z

2 V w
w ds
V
dz u
u dx
1
x
However, along a streamline in any steady flow dz/dx=w/u and therefore udz = wdx. If we
collect the both equations,

⎛ ∂u ∂w ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ∂w ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂p ∂p ⎞
2 2 2 2

∫1 ⎜⎝ u ∂x + w ∂x ⎟⎠dx + ∫1 ⎜⎝ u ∂z + w ∂z ⎟⎠dz = − ρ ∫1 ⎜⎝ ∂x dx + ∂z dz ⎟⎠ − g ∫1 dz

Since u
∂u ∂ u 2 2
=
( )
, arranging the equation yields,
∂x ∂x

2
(
⎡∂ u 2 2)∂ u2 2 ⎤ ( 2
)
⎡ ∂ w2 2 (
∂ w2 2 ⎤ )
1 ⎡ ∂p
2
( ∂p ⎤) 2

∫1 ⎢⎣ ∂x dx + ∂z dz ⎥⎦ + ∫1 ⎢⎣ ∂x dx + ∂z dz ⎥⎦ = − ρ ∫1 ⎢⎣ ∂x dx + ∂z dz ⎥⎦ − g ∫1 dz

Since the terms in each bracket is a total differential, by integrating gives

u 22 u12 w22 w12

= − ( p 2 − p1 ) − g ( z 2 − z1 )
1
− + −
2 2 2 2 ρ

By remembering that V2 = u2 + w2, the equation takes the form of

V12 p1 V2 p
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 (6.6)
2g γ 2g γ

This equation is the well-known Bernoulli equation and valid on the streamline
between points 1 and 2 in a flow field.

6.5. ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOW

Considerations of ideal flow lead to yet another flow classification, namely the
distinction between rotational and irrotational flow.

104 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

 dy dθ

dx
(a) (b)

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.2 and 6.3

Basically, there are two types of motion: translation and rotation. The two may exist
independently or simultaneously, in which case they may be considered as one superimposed
on the other. If a solid body is represented by square, then pure translation or pure rotation
may be represented as shown in Fig. 6.2 (a) and (b), respectively.

If we now consider the square to represent a fluid element, it may be subjected to

deformation. This can be either linear or angular, as shown in Fig. 6.3 (a) and (b),
respectively.

The rotational movement can be specified in mathematical terms. Fig.6.4 shows the
rotation of a rectangular fluid element in a two-dimensional flow.
y

C'
u ΔyΔt
y u
u y
Δy
C
D'
v ΔxΔt
x B'
Δ
Δθ2
v
v Δθ1 v x
Δx
u x
A B
Δx
Fig. 6.4

During the time interval Δt the element ABCD has moved relative to A to a new
position, which is indicated by the dotted lines. The angular velocity (wAB) of line AB is,

105 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

 w AB = lim
Δθ 1
= lim
(∂v ∂x )ΔxΔt = ∂v
Δt →0 Δt Δt →0 ΔxΔt ∂x

Similarly, the angular velocity (wAD) of line AD is

Δθ 2 ∂u
w AD = lim =−
Δt →0 Δt ∂y

The average of the angular velocities of these two line elements is defined as the
rotation w of the fluid element ABCD. Therefore,

w=
1
(w AB + w AD ) = 1 ⎛⎜⎜ ∂v − ∂u ⎞⎟⎟ (6.7)
2 2 ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠

The condition of irrotationality for a two-dimensional flow is satisfied when the

rotation w is everywhere zero, so that

∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u
− =0 or = (6.8)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

For a three-dimensional flow, the condition of irrotationality requires that the rotation
about each of three axes, which are parallel to x, y and z-axes must be zero. Therefore, the
following three equations must be satisfied:

∂w ∂v ∂u ∂w ∂v ∂u
= , = , = (6.9)
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

EXAMPLE 6.2: The velocity components in a two-dimensional velocity field for an

incompressible fluid are expressed as

y3
u= + 2x − x 2 y
3
x3
v = xy 2 − 2 y −
3

Show that these functions represent a possible case of an irrotational flow.

