1

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING
If one event can occur in m ways, a second event in n ways and a third event in r, then the three events
can occur in m × n × r ways.
Exercise An office has three sections: sales, HR and IT. The three sections have 10, 12 and 15
employees respectively. In how many ways a team of three people can be formed that has one member
from each of the three sections?
Repetition of an Event
If one event, with n outcomes, occurs r times with repetition allowed, then the number of ordered
arrangements is nr.
Exercise What is the number of possible outcomes if a die is rolled three times?
Exercise A modern Indian number plate has the following format: two letters, followed by two
numbers, followed by two letters, followed by four numbers.
How many different number plates are possible?
Jharkhand number plates must start with “JH”. How many different Jharkhand number plates are
possible?
Factorial Representation: n! = n× (n – 1) × (n – 2) ×…×3 × 2 × 1.
For example, 5! = 5.4.3.2.1
Note. 0! = 1 (Convention)
ARRANGEMENTS OR PERMUTATIONS
Distinctly ordered sets are called arrangements or permutations.
The number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time is given by nPr = n!/(n-r)! = n× (n – 1) × (n
– 2) ×… × (n-r+2) × (n-r+1).
Exercise In a team, there are 11 members. In how many ways the captain and the vice-captain can be
chosen?
Permutations with Restrictions
Exercise In how many ways can 5 boys and 4 girls be arranged on a bench if there are
a) no restrictions?
b) boys and girls alternate?
c) boys sit together separately from the girls?
Permutations when all the objects are not distinct objects
If we have n elements of which x are alike of one kind, y are alike of another kind, z are alike of another
kind, then the number of ordered selections or permutations is given by
n!/x!y!z!
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Note: The above result is true for any number of objects.

Exercise How many anagrams of the word ‘anagram’ are possible?
SELECTIONS OR COMBINATIONS
The number of different combinations (i.e., unordered selections) of r objects from n distinct objects is
represented by: nCr = n!/(n-r)!r! = nPr/r!.
Exercise Suppose the UN Security Council, which is to have 15 members, is being chosen from all the
UN countries. The UN has 193 member nations right now.
a) In how many ways can the Security Council be formed without any restrictions?
b) In how many ways can the Security Council be formed so that the US, UK, China, France and Russia
must be members of it?
c) In how many ways can the Security Council be formed so that the US, UK, China, France and Russia
must be members of it, and Iran must be excluded from it?
Division in Two Groups
The number of ways in which (m + n) different things can be divided into two groups containing m
and n things respectively is m+nCm = ((m+n)!)/m!n!.
Exercise What would be the case for more than two groups?

FUNCTIONS
Let A and B be two non-empty sets. A function f from A to B is a relation that assigns to each element
x in A, a unique y in B. Hence a function can be thought of as a special type of relation where any
element of A is related to exactly one element of B.
A is said to be the domain of f and B, the co-domain of f. We say that f is a function or a mapping
from A to B and we write f: A →B.

x f f(x)

Input Output

x f(x)

f(a)
a
a

The unique element in B that corresponds to x in A is said to be the image of x under f and is denoted
by f(x). x is said to be a pre-image (or an inverse image) of f(x). The set {f(x): x ∈ A} is said to be the
range of f and is denoted by f(A).
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The set {x: f(x) = y} is said to be the pre-image set (or the inverse image set) of y and is denoted by
f -1 (y).
Note: The inverse image set of an element y in B may be a void set, or a singleton set, or a set containing
more than one elements.
A function f: A→ B is said to be
a) injective (or one-to-one) if x1 ≠ x2 in A ⇒ f(x1) ≠ f(x2) in B
b) surjective (or onto) if f(A) = B
c) bijective if it is injective as well as surjective.

If f: A →B is injective then each element of B has at most one pre-image.

