Further Algebra and Functions I Cheat Sheet AQA A Level Further Maths: Core

Relationship Between the Roots and Coefficients of a Polynomial 𝑓(𝛼) = 0 by the factor 𝑤−1 3 𝑤−1 2 𝑤−1
Method of Differences
theorem. Hence, 3( ) +( ) − 4( )+1=0
2 2 2
The roots of a polynomial are the points at which the curve crosses the 𝑥-axis. In the 15th century, French substitute 𝛼 into the Take a series of the general form ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑓(𝑟 + 1) − 𝑓(𝑟). Writing the summation term-by-term yields:
mathematician François Viète discovered a connection between the sums and products of the roots of a original polynomial to
polynomial and its coefficients. derive a new (𝑓(2) − 𝑓(1)) + (𝑓(3) − 𝑓(2)) + ⋯ + (𝑓(𝑛) − 𝑓(𝑛 − 1)) + (𝑓(𝑛 + 1) − 𝑓(𝑛)).
polynomial in terms of
Quadratic Equations 𝑤. It quickly becomes apparent that most terms will cancel each other out, leaving ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑓(𝑟 + 1) − 𝑓(𝑟) =
Expand each bracket 𝑤 3 − 3𝑤 2 + 3𝑤 − 1 𝑤 2 − 2𝑤 + 1 𝑤−1 𝑓(𝑛 + 1) − 𝑓(1). This is the basis behind the method of differences.
For a quadratic equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 with roots α, β, where 𝑎 ≠ 0: and leave the new 3( )+( ) −4( )+1 =0
8 4 2
polynomial in simplified 3 2 2
3(𝑤 − 3𝑤 + 3𝑤 − 1) + 2(𝑤 − 2𝑤 + 1) − 16(𝑤 − 1) + 8 = 0
Method of Differences for General Numeric and Algebraic Series
𝑏
• α+β= − form. 3𝑤 3 − 9𝑤 2 + 9𝑤 − 3 + 2𝑤 2 − 4𝑤 + 2 − 16𝑤 + 16 + 8 = 0
𝑎
Example 5: ∑𝑛𝑟=1 2𝑟 = ∑𝑛𝑟=1[𝑟(𝑟 + 1) − (𝑟 − 1)𝑟]. Use this result and the method of differences to prove
• αβ =
𝑐 3𝑤 3 − 7𝑤 2 − 11𝑤 + 23 = 0 1
𝑎 that ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1).
2