SOLUTION: The functions given satisfy the continuity equation (Equ. 6.3), for their
partial derivatives are

∂u ∂v
= 2 − 2 xy and = 2 xy − 2
∂x ∂y
so that
∂u ∂v
+ = 2 − 2 xy + 2 xy − 2 = 0
∂x ∂y

106 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

Therefore they represent a possible case of fluid flow. The rotation w of any fluid element in
the flow field is,

1 ⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞
w= ⎜ − ⎟
2 ⎜⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠

1⎡ ∂ ⎛ 2 x3 ⎞ ∂ ⎛ y 3 ⎞⎤
= ⎢ ⎜ ⎜ xy − 2 y − ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ + 2 x − x 2 y ⎟⎟⎥
2 ⎣ ∂x ⎝ 3 ⎠ ∂y ⎝ 3 ⎠⎦

= [(
1 2
2
) ( )]
y − x2 − y 2 − x2 = 0

6.6. CIRCULATION AND VORTICITY

Consider a fluid element ABCD in rotational motion. Let the velocity components
along the sides of the element be as shown in Fig. 6.5.
y

u
u+ y dy
B C

v
dy v Direction v+ x dx
of
intergration
A u D

dx

x
Fig. 6.5

Since the element is rotating, being part of rotational flow, there must be a resultant
peripheral velocity. However, since the center of rotation is not known, it is more convenient
to relate rotation to the sum of products of velocity and distance around the contour of the
element. Such a sum is the line integral of velocity around the element and it is called
circulation, denoted by Γ. Thus,
r r
Γ = ∫ V ⋅ ds (6.10)

Circulation is, by convention, regarded as positive for anticlockwise direction of

integration. Thus, for the element ABCD, from side AD

107 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

 ⎛ ∂v ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ⎞
ΓABCD = udx + ⎜ v + dx ⎟dy − ⎜⎜ u + dy ⎟dx − vdy
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ⎟⎠

∂v ∂u
= dxdy − dydx
∂x ∂y

⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞
= ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟dydx
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Since
⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞
⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ = ζ
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠

For the two-dimensional flow in the x-y Ë–aWe, is the vorticity of the element about
the z-axis, ζz. ThÔ product dxdy is the area of the element dA.
Th)s
⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞
ΓABCD = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟dxdy = ζ z dA
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠

It is seen, therefore, that the circulation[XrWund X contour is equal to the sum of the
vorticities within%the area of contour. This is known as Stokes’ thXo em and may be stated
mathematically, for a general case of any contoué›C (Fig_6.6) as

ΓC = ∫ Vs ⋅ ds = ∫ ζ ⋅ dA (6.11)
A

θ
ζdA
C

Fig. 6.6

The above considerations<indicate that, for irrotational flow, since vorticity iÏ equal to
zero, Óhe circulation around a closed contour through which fluid és moving, must be equal
to zero.

6.7. STREAM FUNCTIO…

A stream function ψ is a mathematical device, which describes the formŒof any

particular pattern of flow. In Fig. 6.7 let P (x, y) represent a movable point in the plane of

108 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

motion of a steady, two-dimensional flow, and cönsider the flow to have unit thicrness
perpendicular to the xy-plane.
y

P`

q Δ y P(x,y)
υ P''
x

x
Fig. 6.7
The volume rate of flow across any line connecting OP is a function of the position of
P and defined as the stream function ψ:

ψ = f ( x, y )

Stream function ψ has a unit of cubic meter per second per meter thickness (normal to
the xy-plane).

