and considering the application at the local level, a methodology suggested by
variable in order
the Colombian to detect
Institute and quantify
of Hydrology, changes in and
Meteorology, landcover [49–53]. For
Environmental the purposes
Studies (IDEAM in of
this paper, and considering the application at the local level, a methodology
Spanish) in its Environmental Information System for Colombia (SIAC in Spanish) [54] was suggested by
the Colombian
used. Institute of
IDEAM formulated Hydrology,
a set Meteorology,
of rules and indicators toand Environmental
be followed for the Studies (IDEAM
characterization
of the ecosystems in Colombia, with a total of 149 indicators for 10 different areas [55–57].
The indicator used in this research falls in the biodiversity area, forests, and LC uses. More
specifically, in the losses in biodiversity and LCs (indicator number 35), corresponding to
multitemporal changes in areas such as páramos and forests, among others. Indicator 35
helps to estimate changes in LC area for a given period using LULC maps. For this research,
classification maps dating from 2008 were obtained following a supervised approach and
by using Landsat images (at 30 m spatial resolution) [58]. A more detailed map (10 m spatial
resolution) was obtained for 2017 from Sentinel-2 sensor [59]. Sentinel-2 was launched in
2015, but data for Colombia is only available starting from early 2017. Thus, no earlier
data was available to perform a detailed analysis for the entire period studied in this
research. Information from both Landsat and Sentinel-2 sensors was used as input for
indicator 35. Validation of the classifications was carried out with in situ data collected
during field work, in collaboration with community leaders in the LPRB. The entire LPRB
and surrounding areas were visited during the field work outings. Additionally, Ground
Control Points (GCPs) and geo-referenced photos were collected with the goal of validating
classification maps. Validation was complemented through social cartography workshops,
in which small farmer organizations participated by following the methodology proposed
by Sarmiento López et al. (2011) [60]. Final classifications accuracy was (on average) around
93% with a kappa factor of 0.92.
Three variables can be calculated from this indicator: (1) the area, (2) the rate, and
(3) the mean annual change. The change in the areas (∆ A ) of each LC corresponds to the
difference between these areas for the initial reference year (2008) and the final year (2017).
Whereas the rate of change is calculated as the percentage of the area of change w.r.t. the
initial area. Finally, the mean annual change is estimated as a simple arithmetic average.
If ∆ A is negative, then there has been a loss of LC for the considered period. Whereas if
∆ A is positive, it means there has been a gain of LC for the considered period. Patterns of
change were analyzed and characterized according to the three variables described above,
with special attention paid to agricultural areas, considering their distinct WQ impact due
to runoff.
2.2.2. Characterization of SENs

The characterization of agricultural activities as part of the SEN of the basin was
carried out by means of participatory workshops with community members and key actors
of the LPRB. Some of the information for the characterization was obtained through specific
projects: (1) “Optimization of business schemes for the aqueduct and sewerage company of
Popayán 2014” (which takes water from the LPRB) and (2) “AQUARISC-vulnerability and
risk in supply systems 2016” [61,62]. These workshops were used to characterize the use
and management of LCs, in particular LCs used for agricultural activities. Utilizing the
characterization results from the previous workshops, four subsequent workshops were
carried out in 2017 to characterize agricultural activities with LPRB communities. One
workshop was held with stakeholders of each sub-area of the basin (upper, middle, lower)
to gather more context-specific information. The final workshop was held that involved
stakeholders from the three sub-areas of the basin to validate the consolidated information
among all the participants. Table 1 shows an example of the questionnaire used during
the agricultural activity characterization workshops (some examples of possible answers
are provided). All the information was collected in two sessions during the workshop by
(i) working by sub-groups and (ii) a plenary discussion of the different sub-groups and
agreement of final answers.
Through the workshops, weather conditions of neutral years were identified among
El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phases considering a 10-year analysis period (2009–
2019), as part of the SEN characterization. Local knowledge regarding historical events was
also gathered during the workshops to identify key milestones (i.e., recall specific events,
occurrences, or situations that may be associated with a particular). This strategy was
used since no detailed information was available from weather stations in the LPRB. Once
the neutral years were identified, the specific variations for each month of the year were
evaluated. This helped to determine rainy and dry months, in contrast to the multi-year
variation as well as the climatic patterns in the area. The next step was to identify the
main agricultural activities carried out in each sub-area throughout the year, indicating the
management practices (i.e., sowing, fertilizing, harvesting) and the impact generated in
relation to the climatic condition (i.e., losses, pests, disease). Additionally, descriptions of
the agricultural practices were provided by participants including the following: size of
cultivated area, size of area dedicated to livestock, type of fertilizers used, management of
soil acidity, soil preparation and planting techniques, rotation, pest management, products
for direct consumption, and products for commercialization. All this information, together
with climate information, was used to build an agricultural activities calendar [63,64].
To highlight the interactions of SENs, a plenary discussion was facilitated during
the workshops to examine how the various actors of the LPRB utilize and engage with
ecosystem services (ES) in the basin The significance of these ES for each key actor and their
corresponding approaches to guarantee water availability for community needs (urban
and rural) were analyzed based on their perspectives and the official planning documents
(developed by law for each territory in Colombia).
Table 1. Template of the questionnaires used during workshops for characterizing productive
activities of LPRB (month by month).
Studied Year and Associated Historical Event

MONTH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Weather Conditions Semi-arid, wet, rainy, dry, windy, hail, others.
AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES TASKS
Preparation of the land, sowing grass, milk production, maintenance of beef cattle and
1. Dual purpose livestock
paddocks, others.
Harvest once weight reaches 250–300 g, commercialization in organic markets, pond
2. Artisanal fish farming (e.g., trout)
maintenance, fish stocking, others.
3. Horticultural crops (e.g., corn, beans, Land preparation, planting, weeding, fertilizing, pest control, harvesting, seed
blackberries, peas) saving, others.
4. Dairy products Permanent production and commercialization
5. Minor species (e.g., hens, guinea pigs, Shelter maintenance, purchasing young of breeding, feeding, monitoring health,
chickens) commercialization, others.
2.2.3. Water Quality Analysis in the LPRB

To determine the relationship between agricultural activities, LULC and WQ in the
LPRB, an analysis of water quality was carried out in the following steps: (a) WQ monitor-
ing in strategic sites using physicochemical and biological parameters, (b) application of
water quality assessment indices, and (c) analysis of surface runoff water.
Water Quality Monitoring in Strategic Sites

In this study, physicochemical and biological parameters were considered and mea-
sured over three strategic sites (see Figure 1) for water quality monitoring. The WQ was
assessed based on correlation of the above parameters along with the variables that they
measure through different indices [65–67]:
• Physicochemical parameters for water monitoring
Water samples for physicochemical analysis (three replicates) were collected manually,
each in a 1 L amber glass container, which were subsequently labeled and refrigerated.
Twelve samples per year (one per month) were collected over a five-year period, for a
total of 60 samples. The collections were carried out in the morning, first in the upper area
of the basin (PAL), then the middle area (DIV), and ending in the lower area (PCA). The
monitoring campaign was designed to be able to map the rainy, dry and transition seasons,
in accordance with the climatic variations in the area.
Samples were sent to a certified laboratory to analyze the following variables: pH,
nitrates (NO3 − ), phosphates (PO4 3− ), biological oxygen demand (BOD5 ), dissolved oxygen,
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), turbidity, and temperature. In situ measurements were taken
with a HACH 40D probe multi-parametric equipment;
• Biological parameters for water monitoring
To calculate biological indices of WQ, two parameters were considered: fecal coliforms
and epicontinental aquatic macroinvertebrates (EAM). To analyze fecal coliforms, the
membrane filtration method was used, which is a valid method according to Colombian
regulations (Ministry of Housing, Decree 2115 of 2007). Sterile jars of 100 mL were used
to collect and keep the samples refrigerated. Three replicates per sub-area were collected.
Processing time was no longer than eight hours from the time of collection to time of
processing in the laboratory. The structure and composition of EAM in the basin was
measured by collecting samples using both manual and net methods. Both parameters
were sampled over a five-year period with 12 samples per year (one per month).
Water Quality Assessment Indices