Cubic Equations Series as a Summation 𝑛 𝑛

Use the result given to derive an
A series is the sum of the terms in a given sequence. In general, 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 , where 𝑆𝑛 expression for ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 by dividing ∑ 2𝑟 = ∑[𝑟(𝑟 + 1) − (𝑟 − 1)𝑟]
For a cubic equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0 with roots 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾, where 𝑎 ≠ 0:
denotes the sum of the first 𝑛 terms of the sequence, and 𝑢𝑛 denotes the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of the sequence. Using both sides by 2. 𝑟=1
𝑛
𝑟=1
𝑛
1
• 𝛼+𝛽+𝛾 =−
𝑏 sigma notation, 𝑆𝑛 can be more efficiently written as: ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑢𝑟 . In words, this means to sum 𝑢𝑟 from 1 to 𝑛. ⇒ ∑ 𝑟 = ∑[𝑟(𝑟 + 1) − (𝑟 − 1)𝑟]
𝑎 2
𝑐 𝑟=1 𝑟=1
• 𝛼β + βγ + γα = This section will look at problems involving summing series from the following standard results:
𝑎 Calculate the first few terms and Using the method of differences:
𝑑
• αβγ = − the last few terms until a pattern 𝑛
1
𝑎
• ∑𝑛𝑟=1 1 = 𝑛 is spotted. This is done by ∑ 𝑟 = [((1 × 2) − (0 × 1)) + ((2 × 3) − (1 × 2)) + ⋯
1 2
Quartic Equations • ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) substituting 𝑟 = 1, 𝑟 = 2, and r= 𝑟=1
2
1 𝑛 − 1, 𝑟 = 𝑛 − 1 separately. +((𝑛 − 1)𝑛 − (𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 1)) + (𝑛(𝑛 + 1) − (𝑛 − 1)𝑛)
• ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 2 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
4 3 2 6 Avoid simplifying the pairs of
For a quartic equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 = 0 with roots α, β, γ, δ, where 𝑎 ≠ 0: 1 These are given in the data booklet.
• ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 3 = 𝑛2 (𝑛 + 1)2 terms to spot the pattern more
4
• ∑𝛼 = α + β + γ + δ = −
𝑏 easily.
𝑎
𝑐 Sums of Integers As the (1 × 2) terms cancel out Using the method of differences:
• ∑ 𝛼𝛽 = αβ + αγ + αδ + βγ + βδ + γδ = 1
𝑎 from the first and second pairs of
𝑑
Example 3: Given that 𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑏 and ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑓(𝑟) = 3𝑛2 + 7𝑛 , find the constants 𝑎 and 𝑏. = [((1 × 2) − (0 × 1)) + ((2 × 3) − (1 × 2)) + ⋯
• ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = αβγ + αβδ + αγδ + βγδ = − terms, it becomes clear that the 2
𝑎
𝑒 left term of a pair of terms will +((𝑛 − 1)𝑛 − (𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 1)) + (𝑛(𝑛 + 1) − (𝑛 − 1)𝑛)]
• ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿 = αβγδ =
𝑎 𝑛 cancel out with the right term of 1
Substitute 𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑏 into the summation. = [0 + 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)]
4 3 2 ∑ 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑏 = 3𝑛2 + 7𝑛 the next pair of terms. From this, 2
Example 1: α, β, γ and δ are the roots of the quartic equation 4𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 8𝑥 − 𝑥 − 12 = 0. Find the value 1
1 1 1 1 𝑟=1 it is possible to reduce the = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
of + + + . 𝑛 𝑛 summation as shown. Physically 2
α 𝛽 𝛾 𝛿 Apply the distributive properties that ∑(𝒖𝒓 + 1
𝑎 ∑ 𝑟 + 𝑏 ∑ 1 = 3𝑛2 + 7𝑛 crossing out terms will be useful. ∴ ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1), as required.
1 1 1 1
𝒗𝒓 ) = ∑ 𝒖𝒓 + ∑ 𝒗𝒓 and ∑ 𝑐𝑢𝑟 = 𝑐∑𝑢𝑟 to the 2
Rewrite + + + using the expressions 1 1 1 1 ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾
α 𝛽 𝛾 𝛿 + + + = LHS. 𝑟=1 𝑟=1
α 𝛽 𝛾 𝛿 ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿 1
that relate the roots of the polynomial to its Rewrite the summations using the standard
𝑎 [ 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)] + 𝑏(𝑛) = 3𝑛2 + 7𝑛
Method of Differences Involving Partial Fractions (A-Level Only)
coefficients. results for natural numbers. 2
Calculate ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾 and ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿. Use the (−1) 1 Expand and simplify the LHS. 𝑎 2 𝑎 Example 6: a) Express
2
in partial fractions. b) Hence find ∑∞
2
.
∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − = 𝑛 + 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 = 3𝑛2 + 7𝑛 𝑘(𝑘+2) 𝑘=1 𝑘(𝑘+2)
expression from the first line of working to 4 4 2 2
find the required result. −12 Group the like terms and compare coefficients 𝑎 2 𝑎
∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿 = = −3 𝑛 + ( + 𝑏) 𝑛 = 3𝑛2 + 7𝑛 2 𝐴 𝐵
4 to identify 𝑎 and 𝑏. It can be useful to check 2 2 a.) Split the fraction into partial fractions
1 Comparing coefficients: ≡ +
answers using the sum function on a by the standard method. 𝑘(𝑘 + 2) 𝑘 𝑘 + 2
1 1 1 1 1 𝑎
+ + + = 4 =− calculator. =3⇒𝑎=6 2 ≡ 𝐴(𝑘 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑘)
α 𝛽 𝛾 𝛿 −3 12 2
𝑎 Let 𝑘 = 0:
+𝑏 =7 ⇒3+𝑏 = 7⇒𝑏 =4
2 2 = 2𝐴 ⇒ 𝐴 = 1
Linear Transformation of the Roots of a Polynomial Let 𝑘 = −2
Sums of Squares and Cubes 2 = −2𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = −1
It is possible to form a new polynomial equation whose roots are a linear transformation of a given
2 1 1
polynomial equation. Example 4: Find ∑2𝑛 2
𝑟=𝑛+1 𝑟 . ≡ −
𝑘(𝑘 + 2) 𝑘 𝑘 + 2
𝑛 𝑛
There are two common methods to tackle these problems, but as the AQA A-Level Further Mathematics Write the expression as a 2𝑛 2𝑛 𝑛 b.) Use the partial fractions to sum the 2 1 1
course just involves linear transformations of cubics and quartics, the substitution method is generally most subtraction involving two 2
∑ 𝑟 = ∑𝑟 − ∑𝑟 2 2 series, not immediately simplifying the ∑ = ∑[ − ]
1
𝑘(𝑘 + 2) 𝑘 𝑘+2
suitable. This method is used in the example below. pairs of terms. Identify that the terms 𝑘=1 𝑘=1
summations, both with a lower 𝑟=𝑛+1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1
3 Using the method of differences:
limit of 𝑟 = 1. cancel out from the first and third pairs of 1 1 1 1 1 1
Example 2: 3𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 1 = 0 has roots α, β, and γ. Find a new polynomial with roots 2α + 1, 2β + 1, Rewrite the summations using 2𝑛
terms. This means the right term of a pair = ( − )+( − )+( − )+⋯
1 1 1 3 2 4 3 5
2γ + 1. the standard result for the sum ∑ 𝑟2 = (2𝑛)(2𝑛 + 1)(4𝑛 + 1) − 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) of terms will always cancel out with the 1 1 1 1 1 1
6 6 +( − )+( − )+( − )
of squares. 𝑟=𝑛+1 left term of the pair of terms that 𝑛−2 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛+1 𝑛 𝑛+2
Define 𝑤 to be one of Let 𝑤 = 2𝛼 + 1 Factorise and simplify the RHS. 2𝑛 appears two pairs of terms later. 1 1 1
the roots of the original 𝑤−1 1 =1+ − −
∴ α= ∑ 𝑟 2 = 𝑛(2𝑛 + 1)[2(4𝑛 + 1) − (𝑛 + 1)] 2 𝑛+1 𝑛+2
polynomial. The first 2 6 1 2
root has been chosen
𝑟=𝑛+1
2𝑛 Note that as 𝑛 tends to infinity,
𝑛+1
and As 𝑛 → ∞, ∑𝑛𝑘=1 → ∞.
𝑘(𝑘+2)
1 1 ∞
here. ∑ 𝑟 2 = 𝑛(2𝑛 + 1)[8𝑛 + 2 − 𝑛 − 1] both become progressively smaller, 2 3
6 𝑛+2
∴∑ =
𝑟=𝑛+1
2𝑛
tending to 0. Hence, only the constant 𝑘(𝑘 + 2) 2
𝑘=1
1 term will remain.
∑ 𝑟 2 = 𝑛(2𝑛 + 1)(7𝑛 + 1)
6
𝑟=𝑛+1

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