If f: A → B is surjective then each element of B has at least one pre-image.
Therefore if f: A→B is bijective then each element of B has exactly one pre-image. In this case the
pre-image set of each element y in B, i.e.,f-1 (y), is a singleton set.
If f: A→B is bijective, each element in A has a definite image in B and each element in B has a definite
pre-image in A. Thus f sets up a one-to-one correspondence between the elements of A and B.
Examples:
1. Let f: ℤ → ℤ be defined by f(x) = 2x, x ∈ ℤ. The function f is injective but not surjective. The range
set is 2ℤ (the set of all even integers) and it is a proper subset of the co-domain set ℤ.
Here f(0) = 0, f(1) = 2, f(2) = 4, ...
2. Let f: ℤ → ℤ be defined by f(x) = |x|, x ∈ ℤ. Then f is not injective, since f(1) = f(-1) = 1; f is not
surjective either, since -1 in the co-domain set has no pre-image. Here f-1(1) = {-1, 1} but f-1(-1) =∅.
3. Let f: ℝ → ℝ be defined by f(x) = x + 1, x ∈ ℝ. Then f is injective as well as surjective. Therefore f
is bijective.

EQUALITY OF FUNCTIONS
Two functions f and g are said to be equal if
(i) f and g have the same domain D, and (ii) f(x) = g(x) for all x ∈ D.

Example
Let f: ℝ → ℝ be defined by f(x) = |x|, x ∈ ℝ and g : ℝ → ℝ be defined by g(x) = x, x ≥ 0 and , = -x, x
< 0. Then f = g.
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GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
1. f(x) = 𝒙𝟐 , x is a real number.
x 0 1 -1 2 -2 3 -3

f(x) 0 1 1 4 4 9 9

y=x2
=f(x)

quadratic

-4 -2 0 2 4

2. f(x) = 2x+3, x is a real number.

x 0 1

f(x) 3 5

5 y = 2x + 3

3
Linear
2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
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3. f(x) = ex, x is a real number.

y = ex

(2<e<3, e =2.71828 approx.) exponential

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

4. f(x) = Sin x, x is a real number.

Sinusoidal

3∏/2

∏/2
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Vertical line test: A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of x if and only if no vertical
line intersects the curve more than once.
Check if any of the following is a function.

5
4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

More graphs:
5. f(x) = 1-x if x ≤ 1 y
x2 if x >1

1 x
6. f(x) = |x|, x is a real number.
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7. f(x) = [x], x is a real number. Step function

8. f(x) = 4, x is a real number.

4.5
4
3.5
3 constant function
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
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9. f (x) = log x , x > 0.

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

SOME COMMON FUNCTIONS

LINEAR FUNCTIONS
The general expression for linear functions is f(x) = a + bx. The parameter a, called the intercept,
is the value of f (x) when x is zero and b, the “coefficient” of x, is called the slope.
The graph of a linear function is a straight line where the horizontal axis is representing the value
of x and the vertical axis is representing the corresponding value of f (x).
QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS
The general expression for a quadratic function can be written as,
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c where the parameter c is the value of f (x) when x is zero and a and b are the
coefficients of x2 and x respectively.
The graph of a quadratic equation, where the horizontal axis is representing the value of x and the
vertical axis is representing the corresponding value of f (x), is a parabola which is vertical.
POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
If n is a positive integer and a0, a1, a2, …, an are real constants, then the expression
P (x) = a0xn + a1xn-1 + a2xn-2 + …………… + an-1x + an
is called a polynomial function of degree n in x.
Example: P (x) = 3x4 – 2x3 + x2+ 6x + 5
The graph of polynomial functions, when the power of x is n, is called a power curve of degree n.
So a straight line is a power curve of degree 1, and a parabola is a power curve of degree 2.
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MONOTONE FUNCTIONS
A function f(x) is said to be monotone non-decreasing (increasing) if for every x1<x2 f(x1) ≤ (<)
f(x2).
It is monotone non-increasing (decreasing) if for every x1<x2, f(x1) ≥ (>) f(x2).
Note: Every linear function is either increasing or decreasing (except the constant function)
what about quadratic, exponential & logarithmic?
CONVEX AND CONCAVE FUNCTIONS
A function is said to be convex (concave) if the line segment joining any two points of the curve
lies on or above (below) it.

Concave
Convex

EVEN FUNCTION
f(x) = f(-x) for all x.
ODD FUNCTION
f(x) = - f(-x) for all x.