Physicochemical and biological parameters were correlated according to the water
quality index (WQI) and pollution index (PWI) [68]. These indices evidence the pollution
processes associated with high nutrients and ion concentrations. The effect on the EAM
communities, because of organic pollution, is also indicated. For the physicochemical
parameters, the variables analyzed were those in the National Sanitation Foundation index
(NSF) [68]: pH, nitrates (mg/L), phosphates (mg/L), biological oxygen demand (BOD-
mg/L), dissolved oxygen (mg/L), total dissolved solids (TDS-mg/L), turbidity (NTU), and
temperature (◦ C).
For the biological parameters, the fecal coliform (CFU/100 mL) and the composition
of the EAM community was studied through taxonomic classification at the family level.
The qualitative biotic index biological monitoring working part (BMWP) was applied for
the analysis. BMWP considers the presence or absence of the different aquatic macroin-
vertebrates’ families. To this aim, a score is assigned that determines the tolerance level
to organic pollution. The most sensitive families received a score of 10 [69], while the
most tolerant ones received a score of 1. Other indices used for the analysis were the
ICOMO and ICOSUS. These indices consider the parameters BOD5 (mg/L), fecal coliforms
(CFU/100 mL), dissolved oxygen (mg/L), and TDS (see water quality classification table
from [69] for more details).
Surface Water Runoff Analysis

For the analysis of surface water runoff near areas of agricultural production, runoff
was collected after applying a localized rain simulator, designed by Lobato-Vargas [70].
This tool simulates rain analysis, under controlled conditions and requires to be set up to
produce “fast, reliable, efficient, replaceable, and cost-effective data” [71]. The simulator
emulates rain droplets of about 2.75 mm in diameter, by means of hypodermic needle-like
nozzles (n = 24), distributed in an area of 0.42 m × 0.33 m, with terminal velocities of around
4.0 m/s, and rain kinetic energy of 17.9 J/mm/m [71]. The simulated rain intensity was
calibrated. A calibration, according to climatic conditions and historical rainfall distribution
in the region and the methodology proposed for Andean soils [70,72], was carried out. A
time period of 30 min was chosen for the tests [73], which were performed in the morning
at the same time at each sampling site. A soil sample was collected before the simulation to
analyze initial humidity conditions.
This tool was used on the areas surrounding the riverbed, more specifically on the
three testing points shown in Figure 1 as PAL, DIV, and PCA. Differences in climatic
seasons: rainy (R), dry (D), and transitions (T), were also considered. Once the simulator
was set up, it can be used to collect samples of runoff that consider the different nutrients
going through the soil (particularly nitrates and phosphates) and coming from surrounding
areas with different agricultural activities. These samples were taken to the laboratory and
analyzed with a spectrophotometer to measure nitrates and phosphates concentrations

(in mg/L) [74].
Experimental Design and Correlation Analysis

After obtaining the previously mentioned variables, a statistical analysis was carried
out to understand the correlation between agricultural activities and WQ. The statistical
analysis was performed using the XLSTAT and the Past paleontological statistics software
(Past v.1.44), which included a data analysis with Kruskall–Wallis and Mann–Whitney
tests [75] and unifactorial ANOVA [76] gathering significant differences (p < 0.05) between
the different variables, sites, and climatic periods. A multivariate analysis was also carried
out in order to integrate the main parameters.
3. Results
The results are presented in the same order as the Section 2.2 by directly applying the
process developed in Figure 2.
3.1. Land Cover and Land-Use Change Analysis

The predominant LCs in the LPRB are natural grass (1674 ha) and pastures (1658 ha),
followed by open and fragmented forest (1361 ha) (see Figure 1). The proportion of other
relevant LCs (due to their natural regulatory role in the water cycle) are limited, with bushes
covering 545 ha, riparian forest 253 ha, dense forest 777 ha and páramos 224 ha. Land use
for livestock activities (1658 ha) greatly surpasses the area of land use for crop cultivation
(88 ha) and productive forests (18 ha). Even though all types of LCs have an impact on WQ,
the most pertinent type for the area are those related to agriculture (mosaics). It is important
to clarify that while urban areas may have a larger impact on WQ than agricultural areas,
they are not considered here because the vast majority of the LPRB is rural, except for a
small urban zone surrounding the PAC monitoring point in the lower part of the basin.
It was found that agricultural coverage decreased with the altitudinal gradient in the
basin. For the upper area, there was an increase in agricultural areas coverage of about 2.6%,
going from 0.8% in 2008 to 2.1% in 2017; an increase of 1.5% in the middle area from 5.7%
in 2008 to 8.4% in 2017; while the lower area endured the least transformation (1.3%), going
from 16.1% coverage in 2008 to 21.3% in 2017. Despite the small change in the lower area of
the basin, it continues to be the area with the largest coverage of agricultural land use. The
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
most critical transformation corresponds to the upper area of the basin, where dense9 forest
of 26
and páramos have been replaced by agriculture mosaics as is shown in Figure 3.
Agriculturalareas
Figure3.3.Agricultural
Figure areas(mosaics)
(mosaics)variation
variationininLPRB
LPRBfor
forthe
theanalyzed
analyzedperiod
period(2008–2017).
(2008–2017).
3.2. Characterization of SENs

3.2. Characterization of SENs
As with LULC analysis, agricultural activities were also characterized according to
As with LULC analysis, agricultural activities were also characterized according to
topographic gradient throughout the LPRB in the upper, middle, and lower areas. A calen-
topographic gradient throughout the LPRB in the upper, middle, and lower areas. A cal-
dar was produced for each area of the basin that represents the main agricultural activities
endar was produced for each area of the basin that represents the main agricultural activ-
ities carried out in the LPRB for a neutral ENSO year, according to workshop participants
from the basin.
3.2.1. Agricultural Activities in the Upper Area of the LPRB

carried out in the LPRB for a neutral ENSO year, according to workshop participants from
the basin.
3.2.1. Agricultural Activities in the Upper Area of the LPRB

In the upper area of the basin, participants identified dual-purpose livestock, artisanal
fish farming (trout), horticulture (corn, beans, blackberries), and rearing of minor species
(hens, guinea pigs, chickens) as the main agricultural activities being carried out (Figure 4).
The LULC analysis confirmed that the main agricultural activity of this area is indeed
livestock production. The cultivated area corresponded to 30.8 ha, 23.14 ha of crops,
pastures, and natural spaces mosaic, and 7.66 ha of pastures and crops mosaic.
These activities provide subsistence for inhabitants as well as generate income. Meat
and eggs are obtained from poultry farming, both for subsistence and local trade, whereas
vegetables are used mainly for household subsistence. Commercialization of agricultural
products as well as value-added products such as yogurt are important sources of income
for families in the area working within a small-scale economy model.
Participants documented that organic and chemical fertilizers, as well as pesticide
use during agricultural production. Since the soil is acidic, ash is used to neutralize pH to
allow for better production. It was determined that the soil is worked in a purely manual
manner; crops are not often rotated, and production is kept at a small scale because of
the steep topography and lack of arable land. Recently (since 2018), the area of trout
production was expanded in the Sardinas sector, greatly impacting the WQ of the upper
area. The management of natural LCs was performed by isolating the areas with posts,
usually located in the riverbed’s adjacent areas, or by natural succession. No reforestation
processes were carried out in the area.
Figure
Figure 4. Productive
4. Productive activities
activities calendar
calendar forfor
thethe upper
upper area
area of of
LPRLPR basin
basin onon a neutral
a neutral year
year (i.e.,
(i.e., under
under
normal
normal weather
weather conditions).
conditions).
3.2.2. Agricultural Activities in the Middle Area of LPRB

