COURSE

GUIDE

CIT301
STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

Course Team Dr. Moses Ekpenyong - (Developer/Writer)

Prof. Stephen Olabiyisi - Content Editor
Dr. Francis B. Osang – HOD/Internal Quality
Control Expert

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

CIT 301 COURSE GUIDE

© 2022 by NOUN Press

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Printed, 2022

ISBN: 978-058-557-5

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CIT 301 COURSE GUIDE

CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction …………………………………………………….. iv
Course Objectives ………………………………………………. iv
Working Through this Course ………………………………….. vi
Study Units ……………………………………………………… vi
References and Further Readings ………………………………. vii
Presentation Schedule …………………………………………… vii
Assessment ………………………………………………………. viii
How to get the Most from the Course …………………………… viii
Facilitation ……………………………………………………….. ix

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CIT 301 COURSE GUIDE

INTRODUCTION

CIT301: Structured Programming is a 3-credit unit course for students

studying towards acquiring a Bachelor of Science in Computer Science
and other related disciplines.

The course is divided into 8 modules and 20 study units. It provides an

overview of programming languages and their types; and explains the
principles of abstraction and modularity. The elements of structured
programming are then given before outlining the steps in program
design and execution. An introduction to the C programming language
follows with how to use and apply operators and control statements.
Functions and arrays in C are then discussed, finally ending the course
with a study of structures and pointers in C.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

It is important to note that each unit has specific objectives. Students

should study them carefully before proceeding to subsequent units.
Therefore, it may be useful to refer to these objectives in the course of
your studying the units, to assess your progress. Always look at the
unit’s objective after completing a unit. In this way, you can be sure that
you have done what is required of you at the end of the unit.

Below are the overall objectives of this course. On completing the

course, you should be able to:

 Define programs and classify programming languages

 State the advantages and disadvantages of high and low–level
languages
 State the characteristics of a good program
 List the various phases of program development.
 Explain the steps involved in problem definition and analysis
 Describe functions and Procedures in program
 Illustrate a typical function structure for sorting numerical arrays
in C language.
 Define a class in Object–oriented programming
 Explain the abstraction costs and benefits
 Define modularity in programming.
 State the advantages of modular programming approach
 Describe the real-life application of modularity concept.
 Explain the importance of header file, module implementation
and main program in C programming language.
 Illustrate the structure of interface file in C language declarations.

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 State the purpose of IMPORT and the EXTERN macros in C

language program declaration
 State the advantages and disadvantages of structured
programming
 Describe the examples of programming paradigms.
 State the various programming paradigms
 Describe each of the named programming paradigms and
programming languages associated with it.
 Give a brief history of C Programming Language.
 Explain the taxonomy of C programming types
 Explain the importance of studying C programming language.
 Describe the characteristics and uses of C Program.
 Illustrate the structure of a C Programming language.
 Explain the contents of the C program structure.
 Explain the processes involved in compilation and execution of C
program.
 Describe the sample input/ output steps used in program
compilation and execution.
 List the character set in C
 Apply the character set in constructing variables and identifiers
 Differentiate between a variable and a keyword
 Explain what a data type is
 Define a constant
 State the rules for constructing integer constants
 State the rules for constructing real constants
 State the rules for constructing real constants expressed in
exponential form
 State the rules for constructing character constants
 Format your input
 Format your output
 Differentiate between the output of integer float
 Differentiate between the input of integer float
 Define an operator
 Use operators in expressions
 Mention the various operators applicable to C programming
 Describe each of the operators
 State the three control structures inherent in C
 State the generic syntax for the various structures
 Use these structures to write a program code or a block of code
 Describe each of the structure
 Manually simulate a program code involving the structures
 Differentiate between monolithic Vs modular Programming
 State the disadvantages of monolithic Programming
 State the advantages of modular Programming

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CIT 301 COURSE GUIDE

 Declare a function
 Outline the various function categories
 Differentiate between a user define functions vs standard
function.
 Differentiate between call by value and call by reference
 Describe an array
 Differentiate between one-dimensional and a two-dimensional
array
 Initialize one-dimensional, two-dimensional and multi-
dimensional arrays
 State the syntax of array declaration
 Define a string
 Differentiate between a string and a character
 Manipulate string
 Mention some commonly used string input/output library
functions
 Read and write string
 Declare a string variable
 Understand C structures and pointers
 Know how to define and use structures and pointers in C

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

To complete this course, you are required to study all the units, the
recommended textbooks, and other relevant materials. Each unit
contains some self-assessment exercises and tutor marked assignments,
and at some point, in this course, you are required to submit the tutor
marked assignments. There is also a final examination at the end of this
course. Stated below are the components of this course and what you
should do.

STUDY UNITS

Module 1 Programing Languages

Unit 1 Computer Programming

Unit 2 Characteristics of a Good Program
Unit 3 Phases of Program Development (Programming)

Module 2 Abstraction and Modularity

Unit 1 Introduction to Abstraction

Unit 2 Modular Programming
Unit 3 Modular Interface

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CIT 301 COURSE GUIDE

Module 3 Elements of Structured Programming

Unit 1 Overview of Structured Programming

Unit 2 Programming Language Paradigms

Module 4 Structured Programming with C

Unit 1 Overview of C
Unit 2 C Program Design
Unit 3 Executing a C Program

Module 5 Introduction to C Programming Language

Unit 1 Element of C
Unit 2 Data Type
Unit 3 Variables, Statements, Expressions

Module 6 Operators and Control Statements

Unit 1 Operators
Unit 2 Overview of Control Statements

Module 7 Functions and Arrays in C Programming Language

Unit 1 Overview of Functions in C

Unit 2 Arrays
Unit 3 Fundamentals of Strings

Module 8 Structure and Pointers In C

Unit 1 Structure and Pointers

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Every study unit contain list of references and further readings. Do not
hesitate to consult them if need be.

PRESENTATION SCHEDULE

The Presentation Schedule included in your course material gives you

important dates for the completion of the Tutor Marked Assignments
and tutorial attendance. Remember, you are required to submit all your
assignments by the due date. You should guard against falling behind in
your work.

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ASSESSMENT

There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First, there are
tutor marked assignments; and second, the written examination.
Therefore, you are expected to take note of the facts, information and
problem solving gathered during the course. The tutor marked
assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment, in
accordance to the deadline given. The work submitted will account for
30% of your total course mark. At the end of the course, you will need
to sit for a final written examination. This examination will account for
70% of your total score.

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THE COURSE

In distance learning, the study units replace the university lectures. This
is one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and
work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and
at a time and place that suits you best. Think of it as reading the lecture
instead of listening to the lecturer. In the same way a lecturer might give
you some reading to do; the study units tell you when to read, and which
are your text materials or set books. You are provided exercises to do at
appropriate points, just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise.

Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit, and how a particular unit is
integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next to this is
a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you
should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. These
learning objectives are meant to guide your study. The moment a unit is
finished, you must go back and check whether you have achieved the
objectives. If you make this a habit, then you will significantly improve
your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides
you through the required reading from other sources. This will usually
be either from your set books or from a reading section. The following is
a practical strategy for working through this course. If you run into any
trouble, telephone your tutor. Remember that your tutor’s job is to help
you. When you need assistance, do not hesitate to call and ask your tutor
to provide it.

In addition, do the following:

1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly, it is your first assignment.
2. Organize a Study Schedule. Design a Course Overview to guide
you through the Course. Note the time you are expected to spend
on each unit and how the assignments relate to the units.
Important information, e.g., details of your tutorials, and the date
of the first day of the semester is available from the study centre.

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You need to gather all the information into one place, such as
your diary or a wall calendar. Decide on a method and write in
your own dates and schedule of work for each unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything
to stay faithful to it. The major reason students fail is that they get
behind with their course work. If you get into difficulty with your
schedule, please, let your tutor know before it is too late for help.
4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. You will need your set books and
the unit you are studying at any point in time.
6. Work through the unit. As you work through it, you will know
what sources to consult for further information.
7. Keep in touch with your study centre as up-to-date course
information will be continuously available there.
8. Well before the relevant due dates (about 4 weeks before due
dates), keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing the
assignments carefully. They have been designed to help you meet
the objectives of the course and therefore will help you pass the
examination. Submit all assignments not later than the due date.
9. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you
have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the
objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor.
10. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s
objectives, you can begin the next unit. Proceed unit by unit
through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep
yourself on schedule.
11. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for
marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit.
Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay
particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the tutor-
marked assignment form and on the ordinary assignments.
12. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved
the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the
course objectives (listed in the Course Guide).
13. Finally, ensure that you practice on the personal computer as
prescribed to gain the maximum proficiency required.

FACILITATION

The dates, times and locations of these Tutorials will be made available
to you, together with the name, telephone number and address of your
Tutor. Each assignment will be marked by your tutor. Pay close
attention to the comments your tutor might make on your assignments as

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CIT 301 COURSE GUIDE

these will help in your progress. Make sure that assignments reach your
tutor on or before the due date.

Your tutorials are important; therefore, try not to skip any. It is an

opportunity to meet your tutor and your fellow students. It is also an
opportunity to get the help of your tutor and discuss any difficulties you
might encounter when reading.

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 MAIN
COURSE

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Programing Languages …………………. 1

Unit 1 Computer Programming ……………………….. 1

Unit 2 Characteristics of a Good Program ……………. 6
Unit 3 Phases of Program Development
(Programming) …………………………………

Module 2 Abstraction and Modularity …………… 13

Unit 1 Introduction to Abstraction …………………… 13

Unit 2 Modular Programming ………………………… 19
Unit 3 Modular Interface ………………………………

Module 3 Elements of Structured

Programming …………………….. 23

Unit 1 Overview of Structured Programming ……….. 23

Unit 2 Programming Language Paradigms ………….. 27

Module 4 Structured Programming with C ……… 31

Unit 1 Overview of C ………………………………… 31

Unit 2 C Program Design …………………………….. 36
Unit 3 Executing a C Program ……………………….. 42

Module 5 Introduction to C Programming

Language …………………………. 47

Unit 1 Element of C …………………………………… 47

Unit 2 Data Type ………………………………………. 51
Unit 3 Variables, Statements, Expressions …………… 56
Module 6 Operators and Control
Statements …………………………. 69

Unit 1 Operators ………………………………………. 69

Unit 2 Overview of Control Statements ………………. 78

Module 7 Functions and Arrays in C

Programming Language ……………….. 100

Unit 1 Overview of Functions in C …………………… 100

Unit 2 Arrays …………………………………………... 111
Unit 3 Fundamentals of Strings ……………………….. 130

Module 8 Structure and Pointers in C …………….. 139

Unit 1 Structure and Pointers …………………………. 139

CIT301 MODULE 1

MODULE 1 PROGRAMING LANGUAGES

Unit 1 Computer Programming

Unit 2 Characteristics of a Good Program
Unit 3 Phases of Program Development (Programming)

UNIT 1 COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Classification of Programming Languages
3.2 Low Level Language
3.3 High Level Language
3.4 Features of High-Level Language
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A program is a finite set of sequenced instructions or commands given

to a computer in order to carry out a particular task. To write a program
for the computer to carry out these instructions, there must be a means
of communication. Humans communicate via natural languages such as
English, French, Chinese etc. Likewise, to communicate with the
computer, we also use languages known as programming languages.
Programming is the art of program writing using a particular
programming language. It can also be said to be the process of writing a
set of instructions in sequential manner using programming language to
control the activity of a computer system. A computer programming
language is an artificial language which is used in writing a set of formal
instructions to control the activities of a computer system.

There are two main types of computer programming languages; these

are: Low-level language and High-level language. Low-level languages
also known as machine language, are machine dependent and makes fast
and efficient use of the computer. It requires no translator to translate the
code. It is directly understood by the computer. On the contrary, writing
a program in high-level language does not require knowledge of the
computer in which the program is run. Hence, high-level languages are
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machine independent, and which programs are portable to other

computers, and very easy to learn and write.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Define programs and classify programming languages

 State the advantages and disadvantages of high- and low-level
languages

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Classification of Programming Languages

There are two major types of computer programming languages: the

low-level language and high-level language.

3.2 Low level language

This type of language is closer to the machine compared with the human
or natural language. The two major examples are the Machine language
and the Assembly language.

Machine Language: This is the only language computer understands. It

is the native language of the computer. The computer directly executes a
program written in machine language. These programs are coded using
strings of 0’s and 1’s. It doesn’t need a translator.

Advantages of Machine Language

 Machine language makes fast and efficient use of the computer.
 It requires no translator to translate the code. It is directly
understood by the computer.

Disadvantages of Machine Language

 Very bulky.
 They require much time for writing and reading.
 They are prone to error which is difficult to detect and correct.
 Very difficult to learn.
 Can only run on the computer it is designed (i.e., it is machine
dependent)

Assembly Language: Assembly Language uses MNEMONICS

(symbols) to represent data and instructions. Such program eliminates
problems associated with machine language. Computer cannot execute
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directly a program written in assembly language; it requires a translator

called assembler. Assembler is a special program designed to translate a
program written in assembly language to a machine language
equivalent.

Advantages of Assembly Language

 It allows complex jobs to run in a simpler way.
 It is memory efficient, as it requires less memory.
 It is faster in speed, as its execution time is less.
 It is mainly hardware oriented.
 It requires less instruction to get the result.
 It is used for critical jobs.

Disadvantages of Assembly Language

 It is machine dependent; the programmer must be knowledgeable
in both subject area and the operations of the machine.
 It is cumbersome though less cumbersome than that of machine
language.
 Very expensive to develop
 It consumes time

3.3 High Level Language

A high-level language is a problem-orientated programming language.

The source programs are written in human readable languages like
English instead of mere symbols. In other words, a high-level language
is a convenient and simple means of describing the information
structures and sequences of actions required to perform a particular task.

Advantages of High-Level Language

 No knowledge of the computer in which the program will be run
is required
 The programs are portable
 Very easy to learn and write

Disadvantages of High-Level Language

 It takes additional translation times to translate the source to
machine code.
 High level programs are comparatively slower than low level
programs.
 Compared to low level programs, they are generally less memory
efficient.
 Cannot communicate directly with the hardware

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

3.4 Features of High-Level Language

 Machine independent
 Problem oriented
 Ability to clearly reflect the structure of program written in it.
 Readability
 Programs are portable.

Examples of High-level Languages are FORTRAN, COBOL, QBASIC,

VISUAL BASIC, JAVA, PASCAL etc.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Classify programming languages and explain the different categories

Solution:
Programming languages are basically classified into two main
categories, that is Low-level language and High-level language. Every
programming language belongs to one of these categories and sub-
category.

Low level languages: Low-level languages are used to write programs

that relate to the specific architecture and hardware of a particular type
of computer. They are closer to the native language of a computer
(binary), making them harder for programmers to understand. Programs
written in low-level languages are fast and memory efficient. However,
it is very difficult to write and debug and maintain. It is equally difficult
to read and understand. Low level program developers must be
acquainted with the particular machine architecture. Low level
languages are subdivided into Machine language and Assembly
language.

Machine language: This is the native language of the computer. It

consists of 0s and 1s. These 0s and 1s (i.e., sequence of binary bits)
constitutes a set of instructions that are directly executed by the
computer. Each instruction performs a very specific and small task.
These instructions are machine dependent and varies from computer to
computer.

Assembly language: Assembly language uses mnemonics instead of

bits. Assembly language instructions interacts directly with the
computer. Assembly language instructions are translated into object
code (i.e., specific machine code) by a special program known as
assembler.

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High-level languages are similar to the human or natural language. high-

level languages are programmers friendly, easy to code, debug and
maintain. It provides a higher level of abstraction from machine
language. They do not interact directly with the hardware. Rather, they
focus more on the complex arithmetic operations, optimal program
efficiency and easiness in coding. Programs in a high-level language are
written using English statements (e.g., Pascal, Java, C, BASIC, etc.).
High-level programs require compilers/interpreters to translate source
code to machine language. We can compile the source code written in
the high-level language to multiple machine languages. Thus, they are
machine independent language. High-level languages are grouped into
two categories based on the execution model – compiled or interpreted
languages

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit introduced the students to the basic knowledge of computer

programming. It defined computer program and discussed the two major
classifications of programming languages (the low- and high-level
programming languages).

5.0 SUMMARY

A computer program is a set of instruction given to a computer to carry

out a particular task. Computer programs are written using programming
languages. These languages can be classified into low-level (i.e.,
machine and assembly languages) and high-level languages. Machine
language uses 0s and 1s while assembly uses mnemonics. The high-
level languages use mathematical symbols in combination with English-
like words. Both the low-level and high-level programming languages
have their advantages and disadvantages. These are stated in the main
contents of the unit

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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UNIT 2 PROGRAM DESIGN

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Characteristics of a Good Program
3.2 Phases of Program Development (Programming)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The principles of data processing set the pace for obtaining the
requirements of a good program. In data processing, three phases are
critical: The input, processing and the output phases. Input constitutes
what instruction and data goes into the system. Processing has to do
with what logic or tools are required to manipulate the data. Hence, we
expect certain characteristics from a good program or tool intended to
process the data to yield informed output.

There are various phases in the development of computer programs.

These phases must be strictly adhered to, to ensure a reliable, efficient
program devoid of syntax and semantic errors.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 State at least six characteristics of a good program

 List the various phases of program development.
 Explain the steps involved in problem definition and analysis

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Characteristics of a Good Program

 Portability/Transferability: Must be able to work on any

computer machine.
 Reliability: It can be relied upon to do what it is expected to do.

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CIT301 MODULE 1

 Efficiency/cost saving: It must not cost more than its benefits and
enables problem to be solved appropriately, quickly and
efficiently.
 Clarity and Simplicity: It should be as simple as possible to
understand.
 Understandability/Readability: It must be readable and
understandable by other programmers and end users.
 Flexibility/Adaptability/Maintainability: A good program must be
flexible adaptable and maintainable in order to suit user’s need.
Modification must be possible and very easy.