The two components of velocity, u and v can be expressed in terms of ψ. If the point P
in Fig. 6.7 is displaced an infinitesimal distance ∂y is ∂ψ = u⋅∂y. Therefore,

∂ψ
u= (6.12)
∂y
Similarly,
∂ψ
v=− (6.13)
∂x

When these values of u and v are substituted into Eqs. (3.6), the differential equation
for streamlines in two-dimensional flow becomes

∂ψ ∂ψ
dy + dx = 0
∂y ∂x

By definition, the left-hand side of this equation is equal to the total differential dψ
when ψ = f (x, y). Thus,

dψ = 0
and
ψ = C (constant along a streamline) (6.14)

109 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

 Equ. (6.14) indicates that the general equation for the streamlines in a flow pattern is
obtained when ψ is equated to a constant. Different numerical values of the constant in turn
define streamlines. As an example, the stream function for a steady two-dimensional flow at
900 corner (shown in Fig. 6.8) takes the following form:

ψ = xy

The general equation for the streamlines of such a flow is obtained when ψ = C
(constant), that is,

xy = C

Which indicates that the streamlines are a family of rectangular hyperbolas. Different
numerical values of C define different streamlines as shown in Fig. 6.8. Obviously, the
volume rate of flow between any two streamlines is equal to the difference in numerical
values of their constants.
y

10

6
= xy = C

4 ν = 16
υ 12
2 P(x,y) 8
4
0
0 x
2 4 6 8 10
Fig. 6.8

EXAMPLE 6.3: A stream function is given by

ψ = 3x 2 − y 3

Determine the magnitude of velocity components at the point (3,1).

SOLUTION: The x and y components of velocity are given by

∂ψ ∂
x-component: u = = (3x 2 − y 3 ) = −3 y 2
∂y ∂y

110 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

 ∂ψ ∂
y-component: v = − = − (3x 2 − y 3 ) = −6 x
∂x ∂x

At the point (3,1)

u = -3 and v = -18

and the total velocity is the vector sum of the two components.
r r r
V = −3i − 18 j

Note that ∂u/∂x=0 and ∂v/∂y=0, so that

∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y

Therefore the given stream function satisfies the continuity equation.

The equation for vorticity,

∂v ∂u
ζ = − (6.14)
∂x ∂y

may also be expressed in terms of ψ by substituting Eqs. (6.12) and (6.13) into Equ. (6.14)

∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
ζ =− −
∂x 2 ∂y 2

However, for irrotational flows, ζ = 0, and the classic Laplace equation,

∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
+ 2 = ∇ 2ψ = 0
∂x 2
∂y

results. This means that the stream functions of all irrotational flows must satisfy the Laplace
equation and that such flows may be identified in this manner; conversely, flows whose ψ
does not satisfy the Laplace equation are rotational ones. Since both rotational and irrotational
flow fields are physically possible, the satisfaction of the Laplace equation is no criterion of
the physical existence of a flow field.

EXAMPLE 6.4: A flow field is described by the equation ψ = y-x2. Sketch the
streamlines ψ = 0, ψ=1, and ψ = 2. Derive an expression for the velocity V at any point in the
flow field. Calculate the vorticity.

111 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

 y

= 2

= 1
= 0

x
0

SOLUTION: From the equation for ψ, the flow field is a family of parabolas
symmetrical about the y-axis with the streamline ψ = 0 passing through the origin of
coordinates.

∂ψ ∂
u= = (y − x 2 ) = 1
∂y ∂y
∂ψ ∂
v=− = − (y − x 2 ) = 2 x
∂x ∂x

Which allows the directional arrows to be placed on streamlines as shown.

The magnitude V of the velocity may be calculated from

V = u 2 + v 2 = 1 + 4x 2

and the vorticity by Equ. (6.14)

∂v ∂u ∂ ∂
ζ = − = (2 x ) − (1) = 2 sec −1 (Counter clockwise)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

Since ζ ≠ 0, this flow field is seen to be rotational one.

6.8. VELOCITY POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS

When the flow is irrotational, a mathematical function called the velocity potential
function φ may also be found to exist. A velocity potential function φ for a steady, irrotational
flow in the xy-plane is defined as a function of x and y, such that the partial derivative φ with
respect to displacement in any chosen direction is equal to the velocity in that direction.
Therefore, for the x and y directions,

∂φ
u= (6.15)
∂x

112 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

 ∂φ
v= (6.16)
∂y

These equations indicate that the velocity potential increases in the direction of flow.
When the velocity potential function φ is equated to a series of constants, equations for a
family of equipotential lines are the result.