3.2.2. Agricultural Activities in the Middle Area of LPRB
In the middle area, participants identified the production of cabuya, coffee, corn,
In the middle area, participants identified the production of cabuya, coffee, corn, leg-
legumes, root vegetables, leafy greens, bananas, and fruit trees (blackberry, lulo, tomato,
umes, root vegetables, leafy greens, bananas, and fruit trees (blackberry, lulo, tomato, or-
orange) as the main agricultural activities. It was determined that vegetables are used
ange) as the main agricultural activities. It was determined that vegetables are used
mainly for subsistence purposes as the community in this area does not often carry out
mainly for subsistence purposes as the community in this area does not often carry out
transformation of value-added products (Figure 5). As in the upper area, the inhabitants
transformation of value-added products (Figure 5). As in the upper area, the inhabitants
of the middle area subsist on a model of a small-scale economy. This corresponds to the
of the middle area subsist on a model of a small-scale economy. This corresponds to the
LULC analysis to an extent in that 8.07 ha is classified as cultivated area 0.56 ha of crops,
pastures, and natural spaces mosaics, 8.52 ha is classified as mosaic pastures and crops
mosaic, and 8.99 ha planted forest pine. This indicates that the communities living within
this area are not those who are carrying out livestock and/or pine tree production.
this area
Duearetonot
thethose
low who areconditions
fertility carrying out
of livestock
the soils,and/or pine tree
both organic andproduction.
chemical fertilizers
areDue to the
applied in low fertility
the area. Likeconditions
the upperofarea,
the the
soils, both
soil organic
acidity and chemical
is corrected fertilizers
with the ancestral
are applied in the area. Like the upper area, the soil acidity is corrected with the ancestral
use of ash to “heat the soil”. Soil preparation is mostly manual, and mechanical activities
performed by animals are less frequent. Crop rotation is not frequently practiced due to
lack of arable land, but agricultural activities were alternated with livestock, allowing the
soil to rest by planting crops that require shorter growth period. A total of three harvests
this area are not those who are carrying out livestock and/or pine tree production.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 15965 Due to the low fertility conditions of the soils, both organic and chemical fertilizers 10 of 24
are applied in the area. Like the upper area, the soil acidity is corrected with the ancestral
use of ash to “heat the soil”. Soil preparation is mostly manual, and mechanical activities
performed
use of ash toby“heat
animals
the are lessSoil
soil”. frequent. Crop is
preparation rotation
mostlyismanual,
not frequently practicedactivities
and mechanical due to
lack
performed by animals are less frequent. Crop rotation is not frequently practiced due to the
of arable land, but agricultural activities were alternated with livestock, allowing lack
soil to restland,
of arable by planting crops that
but agricultural requirewere
activities shorter growthwith
alternated period. A totalallowing
livestock, of three the
harvests
soil to
per
restyear were produced
by planting crops thatover 3 years
require per land
shorter parcel.
growth Corn,Atomato,
period. total ofcoriander, peas,per
three harvests beans,
year
grapes, flowers, over
were produced banana, mango,
3 years and avocado
per land are mostly
parcel. Corn, tomato,produced
coriander,for commercial
peas, pur-
beans, grapes,
poses.
flowers,The management
banana, mango,and andprotection
avocado are of natural LCs was carried
mostly produced out through
for commercial reforesta-
purposes. The
tion following natural succession patterns and planting native and exotic
management and protection of natural LCs was carried out through reforestation following
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW vegetation spe-
11 of 26
cies. There
natural also exists
succession extraction
patterns and of forest material,
planting native andfarms with
exotic livestockspecies.
vegetation and with natural
There also
protection areas. of forest material, farms with livestock and with natural protection areas.
exists extraction
3.2.3. Agricultural Activities in the Lower Area of the LPRB

In the lower area of the basin, participants identified similar agricultural activities as
those in the middle area including corn, beans, vegetables, peas, and coffee planted during
normal weather conditions (neutral year). However, for a rainy period, coffee, cassava,
and banana are not as successful as vegetable crops (e.g., peas and beans), due to their
resistance to humidity and cold (Figure 6). In this area there were no transformation pro-
cesses for the value-added products identified and most of the crops were sold in markets
in the city of Popayán. In recent years, producers in the area have been participating in
organic markets, strengthening relationships with institutions and increasing direct access
to consumers, which reduces the role of intermediaries and increases farmers’ profits.
It was found that among the anthropic LCs present in the area, there were livestock
pastures
Figure (44.79 ha) and eucalyptus planted forest (44.7 ha). The cultivated area was 187.42
Figure5.5.Productive
Productiveactivities
activitiescalendar
calendarfor forthe
themiddle
middlearea
areaofofLPRB
LPRBononaaneutral
neutralyear
year(i.e.,
(i.e.,under
under
ha, of
normal which 123.13 ha were crops, pastures, and natural spaces mosaic, and 64.29 ha were
normalweather
weatherconditions).
conditions).
pastures and crops mosaic. Unlike the other areas in the basin, organic fertilizers are ap-
plied more
3.2.3. often than
Agricultural chemicalinones,
Activities and many
the Lower Areaproducers
of the LPRB make their own organic ferti-
lizer and pestlower
In the control.
areaIt of
wasthedetermined that cropidentified
basin, participants rotation is practiced
similar based onactivities
agricultural the ideaas
that fertilizers remain in the soil from previous crops and will benefit the
those in the middle area including corn, beans, vegetables, peas, and coffee planted during next cycle. As
such,
normal weather conditions (neutral year). However, for a rainy period, coffee, cassava, to
it was thought that this was the reason why it was possible to sow grass and and
harvest
banana food
are all
notyear round. Permanent
as successful as vegetable crops such
crops as coffee
(e.g., andbeans),
peas and avocado,
duesemi-permanent
to their resistance
(vegetables),
to humidityand andtemporary
cold (Figure crops
6). In(blackberry) arewere
this area there also cultivated in the area.
no transformation The prod-
processes for the
ucts were divided
value-added between
products household
identified andsubsistence
most of theandcropsmarket
were purposes, but only
sold in markets the city
in the sur-of
pluses
Popayán.wereIndestined for the
recent years, latter. The
producers management
in the area have beenof natural soils is
participating in performed by
organic markets,
planting forest, living
strengthening fences orwith
relationships postinstitutions
fences, and and
isolation of water
increasing sources
direct andtonative
access for-
consumers,
estwhich
reserves. Reforestation
reduces the role ofisintermediaries
carried out with andthe supportfarmers’
increases of local institutions.
profits.
Figure
Figure 6. 6. Productive
Productive activities
activities calendar
calendar forfor
thethe lower
lower area
area of of
LPRLPR basin
basin onon a neutral
a neutral year
year (i.e.,
(i.e., under
under
normal
normal weather
weather conditions).
conditions).
It was found that

3.2.4. Socioecological among the
Dynamics anthropic LCs present in the area, there were livestock pas-
Network
tures (44.79 ha) and eucalyptus planted forest (44.7 ha). The cultivated area was 187.42 ha,
The socioecological dynamics of the LPRB are complex due to the diverse range of
actors involved in the use, management, and administration of ecosystem services to guar-
antee water supply for the city of Popayán. Basin actors include the following: (i) indige-
nous communities; (ii) small peasant communities with associated farmers as well as in-
dependent farmers; and (iii) community and governmental institutions. They all have dif-
of which 123.13 ha were crops, pastures, and natural spaces mosaic, and 64.29 ha were
pastures and crops mosaic. Unlike the other areas in the basin, organic fertilizers are
applied more often than chemical ones, and many producers make their own organic
fertilizer and pest control. It was determined that crop rotation is practiced based on the
idea that fertilizers remain in the soil from previous crops and will benefit the next cycle.
As such, it was thought that this was the reason why it was possible to sow grass and to
harvest food all year round. Permanent crops such as coffee and avocado, semi-permanent
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
(vegetables), and temporary crops (blackberry) are also cultivated in the area. The products 12 of 26
were divided between household subsistence and market purposes, but only the surpluses
were destined for the latter. The management of natural soils is performed by planting
forest,Different
living fences
levels orof
post fences, and isolation of articulation
community-institutional water sources and
are nativeinforest
shown reserves.
Figure 7, ac-
Reforestation is carried out with the support of local institutions.
cording to the four components presented by each type of actor: visions of the territory,
the role of each actor, use and management actions, and sustainability strategies. Both
3.2.4. Socioecological Dynamics Network
articulations and conflicts were observed among actors across the four components. For
The socioecological
example, the difference in dynamics
the vision of of
thethe
LPRB
LPRB arebetween
complex due to thecommunities
indigenous diverse rangeasofa
actors involved in the use, management, and administration of
living space, and for institutions, as a space for water availability and production ecosystem services to
activi-
guarantee water supply for the city of Popayán. Basin actors include the
ties. Regarding roles within the territory, the differences among actors are marked, and following: (i) in-
digenous communities;
conflicts arise due to the(ii) small peasant
overlapping communities
of actions developedwithtoassociated farmers
isolate strategic as well
areas as
by the
independent farmers; and (iii) community and governmental
institutions, versus the development of unsustainable agricultural practices. institutions. They all have
different perspectives
However, there areand interests
also synergieson the LPRB
among that have
actors, implications
particularly regarding
regarding its man-
management
agement. Thesesynergies
actions. These interactionshave produce bothled
ultimately socioecological conflicts
to the conservation of as
ESwell
supplyas sustainability
and towards
opportunities. Figure 7 illustrates these interactions and conflicts that
community wellbeing including maintaining a peaceful relationship among the basin arise among actors.ac- It
also highlights the gap between local governance and institutional articulation,
tors. However, the different visions and actions of the actors have also led to scenarios of indicating
the need for a more
socioecological integrated
conflicts in the approach.
basin, as depicted in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Socioecological
Socioecological networks
networks related
related to
to water
water perspectives
perspectives in
in LPRB.
LPRB.
Figure 7 levels
Different showsofthe interactions corresponding
community-institutional to action
articulation are flow
shown (black line),7,conflicts
in Figure accord-
(red dotted line), synergies (green dotted line), direct interactions between
ing to the four components presented by each type of actor: visions of the territory, the dimensions
the role
analyzed:
of visions
each actor, of the
use and territory (brown
management actions,line), actors’ role instrategies.
and sustainability the territory
Both(yellow line),
articulations
and conflicts
and use and management
were observed actions
among (blue line).
actors across the four components. For example, the
difference in the vision of the LPRB between indigenous communities as a living space,
3.3. Water
and Quality Analysis
for institutions, in thefor
as a space LPRB
water availability and production activities. Regarding
roles within the territory, the differences
3.3.1. Water Quality Monitoring in Strategic among actors are marked, and conflicts arise due
Sites
to the overlapping of actions developed to isolate strategic areas by the institutions, versus
1. Physicochemical parameters
the development of unsustainable agricultural practices.
When analyzing the data variation, according to the monitored years, important
changes were observed for the oxygen saturation percentage (%𝑂2 -p = 0.036) and TDS (p
< 0.0001), associated with the years with the lowest rainfall record. Regarding the moni-
toring sites, the data differed for the pH (p = 0.005), %𝑂2 (p = 0.042), and TDS (p = 0.039),
especially in the PCA monitoring area. The physicochemical quality data measured by
months, presented a normal distribution (Kolmogorov-Smirnov). The space–time varia-
However, there are also synergies among actors, particularly regarding management
actions. These synergies have ultimately led to the conservation of ES supply and towards
community wellbeing including maintaining a peaceful relationship among the basin
actors. However, the different visions and actions of the actors have also led to scenarios of
socioecological conflicts in the basin, as depicted in Figure 7.
Figure 7 shows the interactions corresponding to action flow (black line), conflicts
(red dotted line), synergies (green dotted line), direct interactions between the dimensions
analyzed: visions of the territory (brown line), actors’ role in the territory (yellow line), and
use and management actions (blue line).
3.3. Water Quality Analysis in the LPRB