3.2 Phases of Program Development (Programming)

The process of producing a computer program (software) may be

divided into eight phases or stages:
1) Problem definition/Analysis
2) Selection or development of an algorithm
3) Designing the program
4) Coding the programming statements
5) Compiling/Compilation stage
6) Testing/Running and Debugging the program
7) Documentation.
8) Maintenance

1) Problem Definition/Analysis Stage: There is need to understand

the problem that requires a solution. The need to determine the
data to be processed, form or type of the data, volume of the data,
what to be done to the data to produce the expected/required
output.
2) Selection or development of an algorithm: An algorithm is the set
of steps required to solve a problem written down in English
language.
3) Designing the program: In order to minimize the amount of time
to be spent in developing the software, the programmer makes
use of flowchart. Flowchart is the pictorial representation of the
algorithm developed in step 2 above. Pseudocode IPO chart
(input processing output) and HIPO (Hierarchical Input
Processing and Output) chart may be used in place of flowchart
or to supplement flowchart.
4) Coding the statement: This involves writing the program
statements. The programmer uses the program flow chart as a
guide for coding the steps the computer will follow.
5) Compiling: There is need to translate the program from the
source code to the machine or object code if it is not written in
machine language. A computer program is fed into the computer
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first, then as the source program is entered, a translated

equivalent (object program) is created and stored in the memory.
6) Running, Testing and Debugging: When the computer is
activated to run a program, it may find it difficult to run it
because errors (syntax, semantics or logic, or runtime) might
have been committed. Manuals are used to debug the errors. A
program that is error free is tested using some test data. If the
program works as intended, real life data are then loaded.
7) Documentation: This is the last stage in software development.
This involves keeping written records that describe the program,
explain its purposes, define the amount, types and sources of
input data required to run it. List the Departments and people
who use its output and trace the logic the program follows.
8) Maintenance: All the activities that occur after the completion of
the program come under the program maintenance. Program
maintenance includes the following: Finding and correcting the
errors; Modifying the program to enhance it – i.e., adapting to
some new concepts or when there is a change in the hardware or
operating system; Update the documentation; Add new features
and functions; Remove useless or redundant parts of code.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. Explain any five characteristics of a good program

ii. Explain the phases or stages of program (or software)
development
iii. Describe the content of program documentation

Solution
1. Explain any five characteristics of a good program
Transferability/portability: Program written in one computer should be
able to run or execute on another computer. That means it should be
easy to transfer a program from the machine on which it developed to
the other computer. A program whose definition is independent of
features of a particular machine architecture can
support Transferability/portability. Example: Pascal, Java, C, c++, Java.
A program should be supported by many different computers. The
program should compile and run smoothly on different platforms. So,
portability is measured by how a software application can be transferred
from one computer environment to another without failure. A program is
said to be more portable if it is easily adopted in different computer
systems.

Reliability: A good program is reliable. It does what it was designed to

do

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CIT301 MODULE 1

Efficiency/cost saving: The user’s actual needs will change from time-
to-time, so the program is said to be reliable if it works smoothly in
every version. It is measured as reliable if it gives same performance in
all simple to complex conditions.

Maintainability: It is the process of fixing program errors and improving

the program. If a program is easy to read and understand, then its
maintenance will be easier. It should also prevent unwanted works so
that the maintenance cost in the future will be low. It should also have
quality to easily meet new requirements. A maintainable program allows
us to quickly and easily fix a bug, increase usability and performance,
add new features, make changes to support multiple platforms, etc.

Efficiency: A program is efficient if it makes use of less amount of

memory and processing time and easily translated to machine code. The
algorithm should be more effective. Every program needs certain
processing time and memory to process the instructions and data. A
program is equally said to be efficient if it has high speed of runtime
execution. A program that gives due consideration to space and time
efficiency is said to be efficient.

Machine Independent: Program should be machine-independent.

Program written on one system should be able to execute on many
different types of computers without any changes. It is not hardware
specific and provides more flexibility.

Cost Effectiveness: Cost Effectiveness is the key to measure the

program quality. Cost must be measured over the life of the program and
must include both financial cost and human cost of producing these
programs. The benefit of the program must outweigh the cost.

Simplicity/Understandability/Readability: A good program must be

simple, readable, easy to understand and use. The overall simplicity of a
program strongly affects the readability of the programs and programs
that are easier to read and understand are easier to maintain

2. Explain the phases or stages of program (or software)

development
1 Problem Definition:
 The first step in the process of program development is the
thorough understanding and identification of the problem for
which is the program or software is to be developed.
 In this step the problem has to be defined formally.
 All the factors like Input/output, processing requirement, memory
requirements, error handling, interfacing with other programs
have to be taken into consideration in this stage.
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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

2 Program Design:
 In this phase the software developer makes use of tools like
algorithms to develop the design of the program.
o Algorithms are step by step methods to solving a problem and
can either be represented by a natural language or by symbols
(flowcharting)
3 Coding:
 Once the design process is complete, the actual computer
program is written, i.e., the instructions are written in a computer
language.
 Coding is generally a very small part of the entire program
development process and also a less time-consuming activity in
reality.
 In this process all the syntax errors i.e., errors related to spelling,
missing commas, undefined labels etc. are eliminated.
 For effective coding some of the guide lines which are applied
are:
o Use of meaningful names and labels of variables
o Simple and clear expressions
o Modularity with emphasis on making modules generalized
o Making use of comments and indenting the code properly
o Avoiding jumps in the program to transfer control.
4 Debugging:
 At this stage the errors in the programs are detected and
corrected.
 This stage of program development is an important process.
Debugging is also known as program validation.
 Some common errors which might occur in the programs include:
o Uninitialization of variables.
o Reversing of order of operands.
o Confusion of numbers and characters.
o Inverting of conditions e.g., jumping on zero instead of on not
zero.
5 Testing:
 The program is tested on a number of suitable test cases.
 A test plan of the program has to be done at the stage of the
program design itself.
 This ensures a thorough understanding of the specifications.
 The most trivial and the most special cases should be identified
and tested.
 It is always useful to include the maximum and minimum values
of all variables as test data.
6 Documentation:
 Documentation is a very essential step in the program
development.

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CIT301 MODULE 1

 Documentation helps the users and the people who maintain the
software.
 This ensures that future modification if required can be done
easily. Also, it is required during redesigning and maintenance.
7 Maintenance:
 Updating and correcting the program for changed conditions and
field experience is accounted for in maintenance.
 Maintenance becomes essential in following situations:
o Change in specification,
o Change in equipment,
o Errors which are found during the actual execution of the
program.
3. Describe the content of program documentation
Program documentation should contain the following:
 Written records that describe the program,
 Explanation of its purposes,
 Define the amount, types and sources of input data required to
run it.
 List the departments and people who use its output and
 The logic the program follows

4.0 CONCLUSION

When designing a program, a conscious effort should be made to build

in some characteristics that makes for a good and functional program. In
this unit some of these characteristics are stated. The phases involved in
the development of a program are enumerated. The steps for problem
definition and analysis are also explained.
.
5.0 SUMMARY

The characteristics of a good program are outlined which include:

transferability, reliability, efficiency, cost saving, simplicity,
understandability, readability, flexibility, adaptability, maintainability.
The Phases of Program Development are:

1. Problem definition/Analysis
2. Selection or development of an algorithm
3. Designing the program
4. Coding the programming statements
5. Compiling/Compilation stage
6. Testing/Running and Debugging the program
7. Documentation.
8. Maintenance

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012.

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CIT301 MODULE 2

MODULE 2 ABSTRACTION AND MODULARITY

Unit 1 Introduction to Abstraction

Unit 2 Modular Programming
Unit 3 Modular Interface

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO ABSTRACTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Abstraction
3.2 Functions and Procedures
3.3 Classes
3.4 Abstraction Costs and Benefits
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

As programmers began to write instructions that were equivalent to a

few bytes, the level of thinking in terms of what the computer was doing
on a functional level raised the level of abstraction. Statements and
structured code can be thought of as assembly language operations, at a
higher level of abstraction. Statements are collected to form functions,
procedures, subroutines, or methods. The abstraction or grouping code
and its data structures is called object-oriented programming. However,
the clump of code and data definitions is called a class in most
programming languages. In many software maintenance projects, the
cost of the additional performance of low levels of abstraction is far
higher than the cost of the computer cycles that would be required to run
the program.

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the unit of this unit, you should be able to:

 Describe functions and Procedures in program

 Illustrate a typical function structure for sorting numerical arrays
in C language.
 Define a class in Object–oriented programming
 Explain the abstraction costs and benefits

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Abstraction

The history of programming has experienced rising levels of granularity.

Decades ago, programmers manipulated individual bits of codes. Then
the assembly language was invented, and programmers began to write
instructions that were equivalent to a few bytes. The advantage was
clear: Instead of thinking in terms of essentially meaningless 1s and 0s,
you could think in terms of what the computer was doing on a functional
level—move this value to that memory location, multiply these two
bytes together.

This is called raising the level of abstraction. Every time you raise the
level of abstraction in a programming language, you get more clearer,
structured program (as measured in terms of bits) for less work. The
language at which you communicate with the computer can also be
altered into something closer to the way we communicate in English.

Each unit of the level of abstraction has a contract or agreement: The

language makes an exact promise of what the computer will do when the
unit is executed. For the following assembly language instruction:
LD (BC), A
the language promises that it will move the value from the register
named A into the place in memory pointed to by registers B and C.
Obviously, this is only a very small piece of what you want the
computer to do, such as word processing, video processing, etc. but it’s
a lot clearer and easier to use than its binary equivalent:
00000010
It may not seem any shorter or easier to remember LD (BC), A; but each
of the letters here has an explicit and easily remembered meaning: LD is
short for LOAD; A, B, and C refer to some registers, and (BC) refers to
a way to do indirection into memory. 00000010 may be just seven 0s
and a 1, but the order is both critical and hard to memorize. Swapping
two of the bits to 00000100 means INC B (increment the B register),
which is totally different.
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CIT301 MODULE 2

3.2 Functions and Procedures

Statements and structured code can be thought of as assembly language

operations, at a higher level of abstraction. The next level of abstraction
is to group statements into operational units with contracts of their own.
Statements are collected to form functions, procedures, subroutines, or
methods, as they are called in various languages. The beauty about
functions is that they limit even further the amount of code required to
understand a piece of code.

A typical function structure for sorting a numerical array in C

programming language, is given below:

/** This function takes the array and returns a sorted version,
* removing duplicates. It may return the same array, or it
* may allocate a new one. If there are no duplicates, it'll
* probably return the old array. If there are, it'll have to
* create a new one. */
int[] sort(int[] array)
{ ... the body ...}

You can learn a lot about the function without even seeing the body. The
name sort, and the fact that it takes an array of integers and returns a
(possibly different) array of integers, tell you a lot about what the
function is supposed to do. The rest of the contract is described in the
comment, which talks about other things such as memory allocation.
That’s even more important in C and C++ than in Java, where it’s often
up to the contract to express who’s responsible for freeing memory
allocated in the function.

The maintenance programmer’s life is made simpler because the

program is chopped up into these functional units. A common rule is
that a function should be only as long as a screenful of code. That makes
it possible to visualize, all at once, a complete, nameable,
understandable unit of the program you’re maintaining. That rule turns
out to be a little bit too strict, though.

The names of functions and procedures are a critical part of the

abstraction. It takes a chunk of code and allows you to refer to it later
with a single word (or a short collection of words,
strungTogetherLikeThis or _like_this). This strategy focuses every line
in the function on achieving the goal with that name. Once the scope of
your function grows beyond the name you’ve assigned to it, it’s time to
consider breaking the function into pieces with better names. If you find
yourself writing code like this:

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

void sortNamesAndSendEmail()
{ // Sort names
... Spend 100 lines sorting the names ...
// Send email
. .. Spend 500 lines sending out emails ...}

it’s a good indicator that it’s time to start breaking the function into
pieces. In effect, you’ll probably write two functions:
sortNames()
sendEmail()
which allows you to eliminate the verbose and weird function name
sortNamesAndSendEmail.

3.3 Classes

Structured programming and functions neatly solve some of the

problems of maintenance by limiting the amount of code you must look
at in order to understand any given line. There’s still one way that far-
off pieces of code can affect a particular line of code, however.

The sort example given earlier sorts only integers, which is not a
particularly interesting job. Why would you ever want to sort just a list
of numbers? More likely, you want to be able to sort a list of objects of
some kind, based on an integer key. Or, more generally, you’d like to be
able to sort on any key, so long as you can reliably compare any two
objects.

Even before object-oriented programming, there were ways to group

chunks of data into functional units. In C, these units are called structs.
However, structs don’t have any reliable way to compare them. You
need some level of abstraction a little higher than provided by structs
that allows you to tell which of two structs should come first. The
abstraction of grouping code and its data structures is called object-
oriented programming. The clump of code and data definitions is called
a class in most programming languages.

C++ is an object-oriented language. It provides a higher level of

abstraction than C does. In general, higher levels of abstraction come at
a performance penalty, and many people criticize C++ for its
performance cost relative to C.

Java aims for an even higher level of abstraction than C++ by

abstracting away access to locations in memory. Though not the first
language to do so (Lisp and Basic readily come to mind, among general-
purpose programming languages), it probably has the highest market
penetration.

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CIT301 MODULE 2

And that level of abstraction also costs performance most of the time.
Not always, of course. An advantage to abstraction is that the
intermediary translators are allowed to make any optimizations they
want, so long as they don’t violate the contracts. The larger the program,
the harder it is to perform all the optimizations and still make the
schedule. The longer a language has been around, the more tricks the
compiler writers learn for optimization. Increasingly, languages at
higher levels of granularity perform faster than those at lower levels.
There’s no way you could write a large program for a Pentium processor
and make it as efficient as the same program written in C; the pipeline
stalls would suck up all of your performance gains (even if you knew
what they were).

3.4 Abstraction Costs and Benefits

In many software maintenance projects, the cost of the additional

performance of low levels of abstraction is far higher than the cost of the
computer cycles that would be required to run the program. As a
maintenance programmer, your time is extremely expensive. The time
of your users is even more expensive (since there are usually more of
them than there are for you), so correctness of the program is key. If
users lose work or time waiting for your software to be corrected, that
easily represents lots of money.

Higher levels of abstraction lead to improved maintenance, simply

because there’s less code. The less code, the less you have to read to
understand it. Certainly, there are limits to this, as 50 lines of clear code
is preferable to 10 lines of total obscurity. In general, however, by using
higher levels of abstraction, improved maintainability is gained.

Of course, there’s a downside to these higher levels of abstraction in

terms of performance. The more flexible a program is, the harder it is to
optimize. As a maintainer, you’ll have to find the balance that works
best. The old dictum of C.A.R. Hoare that “Premature optimization is
the root of all evil” is particularly applicable to abstraction. Choose your
levels appropriately and optimize those parts that can’t be made to
function at the level of abstraction you choose. The payoff is in
programming time, both in development and maintenance, and that
makes users happy.

SELF –ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. What is Abstraction?
ii. Write a function to select the largest of 3 numbers

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

1) What is Abstraction?
Data abstraction is the reduction of a particular body of data to a
simplified representation of the whole. Abstraction, in general, is the
process of refining or taking away or removing characteristics from
something in order to reduce it to a set of essential characteristics.
Abstraction hides some characteristics of a system leaving only the
essential characteristics for reason of simplicity
2) Write a function to select the largest of 3 numbers
#include<stdio.h>
// function to find largest among three numbers
float large (float a, float b, float c)
{
if(a>=b && a>=c) return a;
else if(b>=a && b>=c) return b;
else return c;
}
int main()
{
float num1, num2, num3, largest;
printf("Enter three numbers: ");
scanf("%f %f %f", &num1, &num2, &num3);
largest = large(num1, num2, num3);
printf("Largest number = %.2f",largest);
return 0;}

4.0 CONCLUSION

Abstraction is a programming principle that allows for the hiding of

details of the task at hand. Emphasis is on functionalities. In object-
oriented programming abstraction is achieved via the combination of
code and data into one container. The definition of both the code and
data together is a class. Class is a blue print for the production of
objects.

5.0 SUMMARY

Abstraction is having a global view of the programming task at hand. It

hides details of the task. Abstraction has it costs and benefits. Functions
and procedures are ways of splitting a complex task into smaller units or
modules. This makes room for easy design and implementation a
program.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

18
CIT301 MODULE 2

UNIT 2 MODULAR PROGRAMMING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Modularity
3.2 Advantages of Using Modular Programming Approach
3.3 Real-life Example of Modules
3.4 Modular Programming in C
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A module is basically a set of interrelated files that shares their

implementation details but hide it from the outside world. The main
advantages of modular programming approach, includes ease of use,
reusability, and ease of maintenance. Modularity is applicable in real-
life such as electrical devices that can plug into any outlet/socket.
Modularization is a method to organize large programs in smaller parts,
i.e., the modules. Every module has a well-defined interface toward
client modules that specifies how “services” provided by this module are
made available. Moreover, every module has an implementation part
that hides the code, and any other private implementation details the
clients’ module.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Define modularity in programming.

 State the advantages of modular programming approach
 Describe the real-life application of modularity concept.

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Modularity

Modular programming is the process of subdividing a computer

program into separate sub-programs. A module is a separate software
component. It can be used in a variety of applications and functions with
other components of the system.

Some programs may have thousands or millions of lines and to manage.

For such programs such programs it becomes quite difficult as there
might be too many of syntax errors or logical errors present in the
program, so to manage such programs, the concept of modular
programming is essential. The modular programming concept permits
that each sub-module contains something necessary to execute only one
aspect of the desired functionality. Modular programming therefore
places emphasis on breaking of large programs into small problems to
increase the maintainability, readability of the code and to make the
program handy for any changes in future.

3.2 Advantages of Using Modular Programming Approach

Ease of Use: This approach allows simplicity, as lines of program code

can be accessed in the form of modules, rather than focusing on the
entire thousands and millions of lines code. This allows ease in
debugging the code and prone to less error.
Reusability: It allows the user to reuse the functionality with a different
interface without typing the whole program again.
Ease of Maintenance: It helps in less collision at the time of working on
modules, helping a team to work with proper collaboration while
working on a large application.

3.3. Real-life Example of Modules

Let’s consider a familiar modular system. Consider the electrical devices

(microwaves, electric kettles, washers, dryers, etc.) that can plug into
any outlet/socket. None of these device care if they are plugged into the
electrical outlet in your house or your neighbor’s house or your office,
etc. They are designed to do their specific task and functionality when
they are plugged in and when the power is on, regardless the place they
are in.

Application modules should follow the same philosophy. Regardless of

the application and even regardless of what application they plugged
into, they should do their specific task and only their specific task.

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CIT301 MODULE 2

Also, in exactly the same way that an electrical device can easily be
unplugged from the wall outlet, a code module should be designed in
such a way that it can easily be decoupled and removed from your
application.

Furthermore, as the removal of one electrical device has no impact on

the functionality of other devices that are plugged into your electrical
system, the removal of a code module or a series of code modules from
your application should not have any effect on the functionality of the
other parts of your application.

This decoupling should also have no effect on the application, other than
perhaps just losing the specific functionality that was provided by that
particular module or group of modules in the application.

3.4. Modular Programming in C

C is called a structured programming language because to solve a large

problem, C programming language divides the problem into smaller
modules called functions or procedures each of which handles a
particular responsibility. The program which solves the entire problem is
a collection of such functions.

A module is basically a set of interrelated files that share their

implementation details but hide it from the outside world. Each function
defined in C by default is globally accessible. This can be achieved by
including the header file in which implementation of the function is
defined.

Modularization is a method to organize large programs in smaller parts,

i.e., the modules. Every module has a well-defined interface toward
client modules that specifies how “services” provided by this module are
made available. Moreover, every module has an implementation part
that hides the code and any other private implementation detail the
clients’ modules should not care of.