The continuity equation

∂u ∂v
+ =0 (6.3)
∂x ∂y

may be written in terms of φ by substitution Eqs. (6.15) and (6.16) into the Equ. (6.3), to yield
The Laplacian differential equation,

∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
+ 2 = ∇ 2φ = 0 (6.17)
∂x 2
∂y

Thus all practical flows (which must conform to the continuity principle) must satisfy
the Laplacian equation in terms of φ.

Similarly, the equation of vorticity,

∂v ∂u
ζ = − (6.14)
∂x ∂y
may be put in terms of φ to give

∂ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
ζ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ = −
∂x ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂x∂y ∂x∂y

from which a valuable conclusion may be drawn: Since,

∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
=
∂x∂y ∂x∂y

the vorticity must be zero for the existence of a velocity potential. From this it may be deduced
that only irrotational (ζ = 0) flow fields can be characterized by a velocity potential φ; for this
reason irrotational flows are also known as potential flows.

RELATION BETWEEN STREAM FUNCTION AND VELOCITY POTENTIAL

113 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

 A geometric relationship between streamlines and equipotential lines may be derived
from the foregoing equations and restatement of certain mathematical definitions; the latter
are (with definitions of u and v inserted)

∂ψ ∂ψ
dψ = dx + dy = −vdx + udy
∂x ∂y
∂φ ∂φ
dφ = dx + dy = udx + vdy
∂x ∂y

However, along a streamline ψ is constant and dψ = 0, so along a streamline,

dy v
=
dx u

also along any equipotential line φ is constant and dφ = 0, so along an equipotential line;

dy v
=−
dx u

The geometric significance of this is seen in Fig. 6.9. The equipotential lines are
normal to the streamlines. Thus the streamlines and equipotential lines (for potential flows)
form a net, called a flow net, of mutually perpendicular families of lines, a fact of great
significance for the study of flow fields where formal mathematical expressions of φ and ψ
are unobtainable. Another feature of the velocity potential is that the value of φ drops along
the direction of the flow, that is, φ3<φ2<φ1.
y
Φ3
Φ2
Φ1 V = Const.

ν
90° υ

l in e
re am −υ
St
ν

x
Fig. 6.9

It is important to note that the stream functions are not restricted to irrotational
(potential) flows, whereas the velocity potential function exists only when the flow is
irrotational because the velocity potential function always satisfies the condition of
irrotationality (Equ. 6.8). The partial derivative of u in Equ. (6.15) is always equal to the
partial derivative v in Equ. (6.16)

114 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

 For any flow pattern the velocity potential function φ is related to the stream function
ψ by the means of the two velocity components, u and v, at any point (x, y) in the Cartesian
coordinate system in the form of the two following equations:

∂φ ∂ψ
u= = (6.18)
∂x ∂y

∂φ ∂ψ
v= =− (6.19)
∂y ∂x

EXAMPLE 6.5: A stream function in a two-dimensional flow is ψ = 2xy. Show that

the flow is irrotational (potential) and determine the corresponding velocity potential function
φ.

SOLUTION: The given stream function satisfies the condition of irrotationality, that
is,
1 ⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ⎞
w= ⎜ − ⎟= ⎜ + ⎟⎟
2 ⎜⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ⎠

1 ⎡ ∂2 ∂2 ⎤
= ⎢ 2 (2 xy ) + (2 xy )⎥ = 0
2 ⎣ ∂x ∂y 2
⎦
which shows that the flow is irrotational. Therefore, a velocity potential function φ will exist
for this flow.
By using Equ. (6.18)

∂φ ∂ψ ∂
= = (2 xy ) = 2 x
∂x ∂y ∂y

Therefore,
φ = ∫ 2 x∂x = x 2 + f1 ( y ) (a)

From Equ. (6.19)

∂φ ∂ψ ∂
=− = − (2 xy ) = −2 y
∂y ∂x ∂x

From this equation,

φ = ∫ − 2 y∂y = − y 2 + f 2 (x ) (b)

The velocity potential function,

φ = x2 − y2 + C

115 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

satisfies both φ functions in Equations a and b.