COMPOSITE FUNCTION
Given the functions f (.) and g (.) , the composite function fog is defined by (fog)(x)=f(g(x)).

Examples/Exercises
4
1. f(x)=√𝑥 g(x)=√2 − 𝑥 (fog)(x)=f(g(x))=√𝑔(𝑥) =√√2 − 𝑥 = √2 − 𝑥
2. f(x)=x/(x+1) g(x)=x10 (fog)(x)=?
4
3. Given (fog)(x)= √𝑥 + 9, find some choices for f(.) and g(.).

RATIONAL FUNCTION
f(x)=P(x)/Q(x), P and Q are polynomials. Domain consists of all values of x such that Q(x) ≠ 0.
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Examples:
1. f(x)=(2x4 - x2 + 1)/(x2 - 4): Domain ={x: x ≠ ±2}

2. f(x) = (x2-1)/(x-1):

2- Not defined at x=1

So f(x)= (x2-1)/(x-1) & g(x)=x+1 are not the same function.

VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL SHIFTS
Suppose C>0
y=f(x) ± C vertical shift by C units
y=f (x ± C) horizontal shift to the left and right by C units.
y=f(x)+C
y=f(x+C)
y=f(x) y=f(x-C)
y=f(x)-C
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LIMIT OF A FUNCTION AT A POINT

We write lim f(x) = L and say “the limit of f(x), as x approaches a, equals L”.
x→a

If we can make values of f(x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by taking x sufficiently
close to a, but not equal to a.
Notice in the figure that we have taken Q to the left of P. We could have taken it to the right of P as
well. When we approach the point x = a from left (i.e., through values of x less than a), the limit thus
obtained is the “left limit”, written as lim f(x). One the other hand, the right limit, lim f(x), is the
x→a− x→a+
limit obtained by approaching x = a through the values greater than a.
The limit exists if and only if both left and right limits exist, and are equal.
Let us see a few examples now.
𝑥−1
1. lim .
𝑥→1 𝑥 2 −1

x<1 f(x) x>1 f(x)

0.5 0.67 1.5 0.40

0.9 0.53 1.1 0.48

0.99 0.5025 1.01 0.4975

0.999 0.50025 1.001 0.49975

0.9999 0.500025 1.0001 0.499975

So the left limit = right limit = 0.5.

Alt:
𝑥−1 1
= if x≠1
𝑥 2 −1 𝑥+1

𝑥−1 1 1
As x→1 = → = 0.5 from both left and right.
𝑥 2 −1 𝑥+1 2

sin 𝑥
2. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
X f(x)

±1 0.84

±0.5 0.96
Hence the limit is 1.
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±0.4 0.97

±0.3 0.98

±0.2 0.99

±0.1 0.9987

±0.05 0.9996

±0.01 0.99998

±0.005 0.99999

±0.0001 0.99999983

3. Heaviside function
f(x) = 0 if x < 0,
1 if x ≥ 0.

lim f(x) = 0 lim f(x) =1

x→0− x→0+
↓ ↓
Left limit ≠ Right limit, so limit does not exist at x = 0.

1
4. lim =∞
𝑥→0 𝑥 2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) =∞  f(x) can be made arbitrarily large (as large as we please) by taking x sufficiently close to 0
𝑥→0
(but not equal to 0)

1
Exercise lim = ?
𝑥→0 𝑥
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Some Important Results:

Let f and g be two functions such that lim f(x) = L and lim g(x) = M, where L and M are both finite
x→a x→a
numbers. Then,
1. lim cf(x) = cL for any finite constant c
x→a
2. lim(f(x) ± g(x)) = L±M
x→a
3. lim(f(x) × g(x)) = L×M
x→a
4. lim(f(x)/g(x)) = L/M provided M ≠ 0.
x→a

Some Standard Limits

xn −an
1. lim = nan-1, x ≠ a.
x→a x−a
sin x
2. lim =1
x→0 x
ex −1
3. lim =1
x→0 x
loge (1+x)
4. lim =1
x→0 x
(1+x)1/x
5. lim =e
x→0 x
ax −1
6. lim = logea
x→0 x