Modularization has several benefits, especially on large and complex

programs:
 modules can be re-used in several projects;
 changing the implementation details of a modules does not
require to modify the clients using them as far as the interface
does not change;
 faster re-compilation, as only the modules that have been
modified are actually re-compiled;
 self-documenting, as the interface specifies all that is required to
know to use the module;

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 CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

 easier debugging, as modules dependencies are clearly specified

and every module can be tested separately.
Programming by modules using the C language means splitting every
source code into an header file module1.h that specifies how that
module talks to the clients, and a corresponding implementation source
file module1.c where all the code and the details are hidden. The header
contains only declarations of constants, types, global variables and
function prototypes that client programs are allowed to see and to use.
Every other private item internal to the module must stay inside the code
file. We describe in detail the general structure of the interface and the
implementation files.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. State the benefits of modularization on large and complex
programs
Solution
1 State the benefits of modularization on large and complex programs
 Efficient Program Development. Programs can be developed
more quickly with the modular approach since small
subprograms are easier to understand, design, and test than large
programs.
 Multiple Use of Subprograms.
 Ease of Debugging and Modifying.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Modular programming is a programming approach that allows
programming task to be chopped into smaller tasks or modules. This in
turn makes the job easier and minimizes occurrence of errors. It
therefore becomes imperative for programmers to adopt this approach
when designing a program.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt the concept of modularity and the advantages
derivable thereof. A real-life example was illustrated considering
electrical devices microwaves, electric kettles, washers, dryers, etc. You
also leant how to implement modular programming in C programming
language.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

22
CIT301 MODULE 3

MODULE 3 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURED

PROGRAMMING

Unit 1 Overview of Structured Programming

Unit 2 Programming Language Paradigms

UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF STRUCTURED

PROGRAMMING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Structured Programming Concept
3.2 Advantages of Structured Programming
3.3 Disadvantages of Structured Programming
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In structured programming design, programs are broken into different

functions. These functions are also known as modules, subprograms,
subroutines or procedures. Structured programming minimizes the
chances of the function affecting another. It allows for clearer programs
code. It made global variables to disappear and replaced by the local
variables.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 State the advantages and disadvantages of structured

programming
 Describe the examples of programming paradigms.

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Structured programming Concept

In structured programming design, programs are broken into different

functions these functions are also known as modules, subprogram,
subroutines or procedures.

Each function is design to do a specific task with its own data and logic.
Information can be passed from one function to another function
through parameters. A function can have local data that cannot be
accessed outside the function’s scope. The result of this process is that
all the other different functions are synthesized in another function. This
function is known as main function. Many of the high-level languages
support structured programming.

Structured programming minimizes the chances of the function affecting

another. It allows for clearer programs code. It made global variables to
disappear and replaced by the local variables. Due to this change one
can save the memory allocation space occupied by the global variable.
Its organization helps in the easy understanding of programming logic.
So that one can easily understand the logic behind the programs. It also
helps the newcomers of any industrial technology company to
understand the programs created by their senior workers of the industry.
The languages that support Structured programming approach are:
• C
• C++
• Java
• C#
• Pascal

3.2 Advantages of Structured programming

 It is user friendly and easy to understand.

 Similar to English vocabulary of words and symbols.
 It is easier to learn.
 They require less time to write.
 They are easier to maintain.
 These are mainly problem oriented rather than machine based.
 Program written in a higher-level language can be translated into
many machine languages and therefore can run on any computer
for which there exists an appropriate translator.
 It is independent of machine on which it is used, i.e., programs
developed in high level languages can be run on any computer.

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CIT301 MODULE 3

3.3. Disadvantages of Structured Programming

 Structured programming codes implemented in high-level

language has to be translated into the machine language by
translator and thus a price in computer time is paid.
 The object code generated by a translator might be inefficient
compared to an equivalent assembly language program.
 Data type are proceeds in many functions in a structured
program. When changes occur in those data types, the
corresponding change must be made to every location that acts on
those data types within the program. This is really a very time-
consuming task if the program is very large.
 In a structured program, each programmer is assigned to build a
specific set of functions and data types. Since different
programmers handle separate functions that have mutually shared
data type, other programmers in the team must reflect the changes
in data types done by the programmer in data type handled.
Otherwise, it requires rewriting several functions.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe how structured programming can lead to programming

efficiency.

Solution:
Structured programming is a programming paradigm aimed at
improving the clarity, quality, and development time of a computer
program by making extensive use of the structured control flow
constructs of selection (if/then/else) and repetition (while and for), block
structures, and subroutines. It provides tools for efficient coding, save
memory usage and program performance. It provides pointers which has
a lot of advantages as more efficient code, faster execution and memory
saving, higher productivity can be achieved. It provides recursive
function which also makes for efficiency.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Structured programming design allows a program to be subdivided into

different functions. These functions can also be called modules,
subprogram, subroutines and procedures. Each function performs a
particular task. These functions are logically combined to carry out the
desired task.

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt structured programming concept,

Advantages and Disadvantages of Structured programming. Some
programming languages that support Structured programming approach
are also listed.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

26
CIT301 MODULE 3

UNIT 2 PROGRAMMING PARADIGMS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Imperative Paradigm
3.2 Functional Paradigm
3.3 Logical Paradigm
3.4 Object Oriented Paradigm
3.5 Other Paradigms
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A programming paradigm, or programming model, is an approach to

programming a computer based on a mathematical theory or a coherent
set of principles. Examples of these paradigms are imperative,
functional, logical, object-oriented paradigms and others.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 State the various programming paradigms

 Describe each of the named programming paradigms and
programming languages associated with it.

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Programming paradigms

Solving a programming problem requires choosing the right concepts.

All but the smallest toy problems require different sets of concepts for
different parts of the program. A programming paradigm, or
programming model, is an approach to programming a computer based
on a mathematical theory or a coherent set of principles. It is a way of
conceptualizing what it means to perform computation and how tasks to
be carried out on the computer should be structured and organized.
Programming languages are used to realize programming paradigms.
Examples of programming paradigms are: imperative, functional,
logical, object-oriented. Most popular languages are imperative and use
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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

structured programming techniques. Structured programming techniques

involve giving the code you write structures, these often involve writing
code in blocks such as sequence (code executed line by line), selection
(branching statements such as if..then..else, or case) and repetition
(iterative statements such as for, while, repeat, loop).

3.2 Imperative paradigm

This paradigm is based on the ideas of a Von Neummann architecture. A

command has a measurable effect on the program and the order of
commands is important. First do this and next do that. Its main
characteristics are incremental change of the program state (variables) as
a function of time; execution of commands in an order governed by
control structures; and the use of procedures, abstractions of one or more
actions, which can be called as a single command. Examples: Fortran,
Algol, Basic, C, Pascal.

3.3 Functional paradigm

This paradigm is based on mathematics and theory of functions. The

values produced are non-mutable and plays a minor role compared to
imperative program. All computations are done by applying functions
with no side effects. Functions are firsts class citizens. Evaluate an
expression and use the resulting value for something. Example: Haskell.

3.4 Logical paradigm

The logic paradigm fits well when applied in problem domains that deal
with the extractionof knowledge from basic facts and relations. Is based
on axioms, inference rules, and queries. Program execution becomes a
systematic search in a set of facts, making use of a set of inference rules.
Examples: Prolog and List.

3.5 Object-oriented paradigm

Data as well as operations are encapsulated in objects. Information

hiding is used to protect internal properties of an object. Objects interact
by means of message passing. In most object-oriented languages,
objects are grouped in classes and classes are organized as hierarchies.
Examples: C++, Java.

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3.6 Other Paradigms

Other paradigms include Visual paradigm, Constraint based paradigm,

Aspect oriented paradigm and Event-oriented paradigm.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. List the examples of object-oriented programming language

ii. Differentiate with examples, the difference between functional
and object-oriented programming paradigms.

Solution
1) List the examples of object-oriented programming language
 Java
 C++
 C#
 Ruby
 Python
 TypeScript
 PHP

2) Differentiate with examples, the difference between functional

and object-oriented programming paradigms
Object-oriented programming, or simply referred to as “OOP”, is
a software programming model based on the concept of objects,
instead of just functions and procedures. OOP is so designed that
real world concepts can be programmed in a computer program.
As the name suggests, OOP uses objects in programming which
are organized into classes, allowing individual objects to be
grouped together. Each object in OOP is responsible for a set of
tasks. So, various tasks in the program are performed, by
invoking the operations defined on corresponding objects.
Although, the fundamental features of OOP were invented in the
1960s, it wasn’t until the 1980s that object-oriented languages
actually started getting the attention. OOP is a revolutionary idea
and there are a number of reasons why it has become the
dominant programming paradigm in the last few decades.
While
Functional programming is a programming methodology that
emphasizes on the use of function calls as the primary programming
construct. It provides practical approaches to problem solving in general
and insights into many aspects of computing. It is a style of
programming where you focus on the evaluation of expressions rather
than the execution of commands. You use expressions to transform the
data in the functional programming approach which ideally doesn’t
contain side effects. Like the name implies, it uses functions as building
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blocks to create new functions. Functional programming is generally

regarded as a programming paradigm that can be applied in many
languages, even those that weren’t intended to be used with that
paradigm. In functional languages, there is no fixed execution order
meaning the order does not affect the final result. Higher order functions
are also important in functional programming.

4.0 CONCLUSION

A programming paradigm, or programming model, is an approach to

programming a computer based on a mathematical theory or a coherent
set of principles.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt some programming paradigms. These

include Imperative, Functional, Logical, Object-Oriented Paradigms etc.
These Paradigms are briefly discussed. The programming languages
associated with these Paradigms are also discussed.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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CIT301 MODULE 4

MODULE 4 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING WITH C

Unit 1 Overview of C
Unit 2 C Program Design
Unit 3 Executing a C Program

UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF C

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Brief History of C
3.2 Taxonomy of C Types
3.3 Why Study C?
3.4 Why is C Popular?
3.5 Characteristics of C program
3.6 Uses of C
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

C programming language is a structure-oriented programming language,

developed at Bell Laboratories in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie. It is defined
with C Types taxonomy. C language is popular because it is reliable,
simple and easy to use among others. It is also characterized with
supports for loose typing and extensive use of function calls. The C
programming language is used for developing system applications that
forms a major portion of operating systems such as Windows, UNIX
and Linux.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Give a brief history of C Programming Language.

 Explain the taxonomy of C programming types
 Explain the importance of studying C programming language.
 Describe the characteristics and uses of C Program.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Brief History of C

 The C programming language is a structure-oriented

programming language, developed at Bell Laboratories in 1972
by Dennis Ritchie.
 C programming language features were derived from an earlier
language called “B” (Basic Combined Programming Language –
BCPL)
 C language was invented for implementing UNIX operating
system.
 In 1978, Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan published the first
edition “The C Programming Language” and is commonly
known as K&RC.
 In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
established a committee to provide a modern, comprehensive
definition of C. The resulting definition, the ANSI standard, or
“ANSI C” was completed late 1988.
 Many of C’s ideas & principles were derived from the earlier
language B, thereby naming this new language “C”.

3.2 Taxonomy of C Types

 Scalar types
 Arithmetic types
 Integral types: char, short, int, long
 Floating-point types: float, double, long double
 Pointer types
 Aggregate types
 Array types
 Structure types
 Union types
 Function types
 Void types

3.3 Why is C Popular?

 It is reliable, simple and easy to use.

 C is a small, block-structured programming language.
 C is a portable language, which means that C programs written
on one system can be run on other systems with little or no
modification.

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CIT301 MODULE 4

 C has one of the largest assortments of operators, such as those

used for calculations and data comparisons.
 Although the programmer has more freedom with data storage,
the languages do not check data type accuracy for the
programmer.

3.4 Why Study C?

 By the early 1980s, C was already a dominant language in the

minicomputer world of Unix systems. Since then, it has spread to
personal computers (microcomputers) and to mainframes.
 Many software houses use C as the preferred language for
producing word processing programs, spreadsheets, compilers,
and other products.
 C is an extremely flexible language—particularly if it is to be
used to write operating systems.
 Unlike most other languages that have only four or five levels of
precedence, C has 15.

3.5 Characteristics of a C Program

 Middle level language.

 Small size – has only 32 keywords
 Extensive use of function calls- enables the end user to add their
own functions to the C library.
 Supports loose typing – a character can be treated as an integer &
vice versa.
 Structured language
 Low level (Bit Wise) programming readily available
 Pointer implementation - extensive use of pointers for memory,
array, structures and functions.
 It has high-level constructs.
 It can handle low-level activities.
 It produces efficient programs.
 It can be compiled on a variety of computers

3.6 Uses of C

 The C programming language is used for developing system

applications that forms a major portion of operating systems such
as Windows, UNIX and Linux. Below are some examples of C
being used:
 Database systems
 Graphics packages
 Word processors
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 CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

 Spreadsheets
 Operating system development
 Compilers and Assemblers
 Network drivers and Interpreters

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. State the uses of C Programming language

ii. Explain the reasons C language is popular.
iii. List the application packages that C language is considered useful
tools for developments.
Solution:
1) State the uses of C Programming language
C is used for developing system applications such as:
 Database Systems
 Language Interpreters
 Compilers and Assemblers
 Operating Systems
 Network Drivers
 Word Processors

1) Explain the reasons C language is popular

There are various reasons why C has become popular. The following are
some of the reasons:
 C can be learnt quickly.
 C language is reliable, simple and easy to use.
 C language is a structured language.
 Modern programming concepts are based on C.
 It can be compiled on a variety of computer platforms
 C has one of the largest assortments of operators, such as those
used for calculations and data comparisons.
 Universities preferred to add C programming in their courseware.

2) List the application packages that C language is considered useful

tools for developments.
C programming language can be used for the development of the
following application packages:
 Inventory systems
 Medical diagnostic systems
 Expert systems
 Accounting systems
 Scheduling systems
 etc

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CIT301 MODULE 4

4.0 CONCLUSION

C programming language is a structure-oriented programming language,

developed at Bell Laboratories in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie. C programs
are reliable, simple and easy to use among others. C programming
language is not a strongly typed language. It makes use of extensive
function calls. The C programming language is used for developing
system applications that forms a major portion of operating systems
such as Windows, UNIX and Linux etc.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you learnt a brief history of C programming language,

taxonomy of C types, the need to study C programming language. you
also learnt some characteristics of C program and it uses.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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UNIT 2 C PROGRAM DESIGN

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 C Program Structure
3.2 Files Used in A C Program
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The structure of a C program is a protocol (rules) to the programmer,

which he has to follow while writing a C program. A number of files are
used in a C Program. Examples of these files are: source, object, header
and executable files.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Illustrate the structure of a C Programming language.

 Explain the contents of the C program structure.

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 C Program Structure

The structure of a C program is a protocol (rules) to the programmer,

which he has to follow while writing a C program. The general basic
structure of C program is shown in the code below.Based on this
structure, we can write a C program. Example:
/* This program accepts a number and displays it to the user*/
#include <stdio.h>
void main(void)
{ int number;
printf( "Please enter a number: " );
scanf( "%d", &number );
printf( "You entered %d", number );
return 0;
}

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CIT301 MODULE 4

Explanation:
 #include: The part of the compiler which actually gets your
program from the source file is called the preprocessor.
 #include <stdio.h>:#include is a pre-processor directive. It is not
really part of our program, but instead it is an instruction to the
compiler to make it do something. It tells the C compiler to
include the contents of a file (in this case the system file called
stdio.h).
 The compiler knows it is a system file, and therefore must be
looked for in a special place, by the fact that the filename is
enclosed in <> characters
<stdio.h>: stdio.h is the name of the standard library definition file for
all STanDard Input and Output functions.
The program will almost certainly want to send information to the
screen and read things from the keyboard, and stdio.h is the name
of the file in which the functions that we want to use are defined.
The function we want to use is called printf. The actual code of printf
will be tied in later by the linker.
The ".h" portion of the filename is the language extension, which
denotes an include file.
 void:This literally means that this means nothing. In this case, it
is referring to the function whose name follows. Void tells C
compiler that a given entity has no meaning and produces no
error.
 main:In this example, the only function in the program is called
main. A C program is typically made up of large number of
functions. Each of these is given a name by the programmer and
they refer to each other as the program runs. C regards the name
main as a special case and will run this function first i.e. the
program execution starts from main.
 (void): This is a pair of brackets enclosing the keyword void.
It tells the compiler that the function main has no parameters.
A parameter to a function gives the function something to work on.
 { (Brace): This is a brace (or curly bracket). As the name implies,
braces come in packs of two - for every open brace there must be
a matching close one. Braces allow us to group pieces of program
together, often called a block.A block can contain the declaration
of variable used within it, followed by a sequence of program
statements.
In this case the braces enclose the working parts of the function main.
 ; (semicolon): The semicolon marks the end of the list of variable
names, and also the end of that declaration statement.All
statements in C programs are separated by ";" (semicolon)
characters. The ";" character is actually very important. It tells
the compiler where a given statement ends.

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 If the compiler does not find one of these characters where it

expects to see one, then it will produce an error.
 scanf:In other programming languages, the printing and reading
functions are a part of the language. In C this is not the case;
instead they are defined as standard functions which are part of
the language specification, but are not a part of the language
itself.
 The standard input/output library contains a number of functions
for formatted data transfer; the two we are going to use are scanf
(scan formatted) and printf (print formatted).
 printf:The printf function is the opposite of scanf.
 It takes text and values from within the program and sends it out
onto the screen.
 Just like scanf, it is common to all versions of C and just like
scanf, it is described in the system file stdio.h.
 The first parameter to a printf is the format string, which contains
text, value descriptions and formatting instructions.

3.2 Files Used in a C Program

 Source File- This file contains the source code of the program.
The file extension of any c file is .c. The file contains C source
code that defines the main function & maybe other functions.
 Header File- A header file is a file with extension .h which
contains the C function declarations and macro definitions and to
be shared between several source files.
 Object File- An object file is a file containing object code, with
an extension .o, meaning relocatable format machine code that is
usually not directly executable. Object files are produced by an
assembler, compiler, or other language translator, and used as
input to the linker, which in turn typically generates an
executable or library by combining parts of object files.
 Executable File- The binary executable file is generated by the
linker. The linker links the various object files to produce a
binary file that can be directly executed.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. Explain all the reserved words used in the description of a C

program structure.
ii. Describe the types of files used in a C Program

Solution:
Explain all the reserved words used in the description of a C program
structure.