3.3.1. Water Quality Monitoring in Strategic Sites
1. Physicochemical parameters
When analyzing the data variation, according to the monitored years, important
changes were observed for the oxygen saturation percentage (%O2 -p = 0.036) and TDS
(p < 0.0001), associated with the years with the lowest rainfall record. Regarding the moni-
toring sites, the data differed for the pH (p = 0.005), %O2 (p = 0.042), and TDS (p = 0.039),
especially in the PCA monitoring area. The physicochemical quality data measured by
months, presented a normal distribution (Kolmogorov-Smirnov). The space–time variation
showed that the conductivity and TDS variables (p < 0.0001), registered high values in
the transition periods from dry to rainy (August and September), in the years 2015 and
2016. The dissolved oxygen (p < 0.0001), registered the lowest value in the year 2014, in
the dry season (June), while the turbidity (p = 0.006), was very high in 2016, during the
month of May. The average differences between the monitoring sites were significant. This
was even more clear when comparing the middle area (DIV) to the lower area (PCA), for
conductivity and TDS. In contrast, the biggest differences between the lower and higher
areas (PAL) were found in the turbidity. Detailed ranges for each variable can be found
in Table 2. It is important to remark that such dataset is unique for the study area but as
the LPRB represents is representative of a typical Andean basin, this data is a significant
contribution for the study of Andean hydrological basins.
Table 2. Water quality characteristics according to physicochemical parameters.
Standard Limits for

Typical
Parameter Minimum Maximum Mean Human
Deviation
Consumption *
Temperature (◦ C) 15.130 18.820 16.620 0.873 25
Conductivity
33.800 120.900 65.721 12.750 1
(µS.cm−1 )
TDS (mg/L) 16.900 66.200 32.296 6.906 ≤100
O (mg/L) 6.200 10.200 7.900 0.683 >7
%O 95.000 107.567 100.644 1.969 >70
pH 6.760 7.980 7.311 0.246 6.5–8.5
Nitrates (mg/L) 0.350 3.490 1.834 0.665 0.2
Turbidity (NTU) 0.200 10.000 2.389 1.374 5
Phosphates
0.060 0.990 0.338 0.173 0.5
(mg/L)
* According to the Colombian regulation norm 1575/2005.
Both parametric (PO34− , NO3− , pH, %O, TDS, turbidity, and temperature) and non-
parametric (BOD5 ) variables were identified through variation analysis. The samples were
independently analyzed, according to their distribution, using the Kruskall–Wallis test
(Bonferroni level of statistical significance) and the unifactorial ANOVA test (comparisons
with Tuckey and multiple ones with Dunnet’s T3). This analysis allowed to identify if there
was a relationship between the physicochemical variables and the factors of interest: year
(2013–2017), climatic period (R, D, T), and site (PAL, DIV, PCA). A significant difference
was identified between the factors and variables, as described. For the year factor there
were significant differences for the pH (p < 0.045), %O (p < 0.036), and TDS (p < 0.001), for
the climatic period factor, the PO34− (p < 0.042), pH (p < 0.005), %O (p < 0.0042), and TDS
(p < 0.0039), and regarding the site factor, the BOD5 , and NO3− (p < 0.0001) parameters.
A further study was carried out by means of discriminant analysis of physicochemical
parameters of surface water runoff (see Figure 8) with Wilks’ Lambda test. The discriminant
analysis allowed for a grouping by sampling sites, differentiating between the PAL site
and the middle and lower areas (p = 0.001), with a total variance of 100% (F1 and F2),
as shown in Figure 8a. Climatic periods were grouped together, and results indicate a
significant variation for the transition period, which increased the uncertainty for local
communities when planning of agricultural activities (see Figure 8b). Details about different
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1
physicochemical parameters are offered in the next section, while the data measured on the
stream, with a monthly sampling, can be seen in Table 2.
(a) (b)
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Discriminant Discriminant
analysis analysis of physicochemical
of physicochemical parameters streamparameters
water forstream
(a) thewater
three for (a) the three
moni-
toring sites: DIV, PAL, and PCA and (b) the three climatic periods:
toring sites: DIV, PAL, and PCA and (b) the three climatic periods: R, T, and D. R, T, and D.
Nitrates: Larger Nitrates:

values of NO3−values
Larger of 𝑁𝑂3− corresponded
concentration concentration corresponded to the PCA moni
to the PCA monitoring
point during thepoint during
rainy period theinrainy
2014 period
and theintransition
2014 andone the period
transition one period
in 2016. There in
was2016.
not There w
− −
a significant NOa significant
3 concentration𝑁𝑂 3 concentration
across the three across the
monitoring three monitoring
points. However, points.
a However,
variant of av
NO3− exists that 𝑁𝑂3− exists
ofdepends that depends
on factors such as on factors
climatic such as climatic
condition, year, andcondition,
monitoring year,
point.and moni
point.
This reflected the This reflected
different nitrogen cyclethe different
stages, as nitrogen
well as cycle stages, of
the capacity asplants
well asandthealgae
capacity of
− algae to assimilate 𝑁𝑂 − or the capacity to reincorporate + −
and
to assimilate NO3 or the capacity to reincorporate 3 ammonium NH 4 and nitrites NO2 to 𝑁𝐻4+ an
ammonium
−
[77]. 𝑁𝑂2 to the atmosphere [77].
the atmospheretrites
3−
Phosphates: Variations
Phosphates: in PO 4 concentration
Variations in 𝑃𝑂43−were present in the
concentration PALpresent
were and PCA in mon-
the PAL and
itoring points, monitoring
for the rainypoints,
and dry forperiods
the rainy in and
2014,dry2016, and 2017.
periods in 2014,Those
2016,concentrations
and 2017. Those conc
exceeded the limits
tions established
exceeded the inlimits
Colombian regulatory
established norms forregulatory
in Colombian WQ (0.5 mg/L).
norms for WQ (0.5 m
Turbidity: TheTurbidity:
increase inThe turbidity
increase in turbidity was most noted duringtransition
was most noted during the dry and the dry and tran
periods were, periods
especially were, especiallymonitoring
at the PCA point wherepoint
at the PCA monitoring the maximum value wasvalue wa
where the maximum
registered (10 istered
NTU). (10 This was due
NTU). This towasthedue input ofinput
to the sediments and alien
of sediments andmaterial as the as the rip
alien material
riparian vegetation cover towards
vegetation cover towardsthis zone thisdecreased, enhancing
zone decreased, the effects
enhancing theofeffects
precipitation
of precipitation
with the presence
the of suspended
presence material and
of suspended organic
material andparticles. Water turbidity
organic particles. for humanfor huma
Water turbidity
consumption should range between 1 NTU to 5
sumption should range between 1 NTU to 5 NTU [78]. NTU [78].
Oxygen: Due to the hydrodynamic
Oxygen: conditions of the
Due to the hydrodynamic LPRB, oxygen
conditions saturation
of the LPRB, oxygen andsaturatio
concentration,concentration,
temperature, and atmospheric pressure were considered
temperature, and atmospheric pressure were considered good, favgood, favoring
both nitrogen compounds
both nitrogen oxidation
compounds and organic
oxidation matter
anddegradation.
organic matter Thedegradation.
PCA monitoring The PCA mo
point presented ingthe maximum
point presented value theofmaximum
precipitation during
value the rainy period.
of precipitation during This
thevalue
rainy period
was related to value
an excess of primary producers [79], in particular the
was related to an excess of primary producers [79], in particular the discharge from fishdischarge
farms which operate in the middle area of the basin.
fish farms which operate in the middle area of the basin.
Biological Oxygen Demand: BOD5 concentration was generally high acro
LPRB, with values higher than 10 mg/L in all the monitoring points. The lower are
the most affected during the dry period. This condition indicates that the enzyma
duction does not denature the biological compounds rapidly, evidencing processes o
alteration. Likewise, the increase that occurred in other periods of the year denoted
Biological Oxygen Demand: BOD5 concentration was generally high across the LPRB,
with values higher than 10 mg/L in all the monitoring points. The lower area was the most
affected during the dry period. This condition indicates that the enzymatic reduction does
not denature the biological compounds rapidly, evidencing processes of WQ alteration.
Likewise, the increase that occurred in other periods of the year denoted accumulation of
suspended material from the dragging of sediments by rain and agricultural activities in
the lower area.
Hydrogen potential: The slightly alkaline conditions of the Las Piedras River present
a statistically significant variation between the monitored sites and years. These variations
are due to the presence of phosphate and sulphate anions, sourced from the agricultural ac-
tivities occurring due to the presence of crops near the riverbed (as determined from LULC
analysis). The oxidation of the organic matter present in the system played an important
role since it allows the presence of pollutants which are tolerated by macroinvertebrates.
However, the reported pH values are within the optimal range.
2. Biological parameters
Fecal Coliforms: This group of bacteria is present in the LPRB with quantities
Fecal Coliforms: This group
ing between of bacteriamL
31.60 CFU/100 is present
and 313inCFU/100
the LPRBmL. withThe
quantities
maximum ranging
records we
between 31.60ported
CFU/100 mL and 313 CFU/100 mL. The maximum records were
in the middle (DIV) and lower (PCA) areas, during the transition reported in period
the middle (DIV) and lower
CFU/100 (PCA)
mL). The areas,
data during
reported forthe
thistransition period (313
variable indicates thatCFU/100
there wasmL).livestock ac
The data reported forasthis
as well variable
sewage indicates
discharge from that there wasdomestic
agricultural livestockactivities
activity close
as well
to as
the river an
sewage discharge from agricultural
tributaries. In the middledomestic activities
area, which hadclose to the river
the highest and its
CFU/100 mL tributaries.
values, livestock
In the middleities
area,were
which had the highest
developed withoutCFU/100 mL values,
technification livestock
or forestry activities
strategies, where were
cows have d
developed without
access to streams. In addition to the geomorphological characteristics of to
technification or forestry strategies, where cows have direct access the middle
streams. In addition to the there
lower areas, geomorphological
was a highercharacteristics of the middle
population density, and lower
which together areas,
with the lack of
there was a higher population
sanitation, increaseddensity, which pollution.
the sewage together with the lack of basic sanitation,
increased the sewage pollution. Aquatic Macroinvertebrates (EAM): A total of 8017 specimens
Epicontinental
Epicontinental Aquatic Macroinvertebrates
collected, then organized in 6 classes,(EAM): A total
19 orders, of 8017 specimens
56 families, were(see Figu
and 89 species
collected, thenThere
organized
was a heterogeneity of habitats and food supply that favored the9).appearan
in 6 classes, 19 orders, 56 families, and 89 species (see Figure
There was a heterogeneity
stenotypic speciesof habitats and food
(Atopsyche, supply that
Tricorythodes, favored Chimarra,
Elmoparnus, the appearance of Limnoc
Corydalus,
stenotypic species (Atopsyche, Tricorythodes, Elmoparnus, Chimarra, Corydalus, Limnocoris).
However, the presence of other groups of organisms, with wide ranges of distrib
However, the presence of other groups of organisms, with wide ranges of distribution
(Thraulodes, Anchytarsus, Hidropsyche, Helicopsyche, Rhagovelia), as well as the phy
(Thraulodes, Anchytarsus, Hidropsyche, Helicopsyche, Rhagovelia), as well as the physicochem-
chemical conditions of the water, were indications of biological quality alteration. D
ical conditions of the water, were indications of biological quality alteration. Due to the
the availability of organic matter in the area, organisms typical of eutrophic waters
availability of organic matter in the area, organisms typical of eutrophic waters were also
also found (Chironomidae, Muscidae, Tipulidae). EAM distribution is represented in F
found (Chironomidae, Muscidae, Tipulidae). EAM distribution is represented in Figure 9
9 where both monitoring sites and climatic periods are considered. From these p
where both monitoring sites and climatic periods are considered. From these plots a larger
larger diversity can be found in the upper area together with the dry period.
diversity can be found in the upper area together with the dry period.
(a) (b)
Figure 9. EAMFigure 9. EAM
in the LPRB in the
basin forLPRB
(a) thebasin
threefor (a) the three
monitoring monitoring
sites sites
and (b) the and (b)
different the different cl
climatic
periods. periods.
3. Water quality indices

The WQI and PWI indices evidence the pollution processes associated with high
centration of nutrients and ions. The effect on the EAM communities, because of or
pollution, is also indicated. According to the BMWP/Col biotic index, the WQ in the L
varies from acceptable to good (see Figure 10a), with the situation in PAL being the
3. Water quality indices

The WQI and PWI indices evidence the pollution processes associated with high
concentration of nutrients and ions. The effect on the EAM communities, because of
organic pollution, is also indicated. According to the BMWP/Col biotic index, the WQ in
the LPRB varies from acceptable to good (see Figure 10a), with the situation in PAL being
the best. This is also the case for the NSF (see Figure 10b), where PAL shows an acceptable
condition with the presence of organisms that are tolerant to the contamination. In the case
of xICOMO
Sustainability 2023, 15, and
FOR PEER ICOSUS (Figure 10c,d), degradation processes can be seen for the PAL and
REVIEW 16
PCA monitoring points, during the dry periods. Contamination by TDS was also found in
the DIV point during all the climatic period analyzed.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 10. WQI Figure 10. WQI
variation variation
in the in the
different different points:
monitoring monitoring points: (a) BMWP/Col
(a) BMWP/Col and (b)
and (b) NSF; andNSF; and
ent climatic periods: (c) BMWP/Col
different climatic periods: (c) BMWP/Col and (d) NSF. and (d) NSF.
Considering theConsidering
relationship thebetween
relationship
the WQbetween theand
indices WQthe indices and the physicochemica
physicochemical and
biologicalaparameters,
biological parameters, a statisticalwas
statistical correlation correlation
appliedwasthatapplied
allowed that
to allowed
identify to identify th
the
sociation
association level betweenlevel between
them. them.toAccording
According to this
this analysis, analysis,
it was it was
possible possible
to identify theto identif
key variables
key variables that negatively that negatively
affected affected
the WQ. In thethe WQ. In the physicochemical
physicochemical characteristics,characteristic
the
phosphates, pH, and BOD5pH,
phosphates, decreased
and BODthe5 decreased
NSF index,the modifying
NSF index, themodifying
nitrogen cycle toward cycle to
the nitrogen
the lower areathe
of the basin,
lower areawhere
of thethe water
basin, intake
where thefor Popayán’s
water aqueduct
intake for is located.
Popayán’s Theis located
aqueduct
biological characteristics, on the other hand, were affected by the increase in TDS, which
biological characteristics, on the other hand, were affected by the increase in TDS, w
favors the presence
favorsofthe
eurytopic
presencemacroinvertebrates. These two characteristics
of eurytopic macroinvertebrates. are mainly are m
These two characteristics
affected by the different
affected by agricultural
the differentactivities that activities
agricultural imply thethatuseimply
of agrochemicals (see
the use of agrochemical
Figures 3–6). Figures 3–6).
3.3.2. Surface Runoff Characterization