CONTINUITY
A function f(x) is continuous at x = a if lim f(x) = f(a). If f(x) is not continuous at a, then f (x) is
x→a
discontinuous at a.
Intuitively f(x) is continuous at x = a if f(x) gets closer and closer to f(a) as x gets closer and closer to
a.
Geometrically a function is continuous in an interval if at every point in the interval as a function whose
graph has no break in it.
Example
(x−2)(x+1)
1. f(𝑥) = if x ≠ 2
x−2

= x+1 if x = 2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 = f(2). So 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 2
𝑥→2
1
2. f(𝑥)= if 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥2
1 if 𝑥 = 0
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Not continuous.
x2 −x−2
3. f(x) = if x≠2
x−2

= 1 if x = 2
The function is discontinuous at x = 2, as lim f(x) = 3 ≠ f(2).
x→2

4. f (𝑥) = [𝑥], x is real.

Some results
1. A polynomial function is always continuous.

2. f(x) = log(x) is continuous.

3. f (x) = ex is continuous.

4. f(x) = sin x is continuous. So is g(x) = cos x.

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THE CONCEPT OF DERIVATIVES

INTRODUCTION
The derivative of a function represents the rate of change of a variable with respect to another variable.
For example, the velocity of a body is defined as the rate of change of the location of the body with
respect to time. The location is the dependent variable while time is the independent variable. Now if
we measure the rate of change of velocity with respect to time, we get the acceleration of the body. In
this case, the velocity is the dependent variable while time is the independent variable.
Whenever differentiation is introduced, two concepts of the secant line and tangent line (Figure 1) are
revisited.

f(x)

secant line
Q

tangent line
P

Figure 1 Function curve with tangent and secant lines.

Let P and Q be two points on the curve as shown in Figure 1. The secant line is the straight line drawn
through P and Q .
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a a+h x

Figure 2 Calculation of the secant line.

The slope of the secant line (Figure 2) is then given as

f (a + h) − f (a)
m PQ,secant =
(a + h) − a

f (a + h) − f (a)
=
h

As Q moves closer and closer to P, the limiting portion is called the tangent line. The slope of the
tangent line mPQ,tangent then is the limiting value of mPQ,secant as h → 0 .

f (a + h) − f (a)
m PQ,tangent = lim
h →0 h
This brings us to the concept of derivative.
DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION
The derivative of a function f(x) at x = a is defined as

df f (a + h) − f (a)
|x =a f (a) = lim
dx h → 0 h
An alternative form of the definition is

f (x) − f (a)
f (a) = lim
x →a x −a

As x→a, the definition is nothing but the slope of the tangent line at P .
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Example

Find f ’(3) if f(x) = 4x2.

Solution

f (3 + h) − f (3) 4(3 + h) 2 − 4(3) 2

f (3) = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h
4(9 + h 2 + 6h) − 36 36 + 4h 2 + 24h − 36
= lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h
h(4h + 24)
= lim = lim(4h + 24) = 24.
h →0 h h →0

Exercises
df(x)
1. f(x) = x 2 − 8x + 9, x is a real number. |x=a = ?
dx
2. f(x) = |x|. f ’(0) = ?
𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
3. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 if 𝑥 ≤ 0 |x=0 = ?
𝑑𝑥
1 if 𝑥 > 0

NOTATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
Derivates can be denoted in several ways. For the first derivative, the notations are
d dy
f ( x), f ( x), y, and
dx dx
For the second derivative, the notations are
d2 d2y
f ( x), f ( x ), y , and
dx 2 dx 2
For the nth derivative, the notations are
dn n
(n) d y
f ( n ) ( x ), f ( x ), y ,
dx n dx n

Relation with Continuity: f(x) is differentiable at x = a implies that f(x) is continuous at x = a but
the converse may not be true.