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CIT301 MODULE 4

1. volatile
This keyword is needed so as to create volatile objects. These volatile
objects have the ability to get modified in the unknown or unmentioned
method through hardware.
2. auto
This keyword is used to declare the automatic variables.
3. char
char keyword is used to declare the character variable. Variables that are
of type char are of 1-byte length. They can get signed (it is by default
unless we use the compiler option ‘-funsigned-char’ or ‘unsigned’),
which implies they have got a range of -128 to 127 and 0 to 255,
respectively.
4. double and float
Both keywords double, as well as float, are needed for declaration of
floating type variables.
5. const
We can declare an identifier to be constant through the usage of the
const keyword.
6. if and else
We use if and else so as to make decisions in C programming.
7. break and continue
The break statement would make the program jump out of the most
inner and enclosing loop in an explicit manner. The continue is used for
statements skipping certain statements that are inside the loop.
8. enum
In C programming enumeration types get declared through keyword
enum.
9. extern
The extern keyword indicates that the identifier has benn defined
somewhere else. It also indicates that in fact storage as well as the initial
value, or function body has been defined somewhere else, mostly in the
10. return
Return is used for exiting the function. It would exit from the current
function that is executing immediately and return to the calling routine.
It can optionally return value too.
11. sizeof
sizeof is used for returning the size of expression or type of it. It is used
for returning the size in bytes.
13. int
int keyword is used for declaration of the integer type variable.
14. register
This keyword is used for the creation of the register variables that are
much faster as compared to the normal variables.
15. static
This keyword is used for the creation of a static variable. The static
variables’ values persist until the end of the program. It tells that the

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

function or the element is only known inside the scope of the current
compilation. Also, if we use the static keyword along with the variable
which is local to the function, it would allow the last value of the
variable to get preserved in successive calls to that function.
16. struct
struct keyword is used for the declaration of the structure. The structure
is used for holding the variables of varied data types under one name.
Just like the union, it groups the variables into a single record. Also,
the struct-type-name is considered to be the optional tag name which
points to structure type. The variables of a structure are data definitions,
and they are optional. Although both are optional, one of the two must
appear.
17. union
Union keyword is needed for grouping the varied types of a variable
under one name.
18. void
This keyword denotes that the function won’t be returning any value.
19. typedef
This keyword is required so as to associate a type along with an
identifier in an explicit manner.
20. short, long, signed and unsigned
The short, long, signed as well as unsigned keywords are the type of
modifiers which alters the meaning of the base data type in order to
yield the new type.
21. for
In total, there exist 3 kinds of loops in C. The for loop in C is written
using the keyword for.
22. switch, case and default
We use switch as well as case statements whenever the block of
statements needs to be executed among various blocks.
23. do-while loop
do is used along with a while to make a different form of repetition of
the statement.
24. while
It is used for repeating the execution when the condition is true.

Describe the types of files used in a C Program

C programming language supports two types of files and they are as
follows...
1. Text Files (or) ASCII Files
2. Binary Files
Text Files (or) ASCII Files
 Source File- This file contains the source code of the program.
The file extension of any c file is .c. The file contains C source
code that defines the main function & maybe other functions.

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CIT301 MODULE 4

 Header File- A header file is a file with extension .h which

contains the C function declarations and macro definitions and to
be shared between several source files.
Binary Files
 Object File- An object file is a file containing object code, with
an extension .o, meaning relocatable format machine code that is
usually not directly executable. Object files are produced by an
assembler, compiler, or other language translator, and used as
input to the linker, which in turn typically generates an
executable or library by combining parts of object files.
 Executable File- The binary executable file is generated by the
linker. The linker links the various object files to produce a
binary file that can be directly executed.

4.0 CONCLUSION

To write a C program certain must be followed. First of you must be

conversant with it structure and content, otherwise you will not be able
write a reasonable C program.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have been exposed to the structure of a C program and
some programming elements such #include, stdio.h, void, main, printf,
scanf, return etc. These elements are adequately explained in the unit.
Some of the files used in C program are also outlined.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

UNIT 3 EXECUTING A C PROGRAM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Compilation and Execution of a C Program
3.2 Commonly used Programs for execution on Linux System
3.3. Pictorial Diagram of C Compilation and Execution
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Program compilation and execution processes are divided into several

steps, namely: preprocessing, compilation, assembly, linking and
loading. In each of these input and output are defined during the
compilation and execution process depending on the operating systems
e.g., Linux.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain the processes involved in compilation and execution of C

program.
 Describe the sample input/ output steps used in program
compilation and execution.

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Compilation and Execution of a C Program

 The compilation and execution process of C can be divided into

several steps:
 Preprocessing - Using a Preprocessor program to convert C
source code in expanded source code. "#includes" and "#defines"
statements will be processed and replaced source codes in this
step.
 Compilation - Using a Compiler program to convert C expanded
source to assembly source code.

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CIT301 MODULE 4

 Assembly - Using an Assembler program to convert assembly

source code to object code.
 Linking - Using a Linker program to convert object code to
executable code. Multiple units of object codes are linked to
together in this step.
 Loading - Using a Loader program to load the executable code
into CPU for execution.

Sample I/O steps

Here is a simple table showing input and output of each step in the
compilation and execution process:
Input Program Output
source code > Preprocessor > expanded source code
expanded source code > Compiler > assembly source code
assembly code > Assembler > object code
object code > Linker > executable code
executable code > Loader > execution

3.2 Commonly used Programs for execution on Linux

System

Below are examples of commonly used programs for different

compilation and execution steps on a Linux system:
 "cpphello.c -o hello.i" - Preprocessor preprocessing hello.c and
saving output to hello.i.
 "cc1hello.i -o hello.s" - Compiler compiling hello.i and saving
output to hello.s.
 "as hello.s -o hello.o" - Assembler assembling hello.s and saving
output to hello.o.
 "ldhello.o -o hello" - Linker linking hello.o and saving output to
hello.
 "load hello" - Loader loading hello and running hello.

3.3 Pictorial Diagram of C Compilation and Execution

A pictorial diagram showing the compilation and execution of a C

program is shown following.

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. Illustrate the compilation and execution of a C program with

diagram only.
ii. State the examples of commonly used programs for different
compilation and execution steps on a Linux system

Illustrate the compilation and execution of a C program with

diagram only.

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CIT301 MODULE 4

1 State the examples of commonly used programs for different

compilation and execution steps on a Linux system

 "cpphello.c -o hello.i" - Preprocessor preprocessing hello.c and

saving output to hello.i.
 "cc1hello.i -o hello.s" - Compiler compiling hello.i and saving
output to hello.s.
 "as hello.s -o hello.o" - Assembler assembling hello.s and saving
output to hello.o.
 "ldhello.o -o hello" - Linker linking hello.o and saving output to
hello.
 "load hello" - Loader loading hello and running hello.

4.0 CONCLUSION

After writing a C program, you will need to compile and execute it. This
involves some steps which has been heighted in this unit.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have been taken through the compilation and execution
steps. These include preprocessing, compilation, assembly, linking and
loading. these steps are illustrated with a diagram for clearer
understanding.

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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CIT301 MODULE 5

MODULE 5 INTRODUCTION TO C PROGRAMMING

LANGUAGE

Unit 1 Element of C
Unit 2 Data Type
Unit 3 Variables, Statements, Expressions

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Character Set
3.2 Keywords
3.3 Identifier
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Every language has some basic elements and grammatical rules. Before
starting with programming, we should be acquainted with the basic
elements that build the language.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 List the character set in C

 Apply the character set in constructing variables and identifiers
 Differentiate between a variable and a keyword

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

Elements of C
Every language has some basic elements and grammatical rules. Before
starting with programming, we should be acquainted with the basic
elements that build the language.

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

3.1 Character Set

Communicating with a computer involves speaking the language the

computer understands. In C, various characters have been given to
communicate.
Character set in C consists of:

3.2 Keywords

Keywords are the words whose meaning has already been explained to
the C compiler. The keywords cannot be used as variable names because
if we do so we are trying to assign a new meaning to the keyword,
which is not allowed by the computer. There are 32 keywords available
in C. The figure gives a list of these keywords for your ready reference.

3.3 Identifier:

In the programming language C, an identifier is a combination of

alphanumeric characters, the first being a letter of the alphabet or an
underline, and the remaining being any letter of the alphabet, any
numeric digit, or the underline.
Two rules must be kept in mind when naming identifiers.

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CIT301 MODULE 5

 The case of alphabetic characters is significant. Using "INDEX"

for a variable is not the same as using "index" and neither of them
is the same as using "InDeX" for a variable. All three refer to
different variables.
 As C is defined, up to 32 significant characters can be used and
will be considered significant by most compilers. If more than 32
are used, they will be ignored by the compiler.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. What are the character sets used C programming language? Put

your response in a tabular format.
ii. List at least 10 key words used in C programming language.

Solution
1. What are the character set used C programming language? Put
your response in a tabular format.

2. List at least 10 key words used in C programming language.

The following are some of the key words used in C programming
language: auto, signed, const, extern, register, unsigned, return,
continue, enum, sizeof, struct, typedef, union, etc.

4.0 CONCLUSION

C programming language has some basic elements and rules that

students must be acquainted with before starting to write a program.
These elements include character set, key words, identifiers etc.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this you have learnt the basic elements of C programs. These

elements include character set (letters of the alphabet, both upper and
lower cases), key words (e.g., auto, double, struct, if, return, while etc),
identifiers (this include both key words and user defined variables).
There are rules to be followed in constructing identifiers.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED EXERCISE

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CIT301 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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CIT301 MODULE 5

UNIT 2 DATA TYPE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Data Types
3.2 Constants
3.3 Rules for Constructing Integer Constants
3.4 Rules for Constructing Real Constants
3.5 Rules for constructing real constants expressed in
exponential form
3.6 Rules for Constructing Character Constants
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A data type defines a set of values and the operations that can be defined
on those values. Data types are especially important in C programming
language All operations are type checked by the compiler for type
compatibility. Illegal operations will not be compiled. Thus, strong type
checking helps prevent errors and enhances reliability.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain what a data type is

 Define a constant
 State the rules for constructing integer constants
 State the rules for constructing real constants
 State the rules for constructing real constants expressed in
exponential form
 State the rules for constructing character constants

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Data Types

In the C programming language, data types refer to a domain of allowed

values and the operations that can be performed on those values. The
type of a variable determines how much space it occupies in storage and
how the bit pattern stored is interpreted. There are 4 fundamental data
types in C, which are- char, int, float and, double. Char is used to store
any single character; int is used to store any integer value, float is used
to store any single precision floating point number and double is used to
store any double precision floating point number. We can use 2
qualifiers with these basic types to get more types.

There are 2 types of qualifiers

 Sign qualifier- signed & unsigned

 Size qualifier- short & long

The data types in C can be classified as follows:

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3.2 Constants

A constant is an entity that doesn’t change whereas a variable is an

entity that may change. C constants can be divided into two major
categories:

 Primary Constants
 Secondary Constants

Here our only focus is on primary constant. For constructing these

different types of constants certain rules have been laid down.

3.3 Rules for Constructing Integer Constants

 An integer constant must have at least one digit.

o It must not have a decimal point.
o It can be either positive or negative.
o If no sign precedes an integer constant it is assumed to be
positive.
o No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.
o The allowable range for integer constants is -32768to 32767.
o Eg.: 426, +782,-8000, -7605

3.4 Rules for Constructing Real Constants

 Real constants are often called Floating Point constants.

 The real constants could be written in two forms—Fractional
form and Exponential form.
 Rules for constructing real constants expressed in fractional form:
o A real constant must have at least one digit.

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o It must have a decimal point.

o It could be either positive or negative.
o Default sign is positive.
o No commas or blanks are allowed within a real constant.
o Ex. +325.34, 426.0, -32.76, -48.5792

3.5 Rules for constructing real constants expressed in

exponential form

o The mantissa part and the exponential part should be separated by

a letter e. b) The mantissa part may have a positive or negative
sign.
o Default sign of mantissa part is positive.
o The exponent must have at least one digit, which must be a
positive or negative integer. Default sign is positive.
o Range of real constants expressed in exponential form is -3.4e38
to 3.4e38.
o Ex. +3.2e-5, 4.1e8, -0.2e+3, -3.2e-5

3.6 Rules for Constructing Character Constants

 A character constant is a single alphabet, a single digit or a single

special symbol enclosed within single inverted commas.
 The maximum length of a character constant can be 1 character.
 Ex.: ‘M’, ‘6’, ‘+’

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. Differentiate between a variable and a constant in C programs

ii. What are the rules for constructing an integer constant?

Solution:
1. Differentiate between a variable and a constant in C programs
A variable is a programming element that can change during
program execution where as constant do not change.

2. What are the rules for constructing an integer constant?

An integer constant must have at least one digit.
 It must not have a decimal point.
 It can be either positive or negative.
 If no sign precedes an integer constant it is assumed to be
positive.
 No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer
constant.

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 The allowable range for integer constants is -32768to

32767.
 Eg.: 426, +782,-8000, -7605

4.0 CONCLUSION

Data types in C programming language refer to a domain of allowed

values and the operations that can be performed on those values. The
type of a variable determines how much space it occupies in storage and
how the bit pattern stored is interpreted. There are four fundamental data
types in C, which are- char, int, float and double. Char is used to store
any single character; int is used to store any integer value, float is used
to store any single precision floating point number and double is used to
store any double precision floating point number.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt about C data types which include char, int,
float and double. You have also learnt about the various classifications
of these data types as well as constant and the rules for constructing the
various constants.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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UNIT 3 VARIABLES, STATEMENTS, EXPRESSIONS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Variables and Variable Declaration
3.2 Initialization of Variables
3.3 Expressions
3.4 Statements
3.5 Compound Statements (Blocks)
3.6 Input-Output in C
3.7 Input-Output of integers in C
3.8 Input-Output of floats in C
3.9 Input-Output of characters and ASCII code
3.10 ASCII code
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A variable is the name given to a memory location that allows values to

be stored in those locations. When declaring variables, the type of value
or data to be stored is also indicated. A statement is an executable
instruction given to the computer to execute. An expression is a
combination of operands, operators and constant for the purpose of
evaluation

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain what a data type is

 Define a constant
 State the rules for constructing integer constants
 State the rules for constructing real constants
 State the rules for constructing real constants expressed in
exponential form
 State the rules for constructing character constants

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7.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Variables and Variable Declaration

Variables are names that are used to store values. It can take different
values but one at a time. A data type is associated with each variable &
it decides what values the variable can take. When you decide your
program needs another variable, you simply declare (or define) a new
variable and C makes sure you get it. You declare all C variables at the
top of whatever blocks of code need them. Variable declaration requires
that you inform C of the variable's name and data type.
Syntax: datatype variablename;
Eg:
int page_no;
char grade;
float salary;
long y;

There are two places where you can declare a variable:

 After the opening brace of a block of code (usually at the top of a
function)
 Before a function name (such as before main() in the program)

Consider various examples:

Suppose you had to keep track of a person's first, middle, and last
initials. Because an initial is obviously a character, it would be prudent
to declare three character variables to hold the three initials. In C, you
could do that with the following statement:
1. main()
{
char first, middle, last;
// Rest of program follows
}
2. main()
{
char first;
char middle;
char last;
// Rest of program follows
}

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3.2 Initialization of Variables

When a variable is declared, it contains undefined value commonly

known as garbage value. If we want, we can assign some initial value to
the variables during the declaration itself. This is called initialization of
the variable.
Eg.,
int pageno=10;
char grade=’A’;
float salary= 20000.50;

3.3 Expressions

An expression consists of a combination of operators, operands,

variables & function calls. An expression can be arithmetic, logical or
relational. Here are some expressions:
a+b – arithmetic operation
a>b- relational operation
a == b – logicaloperation
func (a,b) – function call
4+21
a*(b + c/d)/20
q = 5*2
x = ++q % 3
q>3

As you can see, the operands can be constants, variables, or

combinations of the two. Some expressions are combinations of smaller
expressions, called subexpressions. For example, c/d is a subexpression
of the sixth example.

An important property of C is that every C expression has a value. To

find the value, you perform the operations in the order dictated by
operator precedence.

3.4 Statements

Statements are the primary building blocks of a program. A program is a

series of statements with some necessary punctuation. A statement is a
complete instruction to the computer. In C, statements are indicated by a
semicolon at the end. Therefore
legs = 4
is just an expression (which could be part of a larger expression), but,
legs = 4;
is a statement. What makes a complete instruction? First, C considers
any expression to be a statement if you append a semicolon. (These are

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called expression statements.) Therefore, C won't object to lines such as

the following:
8;
3 + 4;
However, these statements do nothing for your program and can't really
be considered sensible statements. More typically, statements change
values and call functions:
x = 25;
++x;
y = sqrt(x);
Although a statement (or, at least, a sensible statement) is a complete
instruction, not all complete instructions are statements. Consider the
following statement:
x = 6 + (y = 5);
In it, the subexpression y = 5 is a complete instruction, but it is only part
of the statement. Because a complete instruction is not necessarily a
statement, a semicolon is needed to identify instructions that truly are
statements.

3.5 Compound Statements (Blocks)

A compound statement is two or more statements grouped together by

enclosing them in braces; it is also called a block. The following while
statement contains an example:
while (years < 100)
{
wisdom = wisdom * 1.05;
printf("%d %d\n", years, wisdom);
years = years + 1;
}
If any variable is declared inside the block, then it can be declared only
at the beginning of the block. The variables that are declared inside a
block can be used only within the block.

3.6 Input-Output in C

When we are saying Input that means we feed some data into program.
This can be given in the form of file or from command line. C
programming language provides a set of built-in functions to read given
input and feed it to the program as per requirement.

When we are saying Output that means to display some data on screen,
printer or in any file. C programming language provides a set of built-in
functions to output the data on the computer screen. Functions printf()
and scanf() are the most commonly used to display out and take input
respectively.

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Let us consider an example:

#include <stdio.h> //This is needed to run printf() function.
int main()
{
printf("C Programming"); //displays the content inside quotation
return 0;
}

Output:
C Programming

Explanation:
 Every program starts from main() function.
 printf() is a library function to display output which only works if
#include<stdio.h>is included at the beginning.
 Here, stdio.h is a header file (standard input output header file)
and #include is command to paste the code from the header file
when necessary. When compiler encounters printf()function and
doesn't find stdio.h header file, compiler shows error.
 return 0; indicates the successful execution of the program.

3.7 Input-Output of integers in C

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int c=5;
printf("Number=%d",c);
return 0;
}

Output:
Number=5

Inside quotation of printf() there, is a conversion format string "%d" (for

integer). If this conversion format string matches with remaining
argument, i.e, c in this case, value of c is displayed.

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int c;
printf("Enter a number\n");
scanf("%d",&c);
printf("Number=%d",c);

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return 0;
}

Output:
Enter a number
4
Number=4

The scanf() function is used to take input from user. In this program, the
user is asked an input and value is stored in variable c. Note the '&' sign
before c. &c denotes the address of c and value is stored in that address.

3.8 Input-Output of floats in C

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
float a;
printf("Enter value: ");
scanf("%f",&a);
printf("Value=%f",a); //%f is used for floats instead of %d
return 0;
}

Output
Enter value:
23.45
Value=23.450000

Conversion format string "%f" is used for floats to take input and to
display floating value of a variable.

3.9 Input-Output of characters and ASCII code

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char var1;
printf("Enter character: ");
scanf("%c",&var1);
printf("You entered %c.",var1);
return 0;
}

Output
Enter character:

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g
You entered g.
Conversion format string "%c" is used in case of characters.

3.10 ASCII code

When character is typed in the above program, the character itself is not
recorded a numeric value (ASCII value) is stored. And when we
displayed that value by using "%c", that character is displayed.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char var1;
printf("Enter character: ");
scanf("%c",&var1);
printf("You entered %c.\n",var1);
/* \n prints the next line(performs work of enter). */
printf("ASCII value of %d",var1);
return 0;
}

Output:
Enter character:
g
103
When, 'g' is entered, ASCII value 103 is stored instead of g.
You can display character if you know ASCII code only. This is shown
by following example.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int var1=69;
printf("Character of ASCII value 69: %c",var1);
return 0;
}

Output
Character of ASCII value 69:
E

The ASCII value of 'A' is 65, 'B' is 66 and so on to 'Z' is 90. Similarly,
ASCII value of 'a' is 97, 'b' is 98 and so on to 'z' is 122.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

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i. What is a Variable?
ii. Declare a variable for each of the following C data type: integer,
float, double, and character and assign appropriate data value at
the pointer of declaration
iii. What is a statement? Give few examples.
iv. What is an Expression? Give few examples.
v. Write a program to display the upper- and lower-case letter “B”,
using two printf() function

Solution
1 What is a Variable? Give few meaningful examples
Variable is basically a name of a memory location that we use for
storing data. We can change the value of a variable in C or any
other language, and we can also reuse it multiple times.
Examples:
rate
salary
product

2 Declare a variable for each of the following C data type: integer,

float, double, and character and assign appropriate data value at
the pointer of declaration.
int num = 76;
float = height 4.6;
double amount = 34456677.55;
char singleChar = ‘a’;

3 What is a statement? Give few examples.

A statement is a command given to the computer that instructs
the computer to take a specific action, such as display to the
screen, or collect input or evaluate an expression. A computer
program is made up of a series of statements.