3.3.2. Surface Runoff Characterization
In order to perform
In order tosurface
the performrunoff characterization,
the surface comparisons of
runoff characterization, nitrates andof nitrate
comparisons
phosphates were considered for all monitoring points (see Figure 11a,b) and climatic
phosphates were considered for all monitoring points (see Figure 11a,b) periods
and climat
(see Figure 11c,d).
riodsIn general,
(see Figureit11c,d).
was found that concentrations
In general, of nitrates
it was found that and phosphates
concentrations of nitrates and
were higher in runoff water than in streams. This was clearer in the middle and upper
phates were higher in runoff water than in streams. This was clearer in the middle
upper areas, where agricultural activities close to the riverbed were more frequent,
ducing more contaminants to the water and reducing its availability for human cons
tion. Due to the lack of planning around fertilizer application during the transition cl
period, nitrates and phosphates were deposited into the river more rapidly than
areas, where agricultural activities close to the riverbed were more frequent, introducing
more contaminants to the water and reducing its availability for human consumption. Due
to the lack of planning around fertilizer application during the transition climate period,
nitrates and phosphates were deposited into the river more rapidly than other climatic
periods (Figure 11c,d).
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure11.
11.Physicochemical
Physicochemicalparameters
parametersvariation
variationininboth
bothsurface
surfacerunoff
runoffand
andstreams
streamsfor
forthe
theLPRB:
LPRB:
(a) nitrates in different monitoring points; (b) phosphates in different monitoring points; (c) nitrates
(a) nitrates in different monitoring points; (b) phosphates in different monitoring points; (c) nitrates
in different climatic periods; and (d) phosphates in different climatic periods.
According
Accordingtotothe ANOVA
the ANOVA unifactorial
unifactorialanalysis, there
analysis, existexist
there statistically significant
statistically dif-
significant
3−
ferences across
differences the monitored
across years.
the monitored To give
years. an example,
To give an example, for 2015, 𝑃𝑂4 PO
for 2015, presented
3− ap=
4 presented a
0.007 and 𝑁𝑂3− presented
− a p = 0.018. Whereas for 2016, 𝑃𝑂43− presented 3− a p = 0.004 and
p =− 0.007 and NO3 presented a p = 0.018. Whereas for 2016, PO4 presented a p = 0.004
𝑁𝑂
and3 presented a p = 0.050.
NO3− presented FigureFigure
a p = 0.050. 12 shows the detailed
12 shows results results
the detailed of nitrates (a) and(a)
of nitrates phos-
and
phates (b) distribution in surface runoff and stream for the LPRB over
phosphates (b) distribution in surface runoff and stream for the LPRB over the 2013–2017the 2013–2017 pe-
riod, the three
period, climatic
the three periods
climatic (rainy,
periods transition,
(rainy, and dry)
transition, andand theand
dry) three
themonitoring points
three monitoring
(PAL,
pointsDIV, and
(PAL, PCA).
DIV, andAs such,As
PCA). it is possible
such, to see how
it is possible the how
to see concentration of both param-
the concentration of both
eters was higher in the surface runoff water than in streams. This
parameters was higher in the surface runoff water than in streams. This seems seems to be to
always the
be always
case across the whole basin and climatic periods.
the case across the whole basin and climatic periods.
The discriminant statistical analysis with respect to the monitoring sites and the
climatic periods was performed with a 95% confidence interval (see Figure 13). This
analysis showed that with respect to the climatic periods, there was a difference between
the upper and middle areas with a p = 0.037 in the rainy vs. dry period. For the DIV point,
there was a difference in rainy vs. transition period with a p = 0.016, and in rainy vs. dry
with a p = 0.018. On the contrary, there was no difference for the lower area. With respect
to the monitoring sites, it was found that there was a difference between upper and lower
areas (PAL vs. PCA with p = 0.04). This shows how concentrations of nutrients in the upper
area came from different sources than those of the middle and lower areas. Transition
and dry periods had a huge impact in the PO34− concentration that increased towards
the lower areas (≤2000 m.a.s.l.), where most of the cultivated areas can be found. The
(a)
(c) (d)
Figure 11. Physicochemical parameters variation in both surface runoff and streams for the LP
(a) nitrates in different monitoring points; (b) phosphates in different monitoring points; (c) nitr
According to the ANOVA unifactorial analysis, there exist statistically significant d