Some useful formulas

df(x)
1. f(x) = c => =0
dx
df(x)
2. f(x) = x n , n = any real number => = nx n−1
dx
df(x)
3. f(x) = logx => = 1/x
dx
df(x)
4. f(x) = ex => = ex
dx
df(x)
5. f(x) = sin x => = cos x
dx
df(x)
6. f(x) = cos x => = − sin x
dx
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d d
7. {cf(x)} = c f(x)
dx dx
d d d
8. {f(x) ± g(x)} = f(x) ± g(x)
dx dx dx
d d d
9. {f(x)g(x)} = f(x) g(x) + g(x) f(x) (Product Rule)
dx dx dx
d d
d f(x) g(x)dx f(x)−f(x)dx g(x)
10. { } = (g(x) ≠ 0, Quotient Rule)
dx g(x) (g(x))2

Exercises: Find derivatives of the following functions.

1. f(x) = √x (1 − x)
2. f(x) = (16x)3
3. f(x) = √5x
4. f(x) = (√x -1)/(√x +1)
4 6
5. f(x) = 3 + +
x x2
x5
6. f(x) =
x3−2
7. f(x) = 3sin x − 4cos x
8. f(x) = 3ex + 4
9. f(x) = 2logx
logx
10. f(x) =
x

FINDING MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM OF A FUNCTION

The knowledge of first derivative and second derivative of a function is used to find the minimum
and maximum of a function. First, let us define what the maximum and minimum of a function are.
Let f(x) be a function on domain D, then
1. f(a) is the maximum of the function if f(a) ≥ f(x) for all values of x in the domain D.
2. f(a) is the minimum of the function if f(a) ≤ f(x) for all values of x in the domain D.
3. The minimum and maximum of a function are also the critical values of a function.

maximum

Domain = [c,d]

minimum

c d x
Figure 3 Graph illustrating the concepts of maximum and minimum.
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An extreme value can occur in the interval [c, d] at

• end points c or d;
• a point in [c, d] where f ‘(x) = 0;
• a point in [c, d] where f ‘(x) does not exist.
These critical points can be the local maxima and minima of the function (See Figure 4).

f(x) Absolute Maximum

●
● Local Maximum
Local Maximum
(f´′(x) does not exist)
●
●
Local ●
Minimum
● Local Minimum

● Absolute Minimum

c d x

Figure 4 The plot shows the critical points of in .

Example
Find the minimum and maximum value of f (x) = x 2 − 2x − 5 in the interval [0,5].
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maximum

minimum

Figure 5 Maximum and minimum values of f (x) = x 2 − 2x − 5 over interval [0,5].

Solution.
f (x) = x 2 − 2x − 5, so f (x) = 2x − 2,
giving f (x) = 0 at x = 1.
f ’ (x) exists everywhere in [0,5].
So the critical points are x = 0, 1 and 5.
f (0) = (0) 2 − 2(0) − 5 = - 5
f (1) = (1) 2 − 2(1) − 5 = - 6
f (5) = (5) 2 − 2(5) − 5 = 10
Hence, the minimum value of f(x) occurs at x = 1, and the maximum value occurs at x = 5.
Figure 6 shows an example of a function that has no minimum or maximum value in the domain (0,
∞).
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Figure 6 Function that has no maximum or minimum.

A point where the function is not smooth (e.g., derivative does not exist) is called a singular point.
Figure 7 shows the maximum of the function occurring at a singular point. The function f(x) has a
sharp corner at x = a.

Figure 7 Graph demonstrates the concept of a singular point with discontinuous slope
at x = a

Exercise Is x = 1 a local maximum or minimum of the function f(x) = x2 -2x -5?

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TABLE OF DERIVATIVES
f (x ) f (x)

xn , n  0 nx n −1

kxn , n  0 knxn−1

sin(x) cos(x)

cos(x) − sin (x)

tan(x) sec 2 ( x)

sinh(x) cosh(x)

cosh(x) sinh(x)

tanh(x) 1 − tanh 2 ( x)