Examples:
area =length * breadth;
printf (“Structured Programming”);
scanf("%d",&c);

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4 What is an expression? Give few examples.

An expression is a combination of operators, operands and/or
constants which reduces to a single value. An operation is
performed on a data item which is called an operand. An operator
indicates an operation to be performed on data.
Example:
simpleInt = (principal * time * rate)/100;
sum = num1 + num2;
z = (4 + (4%2)/ 3);
5 Write a program to display the upper- and lower-case letter “B”.
use two printf () function
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int var1=66;
int var2=98;
printf("Character of ASCII value 66: %c",var1);
printf("Character of ASCII value 98: %c",var2);
return 0;
}
4.0 CONCLUSION
A variable is the name given to a memory location that allows values to
be stored in those locations. When declaring variables, the type of value
or data to be stored is also indicated. A statement is an executable
instruction given to the computer to execute. An expression is a
combination of operands, operators and/or constant for the purpose of
evaluation.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learned about variables, statements and
expressions. You have also learnt how variables are declared and
initialized, how expressions are constructed, and what constitutes a
statement including compound statements. All these are well illustrated
with examples.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

UNIT 4 FORMATTED INPUT-OUTPUT

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CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Formatted Input-Output
3.2 Variations in Output for integer and floats
3.3 Variations in Input for integer and floats
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Normally printf() method display output on the screen in an unpleasant

and undesirable manner. It therefore implies that the programmer must
format the output to suit his requirements. For example, he must specify
how many places of decimal are required, the space between two
outputs, etc.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Format your input

 Format your output
 Differentiate between the output of integer float
 Differentiate between the input of integer float

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Formatted Input-Output

Data can be entered & displayed in a particular format. Through format

specifications, better presentation of results can be obtained.

3.2 Variations in Output for integer and floats

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("Case 1:%6d\n",9876);
/* Prints the number right justified within 6 columns */

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printf("Case 2:%3d\n",9876);
/* Prints the number to be right justified to 3 columns but, there are 4
digits so number is not right justified */
printf("Case 3:%.2f\n",987.6543);
/* Prints the number rounded to two decimal places */
printf("Case 4:%.f\n",987.6543);
/* Prints the number rounded to 0 decimal place, i.e, rounded to integer
*/
printf("Case 5:%e\n",987.6543);
/* Prints the number in exponential notation (scientific notation) */
return 0;
}

Output
Case 1: 9876
Case 2:9876
Case 3:987.65
Case 4:988
Case 5:9.876543e+002

3.3 Variations in Input for integer and floats

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a,b;
float c,d;
printf("Enter two intgers: ");
/*Two integers can be taken from user at once as below*/
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("Enter integer and floating point numbers: ");
/*Integer and floating point number can be taken at once from user as
below*/
scanf("%d%f",&a,&c);
return 0;
}
Similarly, any number of inputs can be taken at once from user.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. To print out a and b given below, which of the following printf()

statement or statement will you use?
#include<stdio.h>
float a=3.14;
double b=3.14;

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CIT301 MODULE 5

A. printf("%f %lf", a, b);

B. printf("%Lf %f", a, b);
C. printf("%Lf %Lf", a, b);
D. printf("%f %Lf", a, b);

2. To scan a and b given below, which of the following scanf()

statement will you use?
#include<stdio.h>
float a;
double b;

A. scanf("%f %f", &a, &b);

B. scanf("%Lf %Lf", &a, &b);
C. scanf("%f %Lf", &a, &b);
D. scanf("%f %lf", &a, &b);

3. For a typical program, the input is taken using.

A. scanf
B. Files
C. Command-line
D. None of the mentioned

4. What is the output of this C code?

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i = 10, j = 2;
printf("%d\n", printf("%d %d ", i, j)); }

A. Compile time error

B. 10 2 4
C. 10 2 2
D. 10 2 5

5. What is the output of this C code?

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i = 10, j = 3;
printf("%d %d %d", i, j); }

A. Compile time error

B. 10 3
C. 10 3 some garbage value
D. Undefined behavior

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Solution
1. A and D
2. C and D
3. D
4. A
5. C

4.0 CONCLUSION

Using the printf() function you can output your result, display the output
in a desirable format. It therefore becomes imperative that the
programmer formats the output to his desired format. This is achieved
via some format specifications.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt how to format your output to your desired
format. You have also learnt the variations in output for integer and
floats as well as the variations in input for integer and floats.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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MODULE 6 OPERATORS AND CONTROL

STATEMENTS

Unit 1 Operators
Unit 2 Overview of Control Statements

UNIT 1 OPERATORS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Arithmetic Operators
3.2 Relational Operators
3.3 Logical Operators
3.4 Bitwise Operators
3.5 Assignment Operators
3.6 Increment and decrement operators
3.7 Conditional operators
3.8 Misc Operators
3.9 Operators Precedence in C
4.0 Conclusion
1.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific

mathematical or logical manipulations. C language is rich in built-in
operators and provides the following types of operators:

 Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators
 Logical Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Increment and decrement operators
 Conditional operators
 Misc Operators
 Operators Precedence in C

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2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Define an operator
 Use operators in expressions
 Mention the various operators applicable to C programming
 Describe each of the operators

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Arithmetic operators

These are used to perform mathematical calculations like addition,

subtraction, multiplication, division and modulus.

The following table shows all the arithmetic operators supported by C

language. Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then:

3.2 Relational Operators:

These operators are used to compare the value of two variables.

Following table shows all the relational operators supported by C
language. Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then:

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3.3 Logical Operators:

These operators are used to perform logical operations on the given two
variables.

The following table shows all the logical operators supported by C

language. Assume variable A holds 1 and variable B holds 0, then:

3.4 Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit-by-bit operation.

Bitwise operators are used in bit level programming. These operators
can operate upon int and char but not on float and double.

Showbits( ) function can be used to display the binary representation of

any integer or character value.

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Bit wise operators in C language are; & (bitwise AND), | (bitwise OR),
~ (bitwise OR), ^ (XOR), << (left shift) and >> (right shift).

The truth tables for &, |, and ^ are as follows:

The Bitwise operators supported by C language are explained in the

following table. Assume variable A holds 60 (00111100) and variable B
holds 13 (00001101), then:

3.5 Assignment Operators:

In C programs, values for the variables are assigned using assignment

operators.
There are following assignment operators supported by C language:

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CIT301 MODULE 6

3.6 Increment and Decrement Operators

In C, ++ and – are called increment and decrement operators

respectively. Both of these operators are unary operators, i.e, used on
single operand. ++ adds 1 to operand and – subtracts 1 to operand
respectively. For example:
Let a=5 and b=10
a++; //a becomes 6
a--; //a becomes 5

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++a; //a becomes 6

--a; //a becomes 5
When i++ is used as prefix(like: ++var), ++var will increment the value
of var and then return it but, if ++ is used as postfix(like: var++),
operator will return the value of operand first and then only increment it.
This can be demonstrated by an example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int c=2,d=2;
printf(“%d\n”,c++); //this statement displays 2 then, only c incremented
by 1 to 3.
Printf(“%d”,++c); //this statement increments 1 to c then, only c is
displayed.
Return 0;
}

Output
2
4

3.7 Conditional Operators (?)

Conditional operators are used in decision making in C programming,

i.e., executes different statements according to test condition whether it
is either true or false.

Syntax of conditional operators:

conditional_expression?expression1:expression2
If the test condition is true (that is, if its value is non-zero), expression1
is returned and if false expression2 is returned.
Let us understand this with the help of a few examples:
int x, y;
scanf ( “%d”, &x ) ;
y = ( x> 5 ? 3 : 4 ) ;
This statement will store 3 in y if x is greater than 5, otherwise it will
store 4 in y.
The equivalent if statement will be,
if ( x > 5 )
y = 3;
else
y = 4;

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3.8 Misc Operators

There are few other operators supported by c language.

3.9 Operators Precedence in C

Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression.

This affects how an expression is evaluated. Certain operators have
higher precedence than others; for example, the multiplication operator
has higher precedence than the addition operator.

For example x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because

operator * has higher precedence than +, so it first gets multiplied with
3*2 and then adds into 7.

Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the
table, those with the lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression,
higher precedence operators will be evaluated first.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. What are the operators used in C programming language?

ii. What will be the value of y, given x is equals 9.

{int x, y;
scanf ( “%d”, &x ) ;
y = ( x> 5 ? 1 : 4 ) ; }
3. Given the mathematical expression: S + 3 x Y – 1, where S = 5 and
Y = 34. Reconstruct the expression in C format and evaluate it.
Reconstruct the express such that the result will be 271

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Solution
1. What are the operators used in C programming language?

The following are the operators used in C:

 Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators
 Logical Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Increment and decrement operators
 Conditional operators
 Misc Operators

2, What will be the value of y, given x is equals 9.

{int x, y;
scanf ( “%d”, &x ) ;
y = ( x> 5 ? 1 : 4 ) ; }
The value of y will be 1

3. Given the mathematical expression: S + 3 x Y – 1, where S = 5 and

Y = 34. Reconstruct the expression in C format and evaluate it.
Reconstruct the express such that the result will be 271
S + 3 x Y – 1 => S + 3*Y -1
5+ 3*34 -1
107 – 1
106
(S + 3)* Y – 1
(5 + 3) *34 – 1
8 * 34 – 1
272 – 1
271

4.0 CONCLUSION

Operators are symbols or special characters used to perform

mathematical, logical, relational as well as bitwise manipulations. This
also includes assignment operators used in assigning values to variables.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have been exposed to the operators used in C programs.
This includes mathematical, logical, relational, bitwise, assignment,
increment and decrement operators etc. These operators are used to
manipulate data. The details of these operators are adequately discussed
within the unit.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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UNIT 2 OVERVIEW OF CONTROL STATEMENTS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Selection Statements
3.1.1 if Statement
3.1.2 else-if Statement
3.1.3 Nested if-else
3.1.4 switch case
3.2 Iterative Statements
3.2.1 while statement
3.2.2 do-while Loop
3.2.3 for Loop
3.2.4 Nesting of Loops
3.3 Jump Statements
3.3.1 The break statement
3.3.2 The continue Statement
3.3.3 The goto statement
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

C programming language has basically three control structures which

make C qualify as a structured programming language. These structures
include sequence, selection and repetition structure. Normally
programming are executed sequentially but the last two structures i.e.
selection and repetition allow the sequence to be broken. That is the
sequence of execution is transferred a different line or block of code.
These structures will be examined in more details in this module.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the of this unit, you should be able to:

 State the three control structures inherent in C

 State the generic syntax for the various structures
 Use these structures to write a program code or a block of code
 Describe each of the structure
 Manually simulate a program code involving the structures

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

In C, programs are executed sequentially in the order of which they

appear. This condition does not hold true always. Sometimes a situation
may arise where we need to execute a certain part of the program. Also,
it may happen that we may want to execute the same part more than
once. Control statements enable us to specify the order in which the
various instructions in the program are to be executed. They define how
the control is transferred to other parts of the program. Control
statements are classified in the following ways:

3.1 Selection Statements

The selection statements are also known as Branching or Decision

Control Statements. Sometimes we come across situations where we
have to make a decision. E.g., If the weather is sunny, I will go out and
play, else I will be at home. Here my course of action is governed by the
kind of weather. If it’s sunny, I can go out and play, else I have to stay
indoors. I choose an option out of 2 alternate options. Likewise, we can
find ourselves in situations where we have to select among several
alternatives. We have decision control statements to implement this
logic in computer programming.

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The programmer therefore specifies one or more conditions to be

evaluated or tested by the program, along with a statement or statements
to be executed if the condition is determined to be true, and optionally,
other statements to be executed if the condition is determined to be
false.

3.1.1 If Statement

The keyword if tells the compiler that what follows is a decision control
instruction. The if statement allows us to put some decision -making into
our programs. A flowchart illustrating the general form of the if
statement is shown below:

Fig 2: if statement construct

Syntax of if statement:
if (condition )
{
Statement 1;
Statement 2;
…………..
…………..
…………..
Statement n;
}
//Rest of the code

If the condition is true(nonzero), the statement will be executed. If the

condition is false(0), the statement will not be executed. For example,
suppose we are writing a billing program.
if (total_purchase>=1000)

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printf("You are gifted a pen drive.\n");

Multiple statements may be grouped by putting them inside curly braces
{}. For example:

if (total_purchase>=1000)
{
gift_count++;
printf("You are gifted a pen drive.\n");
}

For readability, the statements enclosed in {} are usually indented. This

allows the programmer to quickly tell which statements are to be
conditionally executed. As we will see later, mistakes in indentation can
result in programs that are misleading and hard to read.

Programs:
1. Write a program to print a message if negative no is entered.
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int no;
printf("Enter a no : ");
scanf("%d", &no);
if(no<0)
{
printf("no entered is negative");
no = -no;
}
printf("value of no is %d \n",no);
return 0;
}

Output:
Enter a no: 6
value of no is 6
Output:
Enter a no: -2
value of no is 2

2. Write a program to perform division of 2 nos

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a,b;
float c;
printf("Enter 2 nos : ");

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scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);

if(b == 0)
{
printf("Division is not possible");
}
c = a/b;
printf("quotient is %f \n",c);
return 0;
}

Output:
Enter 2 nos:
62
quotient is 3
Output: Enter 2 nos:
60
Division is not possible

3.1.2 If-else Statement

The if statement by itself will execute a single statement, or a group of

statements, when the expression following if evaluates to true. By using
else we execute another group of statements if the expression evaluates
to false.
if (a > b)
{
z = a;
printf(“value of z is :%d”,z);
}
else
{
z = b;
printf(“value of z is :%d”,z);
}

The group of statements after the if is called an ‘if block’. Similarly, the
statements after the else form the ‘else block’.

Programs:
3. Write a program to check whether the given no is even or odd
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n;
printf("Enter an integer\n");
scanf("%d",&n);

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if ( n%2 == 0 )
printf("Even\n");
else
printf("Odd\n");
return 0;
}
Output: Enter an integer 3
Odd
Output: Enter an integer 4
Even

4. Write a program to check whether a given year is leap year or not

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int year;
printf("Enter a year to check if it is a leap year\n");
scanf("%d", &year);
if ( (year%4 == 0) && (( year%100 != 0) || ( year%400 == 0 ))
printf("%d is a leap year.\n", year);
else
printf("%d is not a leap year.\n", year);
return 0;
}
Output: Enter a year to check if it is a leap year 1996
1996 is a leap year
Output: Enter a year to check if it is a leap year 2015
2015 is not a leap year

else-if Statement
This sequence of if statements is the most general way of writing a
multi−way decision. The expressions are evaluated in order; if an
expression is true, the statement associated with it is executed, and this
terminates the whole chain. As always, the code for each statement is
either a single statement, or a group of them in braces.
if (expression)
statement
else if (expression)
statement
else if (expression)
statement
else if (expression)
statement
else
statement

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The last else part handles the ``none of the above'' or default case where
none of the other conditions is satisfied. Sometimes there is no explicit
action for the default; in that case the trailing can be omitted, or it may
be used for error checking to catch an “impossible” condition.

Program
6. The above program can be used as an e.g., here.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int m=40,n=20;
if (m>n)
{
printf("m is greater than n");
}
else if(m<n)
{
printf("m is less than n");
}
else
{
printf("m is equal to n");
}
}

Output: m is greater than n

3.1.3 Nested if-else

An entire if-else construct can be written within either the body of the if
statement or the body of an else statement. This is called ‘nesting’ of ifs.
This is shown in the following structure.
if (n > 0)
{
if (a > b)
z = a;
}
else
z = b;

The second if construct is nested in the first if statement. If the condition

in the first if statement is true, then the condition in the second if
statement is checked. If it is false, then the else statement is executed.

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Program:

5. Write a program to check for the relation between 2 nos

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int m=40, n=20;
if ((m >0 ) && (n>0))
{
printf("nos are positive");
if (m>n)
{
printf("m is greater than n");
}
else
{
printf("m is less than n");
}
}
else
{
printf("nos are negative");
}
return 0;
}

Output
40 is greater than 20

3.1.4 Switch Case

This structure helps to make a decision from the number of choices. The
switch statement is a multi−way decision that tests whether an
expression matches one of a number of constant integer values, and
branches accordingly.
switch( integer expression)
{
case constant 1 : do this;
case constant 2 : do this ;
case constant 3 : do this ;
default : do this ; }

The integer expression following the keyword switch is any C

expression that will yield an integer value. It could be an integer
constant like 1, 2 or 3, or an expression that evaluates to an integer. If a
case matches the expression value, execution starts at that case. All case

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expressions must be different. The case labelled default is executed if

none of the other cases are satisfied. A default is optional; if it isn't there
and if none of the cases match, no action at all takes place. Cases and
the default clause can occur in any order.
Consider the following program:

main( )
{
int i = 2;
switch ( i )
{
case 1:
printf ( "I am in case 1 \n" ) ;
case 2:
printf ( "I am in case 2 \n" ) ;
case 3:
printf ( "I am in case 3 \n" ) ;
default :
printf ( "I am in default \n" ) ;
}
}
The output of this program would be:
I am in case 2
I am in case 3
I am in default

Here the program prints case 2 and 3 and the default case. If you want
that only case 2 should get executed, it is up to you to get out of the
switch then and there by using a break statement.
main( )
{
int i = 2 ; switch ( i )
{
case 1:
printf ( "I am in case 1 \n" ) ;
break ;
case 2:
printf ( "I am in case 2 \n" ) ;
break ;
case 3:
printf ( "I am in case 3 \n" ) ;
break ;
default:
printf ( "I am in default \n" ) ;
}
}

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The output of this program would be:

I am in case 2

Program
7. Write a program to enter a grade and check its corresponding
remarks.
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
char grade;
printf(“Enter the grade”);
scanf(“%c”, &grade);
switch(grade)
{
case 'A' : printf("Outstanding!\n" );
break;
case 'B' :
printf("Excellent!\n" );
break;
case 'C' : printf("Well done\n" );
break;
case 'D' : printf("You passed\n" );
break;
case 'F' : printf("Better try again\n" );
break;
default : printf("Invalid grade\n" );
}
printf("Your grade is %c\n", grade );
return 0;
}
Output
Enter the grade
B
Excellent
Your grade is B

3.2 Iterative Statements

3.2.1 while statement

The while statement is used when the program needs to perform

repetitive tasks. The general form of a while statement is:
while ( condition)
statement ;

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The program will repeatedly execute the statement inside the while until
the condition becomes false(0). (If the condition is initially false, the
statement will not be executed.)