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 o
ferences across the monitored years. To give an example, for 2015, 𝑃𝑂43− presented a
Spearman correlation 𝑁𝑂3−(see
0.007 and tests presented a pallowed
Figure 14) = 0.018. us
Whereas for 2016,
to identify 𝑃𝑂43− presented
both positive a p = 0.004 a
and negative
associations𝑁𝑂 −
between the analyzed variables.
3 presented a p = 0.050. Figure From
12 showsthese tests
the the following
detailed results ofwas found:
nitrates (a) and ph
(i) a directlyphates
proportional relationship
(b) distribution between
in surface NO3−and
runoff and PO34− ;for
stream (ii)the
a direct
LPRBrelationship
over the 2013–2017
between theriod,measured nutrients
the three climaticin stream(rainy,
periods and runoff water;
transition, and(iii) anand
dry) inverse correlation
the three monitoring poi
− 3−
between NO(PAL,3 and PO
DIV,4 and PCA). As such, it is possible to see how the concentration and
and the water indices measured on stream and runoff water; of both para
(iv) a negative correlation
eters was higherbetween
in the the monitoring
surface sites and
runoff water thanthe
inNSF and BMWP/Col.
streams. This seems to The
be always
correlationscase
values can the
across be seen
wholein basin
Supplementary Materials
and climatic periods.(Tables S1 and S2).
(b)
Figure 12. Physicochemical parameters measured in surface runoff and streams for the LPRB
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 oo
the 2013–2017 period, the three climatic periods (R, T, and D), and the three monitoring points (P
DIV, and PCA): (a) nitrates and (b) phosphates.
(a)
matic periods was performed with a 95% confidence interval (see Figure 13). This analy
showed that with respect to the climatic periods, there was a difference between the upp
and middle areas with a p = 0.037 in the rainy vs. dry period. For the DIV point, there w
a difference in rainy vs. transition period with a p = 0.016, and in rainy vs. dry with a
0.018. On the contrary, there was no difference for the lower area. With respect to
monitoring sites, it was found that there was a difference between upper and lower ar
(PAL vs. PCA with p = 0.04). This shows how concentrations of nutrients in the upper a
came from different sources than those of the middle and lower areas. Transition and d
periods had a huge impact in the 𝑃𝑂43− concentration that increased towards the low
areas (≤ 2000 m.a.s.l.), where most of the cultivated areas can be found. The Spearm
correlation tests (see Figure 14) allowed us to identify both positive and negative assoc
tions between the analyzed variables. From these tests the following was found: (i) a
rectly proportional relationship between 𝑁𝑂3− and 𝑃𝑂43− ; (ii) a direct relationship
(b)
tween the measured nutrients in stream and runoff water; (iii) an inverse correlation
−
Figure 12.
tween 3 and
Figure 12. Physicochemical 𝑃𝑂43− and
𝑁𝑂Physicochemical
parameters parameters in measured
the water
measured indices
surface in surface
measured
runoff runoff andthe
on stream
and streams for streams
and
LPRB for
runoffthewater;
over LPRB oa
the
the 2013–2017(iv)2013–2017
a negative
period, period, the
correlation
the three three climatic
between
climatic periods periods
the
(R, T, and (R,
monitoringT, and D),
D), and the sites and
threeand the three
the NSF
monitoring monitoring
BMWP/Col.(PT
and (PAL,
points points
DIV, and PCA):
correlations (a) nitratesbeand (b)inphosphates.
DIV, and PCA): (a) nitratesvalues
and (b)can seen
phosphates. Supplementary Material (Tables S1 and S2).
matic periods was performed with a 95% confidence interval (see Figure 13). This analy
showed that with respect to the climatic periods, there was a difference between the up
and middle areas with a p = 0.037 in the rainy vs. dry period. For the DIV point, there w
a difference in rainy vs. transition period with a p = 0.016, and in rainy vs. dry with a
0.018. On the contrary, there was no difference for the lower area. With respect to
monitoring sites, it was found that there was a difference between upper and lower ar
(PAL vs. PCA with p = 0.04). This shows how concentrations of nutrients in the upper a
came from different sources than those of the middle and lower areas. Transition and d
periods had a huge impact in the 𝑃𝑂43− concentration that increased towards the low
areas (≤ 2000 m.a.s.l.), where most of the cultivated areas can be found. The Spearm
correlation
(a) tests (see Figure 14) allowed us to identify (b) both positive and negative assoc
tions between the analyzed variables. From these tests the following was found: (i) a
Figure 13. Discriminant
Figure 13. Discriminant analysis of physicochemical
analysis of relationship
physicochemical parameters on
− parameters
surface 3−on surface
runoff water runoff
for: (a)water
the for: (a)
rectlymonitoring
three
proportional
sites: DIV, PAL, and
between
PCA and
𝑁𝑂
(b) 3theand
three
𝑃𝑂 4 ; (ii)
climatic
a direct
periods: R,
relationship
T, and D.
three monitoring
tweensites:
theDIV, PAL, andnutrients
measured PCA and in(b)stream
the three climatic
and runoff periods:
water;R,(iii)
T, and D.
an inverse correlation
tween 𝑁𝑂3− and 𝑃𝑂43− and the water indices measured on stream and runoff water; a
(iv) a negative correlation between the monitoring sites and the NSF and BMWP/Col. T
correlations values can be seen in Supplementary Material (Tables S1 and S2).
(a) (b)
Figure between
Figure 14. Correlation 14. Correlation between
variables in the variables in theand
surface runoff surface runoff
stream and stream
(a) between (a) between me
measured
variables and (b) water quality indexes variables. Colors indicate different correlation values: Black: values:
variables and (b) water quality indexes variables. Colors indicate different correlation
1.0;White:
1.0; Gray: 0.5; and Gray: 0.0.
0.5; and White: 0.0.
4. Discussion 4. Discussion
In Colombia, conventional
In Colombia, agriculture
conventional exists mainly exists
agriculture due tomainly
politicaldueandto social situ-
political and social
ations, including theincluding
tions, privatization of land ownership,
the privatization of landinequity,
ownership,and inequity,
poverty. This and makes
poverty. This m
rural agricultural
ruralproduction
agricultural theproduction
most affordable livelihood
the most affordablefor economically
livelihood forvulnerable
economically vuln
communities. communities.
Rural AndeanRural basinsAndean
are characterized by the interactions between
basins are characterized by the interactions water,between w
agricultural practices, and human consumption needs [48,80]. As such, the
agricultural practices, and human consumption needs [48,80]. As such, the Andean r Andean region
a great number of smallholder
a great number of farms (64%) farms
smallholder have developed, intensifyingintensifying
(64%) have developed, conventional convention
agricultural activities
riculturalin order to meet
activities the socioeconomic
in order needs of local needs
to meet the socioeconomic communities.
of local The
communitie
effects of this dynamic
effects ofhave been amplified
this dynamic have beentowards the upper
amplified towardsareastheofupper
the basins
areasdue to basins d
of the
the existence ofthestrategic ecosystems, and practices such as logging, burning,
existence of strategic ecosystems, and practices such as logging, burning, and and deforesta-
tion limit the availability
estation limit of water for local communities
the availability of water for local[81]. In the LPRB, conventional
communities [81]. In the LPRB, co
agriculture activities refer to the use of agrochemical inputs,
tional agriculture activities refer to the use of agrochemicalcultivating adjacent
inputs, to cultivating
streams adjac
or on the slopesstreams
(increasing
or on the slopes (increasing the surface runoff of nutrients), andtodirect acc
the surface runoff of nutrients), and direct access of livestock
the riverbed. Local communities
livestock have developed
to the riverbed. informal water
Local communities supply systems
have developed to meet
informal water suppl
the growing water demands of conventional agriculture activities to secure
tems to meet the growing water demands of conventional agriculture activities to stheir livelihood.
In this context,their
the dynamics
livelihood.of Inthe
thisLPRB
context,respond to the socioeconomic
the dynamics of the LPRB respondinteractions
to theofsocioeco
the actors in the upper, middle, and lower areas. As such, the availability of
interactions of the actors in the upper, middle, and lower areas. As such, the availa hydrological
ecosystem services for urban and
of hydrological rural communities
ecosystem services for are urbandirectly related
and rural to deforestation
communities are directly r
and other LULC changes, as the main drivers of change in the Andean region.
to deforestation and other LULC changes, as the main drivers of change in the A
In this sense, an important condition in the LPRB is the land-use change and the loss
region.
of regulating vegetation such as dense forests (especially the páramo). The situation in
In this sense, an important condition in the LPRB is the land-use change and th
the upper area, where the area of productive LC has tripled during the analysed period
of regulating vegetation such as dense forests (especially the páramo). The situation
(0.8% to 2.1%), is critical because together with the increasing population within the basin
upper area, where the area of productive LC has tripled during the analysed period
(0.84% annual rate) and the urban population downstream (2.5% annual rate [48]) the
to 2.1%), is critical because together with the increasing population within the basin (
water demand will continue to rise. The heterogeneity of the LPRB (where both indigenous
annual rate) and the urban population downstream (2.5% annual rate [48]) the wat
and small famers live) is expressed in the production practices developed in the basin,
mand will continue to rise. The heterogeneity of the LPRB (where both indigenou
which are related to WQ and water management. Furthermore, agricultural and livestock
small famers live) is expressed in the production practices developed in the basin,
activities were differentiated in the three sub-areas, depending on altitude, slope type, and
are related
soil fertility. Thus, to WQarea,
in the upper and livestock
water management.
(dual-purpose Furthermore,
livestock), agricultural
fish farming,and andlivestock
ities were
the rearing of minor differentiated
species in the three
were predominant. sub-areas,
In the middle depending on altitude,
and lower areas, slope type, an
agriculture
was the main activity, with crops such as corn, coffee, cabuya, and horticulture [48,80]. farming, an
fertility. Thus, in the upper area, livestock (dual-purpose livestock), fish
rearing
The analysis of theofagricultural
minor species were predominant.
calendars allowed for the In identification
the middle and of lower areas, agric
the differ-
was the main activity, with crops such as corn, coffee,
ences in the productive activities and techniques, as well as the problems present in the cabuya, and horticulture [48,
The analysis of the agricultural calendars allowed
areas, carried out by the community present in the LPRB. A common characteristic of the for the identification of the d
ences ininthe
agricultural activities theproductive
area is thatactivities
crops areand mainlytechniques,
grown for as families
well as the problems present
(contributing
areas, carried out by the community present in the LPRB. A common characteristic
to food sovereignty), and without water supply systems, they are highly dependent on the
rainy season to carry out their work. Producers do not often follow technical recommenda-
tions, leading to the overapplication of agrochemicals. and were not articulated in local
market dynamics.
The communities in the middle area of the basin adjust their agricultural work accord-
ing to the rainfall (excess and deficit). Land preparation and planting take place during
the first quarter of the year and from September to November. By modifying the work
according to the local climate, producers can maintain their crops year round by using
irrigation, canals, organic fertilizer, and agrochemical inputs (fumigation and nutrition),
which gives better results in scenarios of water surplus. In the middle and lower areas of the
LPRB, cabuya or fique crops were also planted, with recurrent slash-and-burn practices. In
the lower area, despite differentiating types of crops according to the climatic requirements
throughout the year (dry, rainy, and transition), land work and maintenance actions were
reduced during months of water excess and deficit. Fertilization and soil preparation
(liming and hilling) were also carried out in relation to rainfall; chemical fertilizers were
used, but organic fertilizers prepared by local producers were preferred for soil nutrition.
One of the major findings of this study is regarding WQ in the LPRB, as it is one of
the main supply basins for the city of Popayán. It was found that despite the impacts of
conventional agriculture activities in the basin, the WQ still meets the conditions set by the
aqueduct of Popayán to be used for domestic consumption after mandatory disinfection and
treatment (especially due to high concentrations of phosphorus and nitrates). However, in
contrast, rural communities of the LPRB are without a water treatment system and address
their (multipurpose) water needs with less safe methods, such as direct distribution systems
or open channels. This situation increases their exposure to water borne diseases, especially
due to the presence of phosphates. These compounds tend to elevate correspondingly with
changes in climatic conditions—a factor that is intimately linked with fluctuations in pH
levels and TDS on a multiannual scale.
In the LPRB, the main source of phosphates was the agricultural and fisheries activities
in areas near the riverbed, as supported by the LC analysis that showed high presence
of crops in the lower area of the basin (near PCA point). Statistical results from ANOVA
tests that show a recent nutrient increase flowing into streams, and when looked at in
conjunction with the agricultural productive calendars, it can be inferred that the continued
use of agrochemical inputs is linked to soil fertility loss and generate runoff that affects WQ
of surrounding waterways.
Nitrogen concentrations in the basin are related to productive activities such as live-
stock, the use of fertilizers, and discharge of domestic sewage. It is important to indicate
that the increase in the concentration of nitrates also limits the use of water for human
consumption, even under disinfection processes and especially because communities in
the basin use the water from rural water supply systems directly, without potabilization
processes. Furthermore, the flow of nitrates to the main river was increased by the surface
runoff water, cultivation on slopes, and conventional agricultural practices, also causing
risk of flooding [72,82].
In addition, the increase in the dragging of suspended particles and organic matter,
due to the construction of roads towards the upper area of the basin and the extraction
of quarry material along the riverbank leaves bare and eroded soils [72]. Such soils are
easily dragged by surface runoff that increases due to the steep terrain in the upper and
middle areas (≥50%). This condition is important for the management of agricultural areas
established in the riparian strips given that runoff mobilizes nutrients, eroded soil, and
organic matter towards the main channel. Thus, limiting the water supply for human
consumption and increasing the costs of the water potabilization process, which is then
transferred to users in urban areas.
The results of the biological quality indices indicate a gradual process of degradation
of the aquatic ecosystem in the LPRB. In the upper area there was high diversity due to the
conservation zones of páramo and dense forests upstream of the monitoring point, which
decreases along the river in the middle and lower areas. In relation to the climatic conditions,
greater diversity was found in dry periods because of more stabilized concentration of
organic matter and TDS, which increase during rainy periods. This pattern reflects an
interdependent relationship between these organisms’ habitats and local climatic conditions
which affected different sections of this river system distinctly. This is evidenced by the
presence of macroinvertebrates families which are tolerant to low oxygen concentrations
and abundant organic matter, (related to the expansion of agricultural LC), which results in
low diversity and high dominance of species.
The understanding of the interconnections between the biological characteristics,
physicochemical parameters, and the changes in land use, helps to understand in an
integral way the transformations generated in the LPRB’s trophic dynamics and WQ. In
this sense, it is especially important to articulate actions for the sustainable management of
riparian areas, to decrease the use of chemical inputs, and to limit the access of livestock to
the riverbed.
With respect to the interactions from a SENs framework, it is noted that the dynamics
in the LPRB have led to the emergence of socioecological conflicts over water, as well as to
planning processes that have materialized in actions of land-use conversion, environmental
zoning, and bio-economic productive strategies. Regarding the historical context of the
basin, it is important to highlight the Peace and Coexistence Pact of 2002, in which four
fundamental actors of the LPRB in the management dynamics of the basin and allowed
to solve internal conflicts. These have contributed to consolidation of internal governance
processes, although there remain considerable challenges of inter-institutional articulation
and maintaining the Peace and Coexistence Pact amid new sociocultural dynamics in the
region, including the participation of new community and productive organisations. It
is precisely in this last point that there is an opportunity to generate water management
actions that are flexible to the dynamics that the basin has undergone, and that should
be integrated into the actions that are part of the Pact for Peace and Coexistence, in order
to continue strengthening collective community actions and institutional support in the
conservation, revitalization, and conversion of strategic hydrological zones to guarantee
water supply both to the inhabitants of the basin and to downstream users.
5. Conclusions
An integrated analysis of how agricultural activities affect water quality in an Andean
basin in southwest Colombia has been presented. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this
is the first time that a comprehensive understanding of socioecological dynamics related
to WQ in Andean basins in Colombia has been presented at this level. In this context, it
was found that the deterioration of water quality is directly related to (i) unsustainable
agricultural practices including the over application of agrochemical, (ii) changes in LULC
affecting regulatory ecosystems such as dense Andean forests and páramos, (iii) climate
variability that causes difficult in agricultural planning and can ruin crop production, and
(iv) increase in water pollution and continuous transportation of soil and nutrients to the
river. Each of these conditions generates direct impacts on water quality and ecosystem
services in Andean basins, as well as for the rural and urban communities who depend on
them. The disparity in access to water for human consumption between urban and rural
areas further exacerbates the urban–rural divide. This division is largely influenced by
the varied mechanisms through which water is provided to these different areas and the
difficulties for articulating distinct actors involved in water use and management. This
situation increases the socioenvironmental vulnerability of the communities that depend
on the supply of natural resources in their territories for their survival.
In the case of the Las Piedras River basin, it was also found that regional climate
variability triggers the concentration of contaminants flowing to the river, which also affects
the agricultural practices planning and hinders the organization of productive calendars.
With respect to water quality, it is important to consider the increase in nutrients that limit
the availability of water for human consumption (nitrogen and phosphates), as well as the
presence of total and fecal coliform bacteria in the LPRB, such conditions resulted from
agricultural and livestock production processes, generating soil compaction and increased
surface runoff during rainfall. This is exacerbated by the poor sanitation infrastructure
in the LPRB, causing sediments, biological waste, and agrochemicals to enter the river
as runoff, also impacting ecological conditions in the basin. As future developments, we
would like to consider the modelling of diffuse contaminants coming from secondary
productive activities developed in the basin that also changes the WQ. This analysis can be
performed in a complementary way to hydrological modelling, allowing the identification
of additional processes that contribute to the water contamination and make the controlling
process more difficult.
Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://
www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su152215965/s1, Table S1. Correlation values -Spearman correlation
test. Table S2. Correlation values -Spearman correlation test.
Author Contributions: D.M.R.-O., conceptualized the manuscript, oversaw data curation, formal
analysis, and investigation, worked on the methodology, software, and visualization of results, wrote
the original draft, and reviewed and edited the final version; Y.T.S.-C., conceptualized the manuscript,
oversaw data curation and formal analysis, worked in the methodology, software, and visualization
of results, wrote the original draft, and reviewed and edited the final version; R.M., performed the
final formal analysis and reviewed and edited the final version; and A.F.-C., conceptualized the
manuscript, oversaw funding acquisition and project administration and supervision, and reviewed
and edited the final version. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted
version. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Authors would like to thank the different entities involved in providing the funding to
develop this research work: (i) this work was supported by Universidad del Cauca (501100005682)
under Grants ID 5142 and ID 5650; (ii) this work was supported by the Water Security and Sustainable
Development Hub funded by the UK Research and Innovation’s Global Challenges Research Fund
(GCRF) [grant number: ES/S008179/1]; (ii) this work was performed with the support of the
Department of Science Technology and Innovation Colciencias in Colombia, through the bicentennial
scholarship program “Young research and doctoral students–567/2012”.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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sustainability