EXAMPLE 6.6: In a two-dimensional, incompressible flow the fluid velocity

components are given by: u = x – 4y and v = -y - 4x. Show that the flow satisfies the
continuity equation and obtain the expression for the stream function. If the flow is potential
(irrotational) obtain also the expression for the velocity potential.

SOLUTION: For incompressible, two-dimensional flow, the continuity equation is

∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y

but u = x – 4y and v = -y – 4x.

∂u ∂v
=1 = −1
∂x ∂y

Therefore, 1 – 1 = 0 and the flow satisfies the continuity equation.

To obtain the stream function, using Eqs. (6.12) and (6.13)

∂ψ
u= = x − 4y (a)
∂y
∂ψ
v=− = y + 4x (b)
∂x
Therefore, from (a),

ψ = ∫ ( x − 4 y )∂y + f ( x ) + C

= xy − 2 y 2 + f ( x ) + C

But, if ψ0 = 0 at x = 0 and y = 0, which means that the reference streamline passes through the
origin, then C = 0 and

ψ = xy − 2 y 2 + f ( x ) (c)

To determine f (x), differentiate partially the above expression with respect to x and equate to
–v, equation (b):

∂ψ ∂
= y+ f (x ) = y + 4 x
∂x ∂x

f ( x ) = ∫ 4 x∂x = 2 x 2

Substitute into (c)

116 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

 ψ = 2 x 2 + xy − 2 y 2

To check whether the flow is potential, there are two possible approaches:

(a) Since

∂v ∂u
− =0
∂x ∂y
but
v = −(4 x + y ) and u = x − 4y

Therefore,

∂v ∂u
= −4 and = −4
∂x ∂y

so that
∂v ∂u
− = −4 + 4 = 0
∂x ∂y

and flow is potential.

(a) Laplace’s equation must be satisfied,

∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
+ 2 = ∇ 2ψ = 0
∂x 2
∂y

ψ = 2 x 2 + xy − 2 y 2

Therefore,

∂ψ ∂ψ
= 4x + y and = x − 4y
∂x ∂y

∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
=4 and = −4
∂x 2 ∂y 2

Therefore 4 – 4 = 0 and flow is potential.

Now, to obtain the velocity potential,

∂φ
= u = x − 4y
∂x

117 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU

 φ= ∫ (x − 4 y )∂x + f ( y ) + G
But φ0 = 0 at x = 0 and y = 0, so that G = 0. Therefore,

x2
φ= − 4 yx + f ( y )
2

Differentiating with respect to y and equating to v,

∂φ
f ( y ) = −4 x − y
d
= −4 x +
∂y dy

y2
f (y) = − y f (y) = −
d
and
dy 2

so that
x2 y2
φ= − 4 yx −
2 2

6.10. THE FLOW NET

In any two-dimensional steady flow problem, the mathematical solution is to

determine the velocity field of flow expressed by the following two velocity components:

u = f 1 ( x, y )
v = f 2 ( x, y )

However, if the flow is irrotational, the problem can also be solved graphically by
means of a flow net such as the one shown in Fig.6.10. This is a network of mutually
perpendicular streamlines and equipotential lines. The streamlines, which show the direction
of flow at any point, are so spaced that there is an equal rate of flow Δq discharging through
each stream tube. The discharge Δq is equal to the change in ψ from one streamline to the
next. The equipotential lines are then drawn everywhere normal to the streamlines. The
spacings of equipotential lines are selected in such a way that the change in velocity potential
from one equipotential line to the next is constant. Furthermore, that is, Δψ = Δφ. As a result
they form approximate squares (Fig. 6.10)

118 Prof. Dr. Atıl BULU