Consider the following program:

main( )
{
int p, t, count;
float r, si;
count = 1;
while ( count <= 3 )
{
printf ( "\nEnter values of p, t and r " ) ;
scanf(“%d %d %f", &p, &t, &r ) ;
si=p * t * r / 100;
printf ( "Simple interest = N. %f", si ) ;
count = count+1;
}
}

Some outputs of this program:

Enter values of p, t and r 1000000 5 13.5
Simple Interest = N. 675000.000000
Enter values of p, t and r 2000000 5 13.5
Simple Interest = N. 1350000.000000
Enter values of p, t and r 3500000 5 13.5
Simple Interest = N. 612000.000000

The program executes all statements after the while 3 times. These
statements form what is called the ‘body’ of the while loop. The
parentheses after the while contain a condition. As long as this condition
remains true all statements within the body of the while loop keep
getting executed repeatedly.

Consider the following program;

/* This program checks whether a given number is a palindrome or not
*/
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, reverse = 0, temp;
printf("Enter a number to check if it is a palindrome or not\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
temp = n;
while( temp != 0 )
{

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reverse = reverse * 10;

reverse = reverse +temp%10;
temp = temp/10;
}
if ( n == reverse )
printf("%d is a palindrome number.\n", n);
else
printf("%d is not a palindrome number.\n", n);
return 0;
}

Output:
Enter a number to check if it is a palindrome or not
12321
12321 is a palindrome
Enter a number to check if it is a palindrome or not
12000
12000 is not a palindrome

3.2.2 do-while Loop

The body of the do-while executes at least once. The do-while structure
is similar to the while loop except the relational test occurs at the bottom
(rather than top) of the loop. This ensures that the body of the loop
executes at least once. The do-while tests for a positive relational test;
that is, as long as the test is True, the body of the loop continues to
execute.
The format of the do-while is
do
{
block of one or more C statements;
} while (test expression)

The test expression must be enclosed within parentheses, just as it does

with a while statement.

Consider the following program

// C program to add all the numbers entered by a user until user enters 0.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int sum=0,num;
do
/* Codes inside the body of do...while loops are at least executed once.
*/
{

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printf("Enter a number\n");
scanf("%d",&num);
sum+=num;
} while(num!=0);
printf("sum=%d",sum);
return 0;
}

Output:
Enter a number
3
Enter a number
-2
Enter a number
0
sum=1

Consider the following program:

#include <stdio.h> main()
{
int i = 10;
do
{
printf("Hello %d\n", i );
i = i -1;
}while ( i> 0 ); }

Output
Hello 10
Hello 9
Hello 8
Hello 7
Hello 6
Hello 5
Hello 4
Hello 3
Hello 2
Hello 1

Program
8. Program to count the no of digits in a number
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n,count=0;
printf("Enter an integer: ");

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CIT301 MODULE 6

scanf("%d", &n);
do
{
n/=10;
/* n=n/10 */
count++;
} while(n!=0);
printf("Number of digits: %d",count);
}
Output
Enter an integer: 34523
Number of digits: 5

3.2.3 for Loop

The for is the most popular looping instruction. The general form of for
statement is shown below:
for ( initialize counter ; test counter ; Updating counter )
{
do this;
and this;
and this;
}

The for keyword allows us to specify three things about a loop in a

single line:
 Setting a loop counter to an initial value.
 Testing the loop counter to determine whether its value has
reached the number of repetitions desired.
 Updating the value of loop counter either increment or
decrement.

Consider the following program

int main(void)
{
int num;
printf(" n n cubed\n");
for (num = 1; num <= 6; num++)
printf("%5d %5d\n", num, num*num*num);
return 0;
}

The program prints the integers 1 through 6 and their cubes.

n n cubed
1 1
2 8

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3 27
4 64
5 125
6 216

The first line of the for loop tells us immediately all the information
about the loop parameters: the starting value of num, the final value of
num, and the amount that num increases on each looping
Grammatically, the three components of a for loop are expressions. Any
of the three parts can be omitted, although the semicolons must remain.
Consider the following program:
main( )
{
int i ;
for ( i = 1 ; i<= 10 ; )
{
printf ( "%d\n", i ) ;
i=i+1;
}
}

Here, the increment is done within the body of the for loop and not in
the for statement. Note that in spite of this the semicolon after the
condition is necessary.

Programs:
9. Program to print the sum of the first N natural numbers.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, i, sum=0;
printf("Enter the limit: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
sum = sum +i;
}
printf("Sum of N natural numbers is: %d",sum);
}

Output
Enter the limit: 5 Sum of N natural numbers is 15.
10. Program to find the reverse of a number
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{

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int num,r,reverse=0;
printf("Enter any number: ");
scanf("%d",&num);
for(num!=0;num=num/10)
{
r=num%10;
reverse=reverse*10+r;
}
printf("Reversed of number: %d",reverse);
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter any number: 123
Reversed of number: 321

3.2.4 Nesting of Loops

C programming language allows using one loop inside another loop.

Following section shows few examples to illustrate the concept.
Syntax:
The syntax for a nested for loop statement in C is as follows:

for ( init; condition; increment )

{
for ( init; condition; increment)
{
statement(s);
}
statement(s);
}

The syntax for a nested while loop statement in C programming

language is as follows:

while(condition)
{
while(condition)
{
statement(s);
}
statement(s);
}

The syntax for a nested do...while loop statement in C programming

language is as follows:

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do
{
statement(s);
do
{
statement(s);
}while( condition );
}while( condition );

A final note on loop nesting is that you can put any type of loop inside
of any other type of loop. For example, a for loop can be inside a while
loop or vice versa.

Programs: 11. program using a nested for loop to find the prime
numbers from 2 to 20:

#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int i, j;
for(i=2; i<20; i++)
{
for(j=2; j <= (i/j); j++)
if(!(i%j))
break;
// if factor found, not prime
if(j > (i/j))
printf("%d is prime\n", i);
}
return 0; }

Output
2 is prime
3 is prime
5 is prime
7 is prime
11 is prime
13 is prime
17 is prime
19 is prime
Programs: 12. Using for loops reproduce the star triangle below
*
***
*****
*******

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CIT301 MODULE 6

*********

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int row, c, n,I, temp;
printf("Enter the number of rows in pyramid of stars you wish to see ");
scanf("%d",&n);
temp = n;
for ( row = 1 ; row <= n ; row++ )
{
for ( i= 1 ; i< temp ; i++ )
{
printf(" ");
temp--;
for ( c = 1 ; c <= 2*row - 1 ; c++ )
{
printf("*");
printf("\n");
}
}
}
return 0;
}

13. Write a program to print series from 10 to 1 using nested loops.

#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{ int a;
a=10;
for (k=1;k=10;k++)
{
while (a>=1)
{
printf ("%d",a); a--;
} printf("\n");
a= 10;
}
}

Output:

10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1

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10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1

3.3 Jump Statements

3.3.1 The break Statement

The break statement provides an early exit from for, while, and do, just
as from switch. A break causes the innermost enclosing loop or switch
to be exited immediately. When break is encountered inside any loop,
control automatically passes to the first statement after the loop.

Consider the following example;

main( )
{
int i = 1 , j = 1 ;
while ( i++ <= 100 )
{
while ( j++<= 200 )
{
if ( j == 150 )
break ;
else
printf ( "%d %d\n", i, j );
}
}
}

In this program when j equals 150, break takes the control outside the
inner while only, since it is placed inside the inner while.

3.3.2 The continue Statement

The continue statement is related to break, but less often used; it causes
the next iteration of the enclosing for, while, or do loop to begin. In the
while and do, this means that the test part is executed immediately; in
the for, control passes to the increment step. The continue statement
applies only to loops, not to switch.

Consider the following program:

main( )
{

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CIT301 MODULE 6

int i, j ;
for ( i = 1 ; i<= 2 ; i++ )
{
for ( j = 1 ; j <= 2 ; j++ )
{
if ( i == j)
continue ;
printf ( "\n%d %d\n", i, j ) ;
}
}
}

The output of the above program would be...

12
21

Note that when the value of I equals that of j, the continue statement
takes the control to the for loop (inner) by passing rest of the statements
pending execution in the for loop (inner).

3.3.3 The goto statement

Kernighan and Ritchie refer to the goto statement as "infinitely

abusable" and suggest that it "be used sparingly, if at all. The goto
statement causes your program to jump to a different location, rather
than execute the next statement in sequence.
The format of the goto statement is;
goto statement label;
Consider the following program fragment
if (size > 12)
goto a;
goto b;
a: cost = cost * 1.05;
flag = 2;
b: bill = cost * flag;

Here, if the if conditions satisfies the program jumps to block labelled as

a: if not then it jumps to block labelled as b:.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
i. Differentiate between if and if else statements in C programming
language using diagram ONLY.
ii. Write a C program to print EVEN or ODD depending on the
integer number supplied at the prompt and simulate the output.
iii. Give the syntax of an if statement.

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Solution
1 Differentiate between if and if else statements in C programming
language using diagram ONLY.

if statement

if else statement

2 Write a C program to print EVEN or ODD depending on the

integer number supplied at the prompt and simulate the output.
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n;
printf("Enter an integer\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
if ( n%2 == 0 )
printf("EVEN\n");
else
printf("ODD\n");
return 0;
}
Output: Enter an integer 3
ODD

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Output: Enter an integer 4

EVEN

3 Give the syntax of an if statement.

Syntax of if statement:
if (condition )
{
Statement 1;
Statement 2;
…………..
…………..
…………..
Statement n;
}
//Rest of the code

4.0 CONCLUSION
C programming language has basically three control structures which
make C qualify as a structured programming language. These structures
include sequence, selection and repetition structure.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt Selection (if Statement, else-if Statement,
nested if-else and switch case), iterative (while statement, do-while loop,
for loop, and nesting of loops), jump statements (the break statement,
the continue statement, the goto statement). Details are discussed in the
unit

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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MODULE 7 FUNCTIONS AND ARRAYS IN C

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

Unit 1 Overview of Functions in C

Unit 2 Arrays
Unit 3 Fundamentals of Strings

UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF FUNCTIONS IN C

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Monolithic Vs Modular Programming:
3.2 Function
3.2.1 Function Declaration OR Function Prototype:
3.2.2 Function Definition:
3.5 User Define Functions Vs Standard Function:
3.5.1 User Define Function:
3.5.2 Standard Function:
3.6 Function Categories
3.6.1 Function with no arguments and no return values:
3.6.2 Function with no arguments and a return value:
3.6.3 Function with arguments and return value:
3.7 Actual Arguments and Formal Arguments
3.7.1 Actual Arguments
3.7.2 Formal Arguments
3.7.3 Basic difference between formal and local
argument
3.7.4 Parameter Passing Techniques
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform

a single, related action. Functions provide better modularity for your
application and a high degree of code reusing. Different programming
languages name them differently, for example, functions, methods, sub-
routines, procedures, etc. function interface is a declaration of a function

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that specifies the function's name and type signature (arity, data types of
parameters, and return type), but omits the function body.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Differentiate between monolithic vs. modular Programming

 State the disadvantages of monolithic Programming
 State the advantages of modular Programming
 Declare a function
 Outline the various function categories
 Differentiate between a user define functions vs standard
function.
 Differentiate between call by value and call by reference

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Monolithic vs. Modular Programming:

 Monolithic Programming indicates the program which contains a

single function for the large program.
 Modular programming helps the programmer to divide the whole
program into different modules and each module is separately
developed and tested. Then the linker will link all these modules
to form the complete program.
 Monolithic programming will not divide the program and it is a
single thread of execution. When the program size increases it
leads to inconvenience and difficult to maintain.

Disadvantages of monolithic programming:

 Difficult to check error on large programs.
 Difficult to maintain
 Code can be specific to a particular problem. i.e., it cannot be
reused.

Advantage of modular programming

 Modular programs are easier to code and debug.
 Reduces the programming size.
 Code can be reused in other programs.
 Problem can be isolated to specific module so easier to find the
error and correct it.

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3.2 Function

A function is a group of statements that together performs a task. Every

C program has at least one function, which is main(), and all the most
trivial programs can define additional functions.

3.2.1 Function Declaration OR Function Prototype

1. It is also known as function prototype.

2. It informs the computer about these three things:
a) Name of the function
b) Number and type of arguments received by the function.
c) Type of value return by the function
Syntax:
return_typefunction_name (type1arg1, type2arg2);
OR
return_typefunction_name (type1type2);

1. The calling function needs information about the called function.

If a called function is placed before a calling function, then the
declaration is not needed.

3.2.2 Function Definition

1. It consists of code description and code of a function.

It consists of two parts
a) Function header
b) Function coding
Function definition tells what are the I/O function and what is going
to do.
Syntax:
return_typefunction_name (type1arg1, type2arg2)
{
local variable;
statements;
return (expression);
}
2. Function definition can be placed anywhere in the program but
generally placed after the main function.
3. Local variable declared inside the function is local to that
function. It cannot be used anywhere in the program and its
existence is only within the function.
4. Function definition cannot be nested.

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5. Return type denote the type of value that function will return and
return type is optional if omitted it is assumed to be integer by
default.

3.3 User Define Functions Vs Standard Function:

3.3.1 User Define Function:

A function that is declare, calling and define by the user is called user
defined function. Every user define function has three parts as:
1. Prototype or Declaration
2. Calling
3. Definition

3.3.2 Standard Function:

The C standard library is a standardized collection of header files and

library routines used to implement common operations, such as
input/output and character string handling. Unlike other languages (such
as COBOL, FORTRAN, and PL/I) C does not include built in keywords
for these tasks, so nearly all C programs rely on the standard library to
function.

3.4 Function Categories

There are four main categories of the functions these are as follows:
1. Function with no arguments and no return values.
2. Function with no arguments and a return value.
3. Function with arguments and no return values.
4. Function with arguments and return values.

3.4.1 Function with no arguments and no return values:

syntax:

void funct (void);

main ( )
{
funct ( );
}
void funct ( void );
{
}

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NOTE: There is no communication between calling and called function.

Functions are executed independently, they read data and print result in
same block.

Example:
void link (void) ;
int main ()
{ link ();
}
void link ( void );
{
printf (“ link the file “)
}

3.4.2 Function with no arguments and a return value:

This type of functions has no arguments but a return value

example:
int msg (void) ;
int main ( )
{
int s = msg ( );
printf( “summation = %d” , s);
}
int msg ( void )
{
int a, b, sum ;
sum = a+b ;
return (sum) ;
}
NOTE: Here called function is independent, it read the value from the
keyboard, initialize and return a value .Both calling and called function
are partly communicated with each other.

Function with arguments and no return values: Here functions have

arguments so, calling function send data to called function but called
function does no return value. such functions are partly dependent on
calling function and result obtained is utilized by called function .

Example:
void msg ( int , int );
int main ( )
{
int a,b;
a= 2;

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b=3;
msg( a, b);
}
void msg ( int a , int b)
{
int s ;
sum = a+b;
printf (“sum = %d” , s ) ;
}

3.4.3 Function with arguments and return value:

Here calling function of arguments that passed to the called function and
called function return value to calling function.

example:
int msg ( int , int ) ;
int main ( )
{
int a, b;
a= 2;
b=3;
int s = msg (a, b);
printf (“sum = %d” , s ) ;
}
int msg( int a , int b)
{
int sum ;
sum =a+b ;
return (sum);
}

3.5 Actual Arguments and Formal Arguments

3.5.1 Actual Arguments:

1. Arguments which are mentioned in the function call are known as

calling function.
2. These are the values which are actual arguments called to the
function.

It can be written as constant , function expression on any function call

which return a value .
ex: funct (6,9) , funct ( a,b )

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3.7.2 Formal Arguments:

1. Arguments which are mentioned in function definition are called

dummy or formal argument.
2. These arguments are used to just hold the value that is sent by
calling function.
3. Formal arguments are like other local variables of the function
which are created when function call starts and destroyed when
end function.

3.7.3 Basic difference between formal and local argument are:

a) Formal arguments are declared within the ( ) where as local

variables are declared at beginning.
b) Formal arguments are automatically initialized when a value of
actual argument is passed.
c) Where other local variables are assigned variable through the
statement inside the function body.

Note: Order, number and type of actual argument in the function call
should be matched with the order, number and type of formal arguments
in the function definition.

3.7.4 Parameter Passing Techniques:

1. call by value
2. call by reference

Call by value:
Here value of actual arguments is passed to the formal arguments and
operation is done in the formal argument.

Since formal arguments are photo copy of actual argument, any change
of the formal arguments does not affect the actual arguments.
Changes made to the formal argument t are local to block of called
function, so when control back to calling function changes made vanish.

Example:
void swap (int a , int b) /* called function */
{
int t;
t = a;
a=b;
b = t;
}
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main( )
{
int k = 50, m= 25;
swap( k, m) ; / * calling function */
print (k, m); / * calling function */
}

Output:
50, 25

Explanation:
int k= 50, m=25 ;
Means first two memory space are created k and m , store the values 50
and 25 respectively.
swap (k,m);
When this function is calling the control goes to the called function.
void swap (int a , int b),
k and m values are assigned to the ‘a’ and ‘b’.
then a= 50 and b= 25 ,
After that control enters into the function a temporary memory space ‘t’
is created when int t is executed.
t=a; Means the value of a is assigned to the t , then t= 50.
a=b; Here value of b is assigned to the a, then a= 25;
b=t; Again t value is assigned to the b, then b= 50;
after this control again enters into the main function and execute the
print function print (k,m). it returns the value 50, 25.
NOTE: Whatever change made in called function does not affect the
values in the calling function.

Call by reference:
Here instead of passing value, address or reference are passed. Function
operators or address rather than values. Here, formal arguments are the
pointers to the actual arguments.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
void add(int *n);
int main()
{
int num=2;
printf(“\n The value of num before calling the function=%d”, num);
add(&num);
printf(“\n The value of num after calling the function = %d”, num);
return 0;
}
void add(int *n)
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{
*n=*n+10;
printf(“\n The value of num in the called function = %d”, n);
}

Output:
The value of num before calling the function=2
The value of num in the called function=20 The
value of num after calling the function=20
NOTE:
In call by address mechanism whatever change made in called function
affect the values in calling function.

EXAMPLES:
1: Write a function to return larger number between two numbers:
int fun(int p, int q)
{
int large;
if(p>q)
{
large = p;
}
else
{
large = q;
}
return large;
}

2: Write a program using function to find factorial of a number.