1
sin −1 ( x )
1− x2

−1
cos −1 ( x )
1− x2

1
tan −1 ( x )
1+ x2
csc(x) − csc ( x)cot ( x)

sec(x) sec( x)tan( x)

cot(x) − csc 2 ( x)

csch(x) − coth( x)csch( x)

sech(x) − tanh( x)sech( x)

coth(x) 1 − coth 2 ( x)

|x|
csc −1 ( x ) −
x2 x2 −1

|x|
sec −1 ( x )
x2 x2 −1
−1
cot −1 ( x )
1+ x2
 23

ax ln(a )a x

1
ln(x)
x
1
log a (x)
xln( a )

ex ex
 24

INTEGRATION
CALCULATING THE AREA UNDER A CURVE
Let us denote the area under y = f(x) between a fixed point a and a variable point x by A(x):

It is clearly a function of x since as the upper limit changes so does the area. How does the area
change if we change the upper limit by a very small amount δx? See the figure below.

To a good approximation the change in the area A(x + δx) − A(x) is:

A(x + δx) − A(x) ≈ f(x)δx,

an approximation which gets better and better as δx gets smaller and smaller, and so:
A(x + x) − A(x)
f (x) = lim .
x →0 x
But this limit is the derivative of A(x) with respect to x so we have
dA(x)
f (x) = .
dx
Now the area under the curve from a to b is clearly A(b)−A(a). Hence, the idea of the integration is
to accumulate these small changes, i.e. to write
b b
A(b) − A(a) =  dA(x) =  f (x)dx.
a a
The above is called the definite integral. The indefinite integral  f (x)dx, on the other hand, just
represents A(x)-A(a), where x is a variable. Notice that we can rewrite this as A(x)+c, by putting c =
-A(a).
 25

AREA AS A LIMIT OF SUM

Now that we have seen that area under a curve is represented by the integral of the function
represented by the curve, we now examine how to obtain such an integral. This is done as a limit of
a sum of the area of small rectangles.

For example consider the graph of the positive function y(x) shown in the figure below. Suppose we
are interested in finding the area under the graph between x = a and x = b.

One way in which this area can be approximated is to divide it into a number of rectangles, find the
area of each rectangle, and then add up all these individual rectangular areas. This is illustrated in the
figure below, which shows the area divided into n rectangles:

Now, the figure below shows the dimensions of a typical rectangle which is located at x = xk:
 26

The sum of the areas of all n rectangles is then

y(x1)δx + y(x2)δx + y(x3)δx + … + y(xn)δx
which we write concisely using summation notation as
n
 y(x k )x.
k =1
This quantity gives us an estimate of the area under the curve but it is not exact. To improve the
estimate we must take a large number of very thin rectangles. So, what we want to find is the value
of this sum when n tends to infinity and δx tends to zero. We write this value as
n
lim  y(x k )x.
n→ k =1
The lower and upper limits on the sum correspond to the first and last rectangle where x = a and x =
b respectively.
Let us now try to solve a few problems using this idea:
Exercise. Compute the following integrals as a limit of sum:
1 1 1
(a)  xdx, (b)  x 2dx, (c)  e x dx.
0 −1 0
 27

INTEGRALS AS ANTI-DERIVATIVES
dy
Suppose we differentiate the function y = x2. We obtain = 2x. Integration reverses this process
dx
and we say that the anti-derivative of 2x is x2.

In general, if F(x) has the derivative f(x), then f(x) has the anti-derivative F(x). The indefinite integral
of f(x) is then F(x) + c, and the definite integral from a to b is F(b) - F(a).
Because of this reason, once we know the derivative of a function it is very simple to obtain the
integral of the corresponding derivative. For this reason we can list “standard integrals” as we do
later.
Exercises. Compute the following integrals:
1
( )
(a)  x3dx; (b)  xe− x dx; (c)  sin ( log x ) dx; (d)  x cos x 2 dx; (e)  ( x + 5) dx.
2
1/3
x
PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION
A probability density function f(x) is a function such that

(a) f(x) ≥ 0 for all x and (b)  f (x)dx = 1.
−

Check that the following functions are probability density functions:

 1
 if |x|<1  |x| if |x|<1 e −x if x>0

(a) f (x) =  x 2 ; (b) f (x) =  ; (c) f (x) =  where λ>0.
0 otherwise 0 otherwise 
 0 otherwise