Abstract: Conventional agricultural practices, such as the use of agrochemicals, implementation

Citation: Ruiz-Ordóñez, D.M.;

Sustainability 2023, 15, 15965. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152215965 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2. Materials and Methods

2.2.2. Characterization of SENs

Studied Year and Associated Historical Event

2.2.3. Water Quality Analysis in the LPRB

Water Quality Monitoring in Strategic Sites

Water Quality Assessment Indices

Surface Water Runoff Analysis

analyzed with a spectrophotometer to measure nitrates and phosphates concentrations

Experimental Design and Correlation Analysis

3.1. Land Cover and Land-Use Change Analysis

3.2. Characterization of SENs

3.2.1. Agricultural Activities in the Upper Area of the LPRB

3.2.1. Agricultural Activities in the Upper Area of the LPRB

3.2.2. Agricultural Activities in the Middle Area of LPRB

3.2.3. Agricultural Activities in the Lower Area of the LPRB

It was found that

3.3. Water Quality Analysis in the LPRB

Table 2. Water quality characteristics according to physicochemical parameters.

Standard Limits for

Nitrates: Larger Nitrates:

3. Water quality indices

3. Water quality indices

3.3.2. Surface Runoff Characterization

According to the ANOVA unifactorial analysis, there exist statistically significant d

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