#include <stdio.h>
int factorial (int n)
{
int i, p;
p = 1;
for (i=n; i>1; i=i-1)
{
p = p * i;
}
return (p);
}
void main()
{
int a, result;
printf ("Enter an integer number: ");
scanf ("%d", &a);
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result = factorial (a);

printf ("The factorial of %d is %d.\n", a, result);
}

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. What do you mean by function?

ii. Why is function used in a program?
iii. What do you mean by call by value and call by address?
iv. Mention the main categories of function Categories

Solution
1. What do you mean by function?
A function is a block of statements that performs a specific task.
Let's say you are writing a C program and you need to perform a
same task in that program more than once. In such case you have
two options:
a) Use the same set of statements every time you want to perform
the task.
b) Create a function to perform that task, and just call it every time
you need to perform that task.
2. Why is function used in a program?
 It provides modularity to the program.
 Easy code reusability. You just have to call the function by its
name to use it.
 In case of large programs with thousands of code lines,
debugging and editing becomes easier if you use functions.
 A function is independent:
 It is “completely” self-contained.
 It can be called at any place in the code and can be ported to
another program
 Reusable: Use existing functions as building blocks for new
programs
 Readable - more meaningful
 procedural abstraction: hide internal details
 factoring of code- divide and conquer

3. What do you mean by call by value and call by address?

The call by value method of passing arguments to a
function copies the actual value of an argument into the formal
parameter of the function. In this case, changes made to the
parameter inside the function have no effect on the argument. By
default, C programming uses call by value to pass arguments.

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WHILE
The call by Address method of passing arguments to a function copies
the address of an argument into the formal parameter. Inside the
function, the address is used to access the actual argument used in the
call.2. Why function is used in a program?

4. Mention the main categories of function Categories

There are four main categories of the functions these are as
follows:
1. Function with no arguments and no return values.
2. Function with no arguments and a return value.
3. Function with arguments and no return values.
4. Function with arguments and return values.

4.0 CONCLUSION

A function is a block of code that performs a single but related action.

Function can be reusable. and functions provide better modularity for
your application. Different programming languages name them
differently, for example, functions, methods, sub-routines, procedures,
etc. Function interface is a declaration of a function that specifies the
function's name and type signature (arity, data types of parameters, and
return type), but omits the function body.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt about functions. The difference between
monolithic and modular programming has been highlighted. The
advantages of modular programming and disadvantages of monolithic
programming are also outlined. You have also learnt the difference
between user define function and standard function, function declaration
or function prototype, its syntax, function categories etc.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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UNIT 2 ARRAYS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Arrays
3.1.1 One Dimensional Array
3.1.2 Declaration One Dimensional Array
3.1.3 Initialization of One-Dimensional Array
3.1.4 Array Processing
3.1.5 Two Dimensional Arrays
3.1.6 Declaration of Two-Dimensional Arrays
3.1.7 Initialization of one-Dimensional Array
3.1.8 Multidimensional Array
3.1.9 Arrays Using Functions
3.1.10 Passing Whole 1-D array to a Function
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In C programming language an array is a collection of similar data items

stored at contiguous memory locations and elements can be accessed
randomly using indices of an array. They can be used to store collection
of primitive data types such as int, float, double, char, etc of any
particular type. Note the items in an array must be of the same data type.
In computer science, array programming refers to solutions which allow
the application of operations to an entire set of values at once. Such
solutions are commonly used in scientific and engineering settings.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Describe an array
 Differentiate between one-dimensional and a two-dimensional
array
 Initialize one-dimensional, two-dimensional and multi-
dimensional arrays
 State the syntax of array declaration

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Arrays

A data structure is the way data is stored in the machine and the
functions used to access that data. An easy way to think of a data
structure is a collection of related data items. An array is a data structure
that is a collection of variables of one type that are accessed through a
common name. Each element of an array is given a number by which we
can access that element which is called an index. It solves the problem
of storing a large number of values and manipulating them.

Previously we use variables to store the values. To use the variables we

have to declare the variable and initialize the variable i.e, assign the
value to the variable. Suppose there are 1000 variables are present, so it
is a tedious process to declare and initialize each and every variable and
also to handle 1000 variables. To overcome this situation we use the
concept of array .In an Array values of same type are stored. An array is
a group of memory locations related by the fact that they all have the
same name and same type. To refer to a particular location or element in
the array we specify the name to the array and position number of
particular element in the array.

3.1.1 One Dimensional Array

3.1.2 Declaration one Dimensional Array

Before using the array in the program, it must be declared

Syntax:
data_typearray_name[size];

data_type represents the type of elements present in the array.

array_name represents the name of the array.
Size represents the number of elements that can be stored in the array.

Example:
int age[100];
float sal[15];
char grade[20];
Here age is an integer type array, which can store 100 elements of
integer type. The array sal is floating type array of size 15, can hold float
values. Grade is a character type array which holds 20 characters.

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3.1.3 Initialization of One-Dimensional Array

We can explicitly initialize arrays at the time of declaration.

Syntax:
data_typearray_name[size]={value1, value2,……..valueN};

Value1, value2, valueN are the constant values known as initializers,

which are assigned to the array elements one after another.

Example:
int marks[5]={10,2,0,23,4};
The values of the array elements after this initialization are:
marks[0]=10, marks[1]=2, marks[2]=0, marks[3]=23, marks[4]=4

Note:
1. In 1-D arrays it is optional to specify the size of the array. If size is
omitted during initialization, then the compiler assumes the size of array
equal to the number of initializers.

Example:
int marks[ ]={10,2,0,23,4};
Here the size of array marks is initialized to 5.
2. We can’t copy the elements of one array to another array by simply
assigning it.

Example:
int a[5]={9,8,7,6,5};
int b[5];
b=a; //not valid
we have to copy all the elements by using for loop.

for (a=i; i<5; i++)

b[i]=a[i];

3.1.4 Array Processing

For processing arrays, we mostly use for loop. The total no. of passes is
equal to the no. of elements present in the array and in each pass one
element is processed.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{

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int a[3], i;
for(i=0;i<=2;i++) //Reading the array values
{
printf(“enter the elements”);
scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<=2;i++) //display the array values
{
printf(“%d”,a[i]);
printf(“\n”);
}
}

This program reads and displays 3 elements of integer type.

Example 1. Write a C Program to increment every element of the array

by one and print incremented array.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
int array[4] = {10, 20, 30, 40};
for (i = 0; i< 4; i++)
arr[i]++;
for (i = 0; i< 4; i++)
printf("%d\t", array[i]);
}

Example 2. Write a C Program to print the alternate elements in an array

#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int array[10];
int i, j, temp;
printf("enter the element of an array \n");
for (i = 0; i< 10; i++)
scanf("%d", &array[i]);
printf("Alternate elements of a given array \n");
for (i = 0; i< 10; i += 2)
printf( "%d\n", array[i]) ;
}

Example 3: Write a C program to accept N numbers and arrange them in

an ascending order
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
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{
int i, j, a, n, number[30];
printf("Enter the value of N \n");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("Enter the numbers \n");
for (i = 0; i< n; ++i)
scanf("%d", &number[i]); for (i = 0; i< n; ++i)
{
for (j = i + 1; j < n; ++j)
{
if (number[i] > number[j])
{
a =number[i];
number[i] = number[j];
number[j] = a;
}
}
}
printf("The numbers arranged in ascending order are given below \n");
for (i = 0; i< n; ++i)
printf("%d\n", number[i]);
}

3.1.4 Two Dimensional Arrays

Arrays that we have considered up to now are one dimensional array, a

single line of elements. Often data come naturally in the form of a table,
e.g. spreadsheet, which need a two-dimensional array.

3.1.5 Declaration of Two-Dimensional Array

The syntax is same as for 1-D array but here 2 subscripts are used.

Syntax:
data_typearray_name[rowsize][columnsize];

Rowsize specifies the no.of rows Columnsize specifies the no.of

columns.

Example:
int a[4][5];
This is a 2-D array of 4 rows and 5 columns. Here the first element of
the array is a[0][0] and last element of the array is a[3][4] and total no.of
elements is 4*5=20.

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col 0 col 1 col 2 col 3 col 4

row 0 a[0][0] a[0][1] a[0][2] a[0][3]
a[0][4]
row 1 a[1][0] a[1][1] a[1][2] a[1][3]
a[1][4]
row 2 a[2][0] a[2][1] a[2][2] a[2][3]
a[2][4]
row 3 a[3][0] a[3][1] a[3][2] a[3][3]
a[3][4]

3.1.6 Initialization of one-Dimensional Array

2-D arrays can be initialized in a way similar to 1-D arrays.

Example:
int m[4][3]={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12};
The values are assigned as follows:

int m[4][3]={{11},{12,13},{14,15,16},{17}};
The values are assigned as:

Note:
In 2-D arrays it is optional to specify the first dimension but the second
dimension should always be present.

Example:
int m[][3]={
{1,10},
{2,20,200},
{3},
{4,40,400} };

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Here the first dimension is taken 4 since there are 4 roes in the
initialization list. A 2-D array is known as matrix.
Processing:
For processing of 2-D arrays we need two nested for loops. The outer
loop indicates the rows and the inner loop indicates the columns.

Example: int a[4][5];

a) Reading values in a
for(i=0;i<4;i++)
for(j=0;j<5;j++)
scanf(“%d”,&a[i][j]);

b) Displaying values of a
for(i=0;i<4;i++)
for(j=0;j<5;j++)
printf(“%d”,a[i][j]);
Example 1: Write a C program to find sum of two matrices
#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
float a[2][2], b[2][2], c[2][2];
int i,j;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the elements of 1st matrix\n");
/* Reading two dimensional Array with the help of two for loop. If there
is an array of 'n' dimension, 'n' numbers of loops are needed for inserting
data to array.*/
for(i=0;i<2;I++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
scanf("%f",&a[i][j]);
}
printf("Enter the elements of 2nd matrix\n");
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
scanf("%f",&b[i][j]);
}
/* accessing corresponding elements of two arrays. */
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
c[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j];
/* Sum of corresponding elements of two arrays. */
}
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/* To display matrix sum in order. */

printf("\nSum Of Matrix:");
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
{
for(j=0;j<2;++j)
printf("%f", c[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Example 2: Program for multiplication of two matrices

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main()
{
int i,j,k;
int row1,col1,row2,col2,row3,col3;
int mat1[5][5], mat2[5][5], mat3[5][5];
clrscr();
printf(“\n enter the number of rows in the first matrix:”);
scanf(“%d”, &row1);
printf(“\n enter the number of columns in the first matrix:”);
scanf(“%d”, &col1);
printf(“\n enter the number of rows in the second matrix:”);
scanf(“%d”, &row2);
printf(“\n enter the number of columns in the second matrix:”);
scanf(“%d”, &col2);
if(col1 != row2)
{
printf(“\n The number of columns in the first matrix must be equal to the
number of rows in the second matrix ”);
getch();
exit();
}
row3= row1;
col3= col3;
printf(“\n Enter the elements of the first matrix”);
for(i=0;i<row1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<col1;j++)
scanf(“%d”,&mat1[i][j]);
}
printf(“\n Enter the elements of the second matrix”);
for(i=0;i<row2;i++)
{
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for(j=0;j<col2;j++)
scanf(“%d”,&mat2[i][j]);
}
for(i=0;i<row3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<col3;j++)
{
mat3[i][j]=0;
for(k=0;k<col3;k++)
mat3[i][j] +=mat1[i][k]*mat2[k][j];
}
}
printf(“\n The elements of the product matrix are”):
for(i=0;i<row3;i++)
{
printf(“\n”);
for(j=0;j<col3;j++)
printf(“\t %d”, mat3[i][j]);
} return 0;
}

Output:
Enter the number of rows in the first matrix: 2
Enter the number of columns in the first matrix: 2
Enter the number of rows in the second matrix: 2
Enter the number of columns in the second matrix: 2
Enter the elements of the first matrix
1234
Enter the elements of the second matrix
5678
The elements of the product matrix are
19 22
43 50

Example 3: Program to find transpose of a matrix.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a[10][10], trans[10][10], r, c, i, j;
printf("Enter rows and column of matrix: ");
scanf("%d %d", &r, &c);
printf("\nEnter elements of matrix:\n");
for(i=0; i<r; i++)
for(j=0; j<c; j++)
{

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printf("Enter elements a%d%d: ",i+1,j+1); scanf("%d", &a[i][j]);

}
/* Displaying the matrix a[][] */
printf("\n Entered Matrix: \n");
for(i=0; i<r; i++)
for(j=0; j<c; j++)
{
printf("%d ",a[i][j]);
if(j==c-1)
printf("\n\n");
}
/* Finding transpose of matrix a[][] and storing it in array trans[][]. */
for(i=0; i<r;i++)
for(j=0; j<c; j++)
{
trans[j][i]=a[i][j];
}
/* Displaying the array trans[][]. */
printf("\nTranspose of Matrix:\n");
for(i=0; i<c;i++) for(j=0; j<r;j++)
{
printf("%d ",trans[i][j]);
if(j==r-1)
printf("\n\n");
}
return 0;
}

Output
Enter the rows and columns of matrix:
2 3
Enter the elements of matrix:
Enter elements a11: 1
Enter elements a12: 2
Enter elements a13: 9
Enter elements a21: 0
Enter elements a22: 4
Enter elements a23: 7
Entered matrix: 1 2 9 0 4 7
ranspose of matrix: 1 0 2 4 9 7

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3.1.8 Multidimensional Array

More than 2-dimensional arrays are treated as multidimensional arrays.

Example:
int a[2][3][4];
Here a represents two 2-dimensional arrays and each of these 2-d arrays
contains 3 rows and 4 columns.
The individual elements are:
a[0][0][0], a[0][0][1],a[0][0][2],a[0][1][0]…………a[0][3][2]
a[1][0][0],a[1][0][1],a[1][0][2],a[1][1][0]…………..a[1][3][2]

the total no. of elements in the above array is 2*3*4=24.

Initialization:
int a[2][4][3]={ {
{1,2,3},
{4,5},
{6,7,8},
{9}
},
{
{10,11},
{12,13,14},
{15,16},
{17,18,19}
}
}

The values of elements after this initialization are as:

a[0][0][0]:1 a[0][0][1]:2 a[0][0][2]:3
a[0][1][0]:4 a[0][1][1]:5 a[0][1][2]:0
a[0][2][0]:6 a[0][2][1]:7 a[0][2][2]:8
a[0][3][0]:9 a[0][3][1]:0 a[0][3][2]:0
a[1][0][0]:10 a[1][0][1]:11 a[1][0][2]:0
a[1][1][0]:12 a[1][1][1]:13 a[1][1][2]:14
a[1][2][0]:15 a[1][2][1]:16 a[1][2][2]:0
a[1][3][0]:17 a[1][3][1]:18 a[1][3][2]:19

Note: The rule of initialization of multidimensional arrays is that last

subscript varies most frequently and the first subscript varies least
rapidly.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int d[5];
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int i;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
d[i]=i;
}
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf(“value in array %d\n”,a[i]);
}
}

Pictorial representation of d will look like

d[0] d[1] d[2] d[3]

d[4]
0 1 2 3 4

3.1.9 Arrays Using Functions

1-d arrays using functions

Passing individual array elements to a function
We can pass individual array elements as arguments to a function like
other simple variables.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
void check(int);
void main()
{
int a[10],i;
clrscr();
printf(“\n enter the array elements:”);
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
check(a[i]);
}
void check(int num)
{
if(num%2==0)
printf(“%d is even\n”,num);
else
printf(“%d is odd\n”,num);
}

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Output: enter the array elements:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 is odd
2 is even
3 is odd
4 is even
5 is odd
6 is even
7 is odd
8 is even
9 is odd
10 is even

Example:
C program to pass a single element of an array to function
#include <stdio.h>
void display(int a)
{
printf("%d",a);
}
int main()
{
int c[]={2,3,4};
display(c[2]); //Passing array element c[2] only.
return 0; }

Output
234

3.1.10 Passing whole 1-D array to a function

We can pass whole array as an actual argument to a function the

corresponding formal arguments should be declared as an array variable
of the same type.

Example 1:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i, a[6]={1,2,3,4,5,6};
func(a);
printf(“contents of array:”);
for(i=0;i<6;i++) printf(“%d”,a[i]);
printf(”\n”);
}
func(int val[])
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{
int sum=0,i;
for(i=0;i<6;i++)
{
val[i]=val[i]*val[i]; sum+=val[i];
}
printf(“the sum of squares:%d”, sum);
}

Output
contents of array: 1 2 3 4 5 6
the sum of squares: 91

Example 2:
Write a C program to pass an array containing age of person to a
function. This function should find average age and display the average
age in main function.

#include <stdio.h>
float average(float a[]);
int main()
{
float avg, c[]={23.4, 55, 22.6, 3, 40.5, 18};
avg=average(c); /* Only name of array is passed as argument. */
printf("Average age=%.2f",avg);
return 0;
}
float average(float a[])
{
int i;
float avg, sum=0.0;
for(i=0;i<6;++i)
{
sum+=a[i];
}
avg =(sum/6);
return avg;
}

Output
Average age= 27.08

Further Examples:
1. Write a program to find the largest of n numbers and its location in
an array.
#include <stdio.h>
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#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int array[100], maximum, size, c, location = 1;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the number of elements in array\n");
scanf("%d", &size);
printf("Enter %d integers\n", size);
for (c = 0; c < size; c++)
scanf("%d", &array[c]); maximum = array[0];
for (c = 1; c < size; c++)
{
if (array[c] > maximum)
{
maximum = array[c];
location = c+1;
}
}
printf("Maximum element is present at location %d and it's value is
%d.\n", location, maximum);
getch();
}

Output:
Enter the number of elements in array 5
Enter 5 integers
2
4
7
9
1

Maximum element is present at location 4 and it's value is 9

2. Write a program to enter n number of digits. Form a number using

these digits.
# include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
int number=0,digit[10], numofdigits,i;
clrscr(); printf(“\n Enter the number of digits:”);
scanf(“%d”, &numofdigits);
for(i=0;i<numofdigits;i++)
{
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printf(“\n Enter the %d th digit:”, i);

scanf(“%d”,&digit[i]);
}
i=0;
while(i<numofdigits)
{
number= number + digit[i]* pow(10,i)
i++;
}
printf(“\n The number is : %d”,number);
getch(); }

Output:
Enter the number of digits:
3
Enter the 0th digit:
5
Enter the 1th digit:
4
Enter the 2th digit:
3
The number is: 543

3. Matrix addition:
#include <stdio.h> #include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int m, n, c, d, first[10][10], second[10][10], sum[10][10];
clrscr();
printf("Enter the number of rows and columns of matrix\n");
scanf("%d%d", &m, &n);
printf("Enter the elements of first matrix\n");
for ( c = 0 ; c < m ; c++ )
for ( d = 0 ; d < n ; d++ )
scanf("%d", &first[c][d]);
printf("Enter the elements of second matrix\n");
for ( c = 0 ; c < m ; c++ )
for ( d = 0 ; d < n ; d++ )
scanf("%d", &second[c][d]);
for ( c = 0 ; c < m ; c++ )
for ( d = 0 ; d < n ; d++ )
sum[c][d] = first[c][d] + second[c][d];
printf("Sum of entered matrices:-\n");
for ( c = 0 ; c < m ; c++ )
{
for ( d = 0 ; d < n ; d++ )
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printf("%d\t", sum[c][d]);
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}
Output:
Enter the number of rows and columns of matrix
2 2
Enter the elements of first matrix
12 34
Enter the elements of second matrix
56 21
Sum of entered matrices:- 6 8 5 5

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. Compute sum of elements of an array in a C program?

ii. Write a program to declare an array with 10 elements, populate it
and display the contents
iii. Write C program to add two multi-dimensional arrays

Solution:
1. Compute sum of elements of an array in a C program?
//let's assume the maximum array size as 100.
//initialize sum as 0. Otherwise, it will take some garbage value.
int arr[100], size, i, sum = 0;

//Get size input from user

printf("Enter array size\n");
scanf("%d",&size);

//Get all elements using for loop and store it in array

printf("Enter array elements\n");
for(i = 0; i < size; i++)
scanf("%d",&arr[i]);

//add all elements to the variable sum.

for(i = 0; i < size; i++)
sum = sum + arr[i]; // same as sum += arr[i];

//print the result

printf("Sum of the array = %d\n",sum);

return 0;
}

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2 Write a program to declare an array with 10 elements, populate it

and display the contents
#include <stdio.h>
int main () {
int n[ 10 ]; /* n is an array of 10 integers */
int i,j;
/* initialize elements of array n to 0 */
for ( i = 0; i < 10; i++ ) {
n[ i ] = i + 100; /* set element at location i to i + 100 */
}

/* output each array element's value */

for (j = 0; j < 10; j++ ) {
printf("Element[%d] = %d\n", j, n[j] );
}
return 0;
}

3 Write C program to add two multi-dimensional arrays

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int r, c, a[100][100], b[100][100], sum[100][100], i, j;
printf("Enter the number of rows (between 1 and 100): ");
scanf("%d", &r);
printf("Enter the number of columns (between 1 and 100): ");
scanf("%d", &c);

printf("\nEnter elements of 1st matrix:\n");

for (i = 0; i < r; ++i) {
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j) {
printf("Enter element a%d%d: ", i + 1, j + 1);
scanf("%d", &a[i][j]);
}}

printf("Enter elements of 2nd matrix:\n");

for (i = 0; i < r; ++i) {
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j) {
printf("Enter element b%d%d: ", i + 1, j + 1);
scanf("%d", &b[i][j]);
}}
// adding two matrices
for (i = 0; i < r; ++i) {
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j) {
sum[i][j] = a[i][j] + b[i][j];
}}
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// printing the result

printf("\nSum of two matrices: \n");
for (i = 0; i < r; ++i) {
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j) {
printf("%d ", sum[i][j]);
if (j == c - 1) {
printf("\n\n");
}}
return 0;
}

4.0 CONCLUSION

An array is a collection of similar data items stored at contiguous

memory locations and each element can be accessed randomly using
indices of an array. An array can be one dimensional, two dimensional
or multi-dimensional. Arrays must be declared before it can be used.
Array can be manipulated just like any other variable.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have been introduced to arrays, it declarations,

initialization and manipulation. You have also learnt how to read and
display elements of an array. Several examples are provided for clearer
understanding array and it manipulations.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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UNIT 3 FUNDAMENTALS OF STRINGS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 String
3.2 Reading strings
3.3 Writing string
3.4 Common Functions in String
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A string is defined as a contiguous sequence of code units terminated by

the first zero code unit (often called the NUL code unit). What this
means is that a string cannot contain the zero code unit, as the first one
seen marks the end of the string. The length of a string is the number of
code units before the zero-code unit. The memory occupied by a string
is always one more code unit than the length, as space is needed to store
the zero terminator. Generally, the term string means a string where the
code unit is of type char which is exactly 8 bits on all modern machines.
String literals ("text" in the C source code) are converted to arrays
during compilation.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Define a string
 Differentiate between a string and a character
 Manipulate string
 Mention some commonly used string input/output library
functions
 Read and write string
 Declare a string variable

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 String

A string is a series of characters treated as a single unit. A string may

include letters, digits and various special characters such as +, -, *, / and
$. String literals or string constants in C are written in double quotation
marks as follows:
“1000 Main Street” (a street address)
“(080)329-7082” (a telephone number)
“Kalamazoo, New York” (a city)
In C language strings are stored in array of char type along with null
terminating character ‘\0’ at the end.
When sizing the string array, we need to add plus one to the actual size
of the string to make space for the null terminating character, ‘\0’.
Syntax:
char fname[4];
The above statement declares a string called fname that can take up to 3
characters. It can be indexed just as a regular array as well.
fname[]={‘t’,’w’,’o’};

character T w o \0
ASCII code 116 119 41 0

Generalized syntax is:

char str[size];
when we declare the string in this way, we can store size-1 characters in
the array because the last character would be the null character.
For example,
char mesg[10]; can store maximum of 9 characters.

If we want to print a string from a variable, such as four name string

above we can do this.
printf(“First name:%s”,fname);

We can insert more than one variable. Conversion specification %s is

used to insert a string and then go to each %s in our string, we are
printing.

A string is an array of characters. Hence it can be indexed like an array.

char ourstr[6] = “EED”;

– ourstr[0] is ‘E’
– ourstr[1] is ‘E’
– ourstr[2] is ‘D’
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– ourstr[3] is ‘\0’
– ourstr[4] is ‘\0’
– ourstr[5] is ‘\0’

‘E’ ‘E’ ‘D’ \0 “\0 “ “\0 “

ourstr[0] ourstr[1] ourstr[2] ourstr[3] ourstr[4]

ourstr[5]

3.2 Reading Strings

If we declare a string by writing

char str[100];
then str can be read from the user by using three ways;
1. Using scanf() function
2. Using gets() function
3. Using getchar(), getch(), or getche() function repeatedly

The string can be read using scanf() by writing

scanf(“%s”,str);
Although the syntax of scanf() function is well known and easy to use,
the main pitfall with this function is that it terminates as soon as it finds
a blank space. For example, if the user enters Hello World, then str will
contain only Hello. This is because the moment a blank space is
encountered, the string is terminated by the scanf() function.

Example:
char str[10];
printf(“Enter a string\n”);
scanf(“%s”,str);

The next method of reading a string a string is by using gets() function.

The string can be read by writing
gets(str);
gets() is a function that overcomes the drawbacks of scanf(). The gets()
function takes the starting address of the string which will hold the
input. The string inputted using gets() is automatically terminated with a
null character.

Example:
char str[10];
printf(“Enter a string\n”);
gets(str);

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The string can also be read by calling the getchar() repeatedly to read a
sequence of single characters (unless a terminating character is
encountered) and simultaneously storing it in a character array as
follows:
int i=0;
char str[10],ch;
getchar(ch);
while(ch!=’\0’)
{
str[i]=ch; // store the read character in str
i++;
getch(ch); // get another character
}
str[i]=’\0’; // terminate str with null character

3.3 Writing string

The string can be displayed on screen using three ways:

1. Using printf() function

2. Using puts() function
3. Using putchar() function repeatedly

The string can be displayed using pintf() by writing

printf(“%s”,str);
We can use width and precision specification along with %s. The width
specifies the minimum output field width and the precision specifies the
maximum number of characters to be displayed.

Example:
printf(“%5.3s”,str);

This statement would print only the first three characters in a total field
of five charaters; also these three characters are right justified in the
allocated width.
The next method of writing a string is by using the puts() function. The
string can be displayed by writing:
puts(str);

It terminates the line with a newline character (‘\n’). It returns an EOF(-

1) if an error occurs and returns a positive number on success.
Finally the string can be written by calling the putchar( ) function
repeatedly to print a sequence of single characters.
int i=0;
char str[10];
while(str[i]!=’\0’)
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{
putchar(str[i]); // print the character on the screen
i++;
}

Example:
Read and display a string
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char str[20];
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter a string:\n”);
gets(str);
scanf(“The string is:\n”);
puts(str);
getch(); }

Output:
Enter a string:
vssut burla
The string is:
vssut burla

3.4 Common Functions in String

Method Description char strcpy(s1, s2) Copy string char strcat(s1,

s2) Append string int strcmp(s1, s2) Compare 2 strings int strlen(s)
Return string length char strchr(s, int c) Find a character in string char
strstr(s1, s2) Find string s2 in string s1
Type Method Description
char strcpy(s1, s2) Copy string
char char strcat(s1, s2) Append string
int strcmp(s1, s2) Compare 2 strings
int strlen(s) Return string length
char strchr(s, int c) Find a character in
string
char strstr(s1, s2) Find string s2 in string
s1
strcpy():
It is used to copy one string to another string. The content of the second
string is copied to the content of the first string.
Syntax:
strcpy (string 1, string 2);
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Example:
char mystr[10];
mystr = “Hello”; // Error! Illegal!!! Because we are assigning the
value to mystr which is not possible in case of an string. We can only
use "=" at declarations of C-String.
strcpy(mystr, “Hello”);
It sets value of mystr equal to “Hello”.

strcmp():
It is used to compare the contents of the two strings. If any mismatch
occurs then it results the difference of ASCII values between the first
occurrence of 2 different characters.
Syntax:
int strcmp(string 1, string 2);

Example:
char mystr_a[10] = “Hello”;
char mystr_b[10] = “Goodbye”;
– mystr_a == mystr_b; // NOT allowed!
The correct way is
if (strcmp(mystr_a, mystr_b ))
printf ("Strings are NOT the same.");
else
printf( "Strings are the same.");
Here it will check the ASCII value of H and G i.e, 72 and 71 and return
the diference 1.

strcat():
It is used to concatenate i.e, combine the content of two strings.
Syntax:
strcat(string 1, string 2);

Example:
char fname[30]={“bob”};
char lname[]={“by”};
printf(“%s”, strcat(fname,lname));

Output:
bobby.

strlen():
It is used to return the length of a string.

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Syntax:
int strlen(string);

Example:
char fname[30]={“bob”};
int length=strlen(fname);
It will return 3

strchr():
It is used to find a character in the string and returns the index of
occurrence of the character for the first time in the string.
Syntax:
strchr(cstr);

Example:
char mystr[] = "This is a simple string";
char pch = strchr(mystr,‘s’);
The output of pch is mystr[3]

strstr():
It is used to return the existence of one string inside another string and it
results the starting index of the string.
Syntax:
strstr(cstr1, cstr2);

Example:
Char mystr[]="This is a simple string";
char pch = strstr(mystr, “simple”);
here pch will point to mystr[10]

• String input/output library functions

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NOTE:
Character arrays are known as strings.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. What is a string in c?
ii. Show 2 different methods of initializing character array vowel
with the string of vowels “AEIOU”.
iii. Outline the commonly used string functions in C. Put your
answer in tabular format indicating type, method and description.

Solution
1 What is a string in c?
The string in C programming language is actually a one-
dimensional array of characters which is terminated by a null
character '\0'. Thus, a null-terminated string contains the
characters that comprise the string followed by a null.
2 Show 2 different methods of initializing character array vowel
with the string of vowels “AEIOU”.
Method1: char vowels [6] = “AEIOU”
Method 2: char vowels [6] = {'A','E','I','O','U','N','\0'}; // NULL
character '\0' is required at end in this declaration

3 Outline the commonly used string functions in C. Put your

answer in tabular format indicating type, method and description.

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Type Method Description

char strcpy(s1, s2) Copy string
char char strcat(s1, s2) Append string
int strcmp(s1, s2) Compare 2 strings
int strlen(s) Return string length
char strchr(s, int c) Find a character in string
char strstr(s1, s2) Find string s2 in string s1

4.0 CONCLUSION

A string is a sequence of characters. Particularly in C program, a string

is an array of characters. A string may include letters, digits and various
special characters such as +, -, *, / and $. String literals or string
constants in C are written in double quotation marks. String can be
concatenated, that is “addition of two or more strings”. A string can be a
constant and it can also be assigned to a string variable.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt about string, how to declare a string, how to
read and write a string, how to manipulate a string, how to differentiate
between a string and a character, common function in string (such as
strcpy(s1, s2), strcmp(s1, s2), strlen(s) etc). Examples are given to
illustrate string manipulation and functions.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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MODULE 8 STRUCTURE AND POINTERS IN C

Unit 1 Structure and Pointers

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Structure
3.2 Pointers
3.3 Pointers and Addresses
3.4 Pointers and Function Arguments
3.5 Pointers and Arrays
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A structure is a user defined data type in C. A structure allows us to

create data type that can be used to group items of different types into a
single type. It is similar to array but array allows only a set of data
values of one data type to be stored in it. It is equally similar to records
in Pascal programming language. A pointer is an object in
many programming languages that stores a memory address. This can be
that of another value located in computer memory, or in some cases, that
of memory-mapped computer hardware. A pointer references a location
in memory, and obtaining the value stored at that location is known
as dereferencing the pointer. As an analogy, a page number in a book's
index could be considered a pointer to the corresponding page;
dereferencing such a pointer would be done by flipping to the page with
the given page number and reading the text found on that page. The
actual format and content of a pointer variable is dependent on the
underlying computer architecture.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Understand C structures and pointers

 Know how to define and use structures and pointers in C

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3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Structure

A Structure is a user defined data type that can store related information
together. The variable within a structure is of different data types and
each has a name that is used to select it from the structure. C arrays
allow you to define type of variables that can hold several data items of
the same kind, but structure is another user defined data type available
in C programming, which allows you to combine data items of different
kinds.

Structures are used to represent a record. Suppose you want to keep

track of your books in a library, you might want to track the following
attributes about each book:

 Title
 Author
 Subject
 Book ID

Structure Declaration:
It is declared using a keyword struct followed by the name of the
structure. The variables of the structure are declared within the structure.
Example:
Struct struct-name
{
data_type var-name;
data_type var-name;
};

Structure Initialization:
Assigning constants to the members of the structure is called initializing
of structure. Syntax:
struct struct_name
{
data _type member_name1;
data _type member_name2;
} struct_var={constant1,constant2};
Accessing the members of a structure
A structure member variable is generally accessed using a ‘.’ operator.

Syntax:
strcut_var.
member_name;

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The dot operator is used to select a particular member of the structure.

To assign value to the individual
Data members of the structure variable stud, we write,

stud.roll=01;
stud.name=”Rahul”;

To input values for data members of the structure variable stud, can be
written as,
scanf(“%d”,&stud.roll);
scanf(‘’%s”,&stud.name);

To print the values of structure variable stud, can be written as:

printf(“%s”,stud.roll);
printf(“%f”,stud.name);

3.2 Pointers

A pointer is a variable that contains the address of a variable. Pointers

are much used in C, partly because they are sometimes the only way to
express a computation, and partly because they usually lead to more
compact and efficient code than can be obtained in other ways. Pointers
and arrays are closely related; this chapter also explores this relationship
and shows how to exploit it. Pointers have been lumped with the goto
statement as a marvelous way to create impossible to understand
programs. This is certainly true when they are used carelessly, and it is
easy to create pointers that point somewhere unexpected. With
discipline, however, pointers can also be used to achieve clarity and
simplicity. This is the aspect that we will try to illustrate. The main
change in ANSI C is to make explicit the rules about how pointers can
be manipulated, in effect mandating what good programmers already
practice and good compilers already enforce. In addition, the type void
* (pointer to void) replaces char * as the proper type for a generic
pointer.

3.3 Pointers and Addresses

Let us begin with a simplified picture of how memory is organized. A

typical machine has an array of consecutively numbered or addressed
memory cells that may be manipulated individually or in contiguous
groups. One common situation is that any byte can be a char, a pair of
one-byte cells can be treated as a short integer, and four adjacent bytes
form a long. A pointer is a group of cells (often two or four) that can
hold an address. So if c is a char and p is a pointer that points to it, we
could represent the situation this way:

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The unary operator & gives the address of an object, so the statement
p = &c; assigns the address of c to the variable p, and p is said to ``point
to'' c. The &operator only applies to objects in memory: variables and
array elements. It cannot be applied to expressions, constants, or register
variables. The unary operator * is the indirection or dereferencing
operator; when applied to a pointer, it accesses the object the pointer
points to. Suppose that x and y are integers and ip is a pointer to int.
This artificial sequence shows how to declare a pointer and how to use
& and *:

int x = 1, y = 2, z[10];
int *ip;
ip = &x;
y = *ip;
*ip = 0;
ip = &z[0];

The declaration of x, y, and z are what we've seen all along. The
declaration of the pointer ip.
int *ip;
is intended as a mnemonic; it says that the expression *ip is an int. The
syntax of the declaration for a variable mimics the syntax of expressions
in which the variable might appear. This reasoning applies to function
declarations as well. For example,
double *dp, atof(char *);
says that in an expression *dp and atof(s) have values of double, and
that the argument of atof is a pointer to char. You should also note the
implication that a pointer is constrained to point to a particular kind of
object: every pointer points to a specific data type. If ip points to the
integer x, then *ip can occur in any context where x could, so
*ip = *ip + 10;
increments *ip by 10. The unary operators * and & bind more tightly
than arithmetic operators, so the assignment
y = *ip + 1
takes whatever ip points at, adds 1, and assigns the result to y, while
*ip += 1
increments what ip
points to, as do
++*ip and (*ip)++
The parentheses are necessary in this last example; without them, the
expression would increment ip instead of what it points to, because

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unary operators like * and ++ associate right to left. Finally, since

pointers are variables, they can be used without dereferencing. For
example, if iq is another pointer to int,
iq = ip
copies the contents of ip into iq, thus making iq point to whatever ip
pointed to.

3.4 Pointers and Function Arguments

Since C passes arguments to functions by value, there is no direct way

for the called function to alter a variable in the calling function. For
instance, a sorting routine might exchange two out of order arguments
with a function called swap. It is not enough to write
swap(a, b);
where the swap function is defined as
void swap(int x, int y)
{
int temp;
temp = x;
x = y;
y = temp;
}

Because of call by value, swap can't affect the arguments a and b in the
routine that called it. The function above swaps copies of a and b. The
way to obtain the desired effect is for the calling program to pass
pointers to the values to be changed:

swap(&a, &b);

Since the operator & produces the address of a variable, &a is a pointer
to a. In swap itself, the parameters are declared as pointers, and the
operands are accessed indirectly through them.
void swap(int *px, int *py) /* interchange *px and *py */
{
int temp;
temp = *px;
*px = *py;
*py = temp;
}

Pointer arguments enable a function to access and change objects in the

function that called it. As an example, consider a function getint that
performs free-format input conversion by breaking a stream of
characters into integer values, one integer per call. getint has to return
the value it found and also signal end of file when there is no more

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input. These values have to be passed back by separate paths, for no

matter what value is used for EOF, that could also be the value of an
input integer. One solution is to have getint return the end of file status
as its function value, while using a pointer argument to store the
converted integer back in the calling function. This is the scheme used
by scanf as well. The following loop fills an array with integers by calls
to getint:

int n, array[SIZE], getint(int *);

for (n = 0; n < SIZE &&getint(&array[n]) != EOF; n++) ;

Each call sets array[n] to the next integer found in the input and
increments n. Notice that it is essential to pass the address of array[n] to
getint. Otherwise there is no way for getint to communicate the
converted integer back to the caller. Our version of getint returns EOF
for end of file, zero if the next input is not a number, and a positive
value if the input contains a valid number.
#include <ctype.h>
int getch(void);
void ungetch(int);
int getint(int *pn)
{
int c, sign;
while (isspace(c = getch()));
if (!isdigit(c) && c != EOF&& c != '+' && c != '-')
{
ungetch(c);
return 0;
}
sign = (c == '-') ? -1 : 1;
if (c == '+' || c == '-')
c = getch();
for (*pn = 0; isdigit(c), c = getch())
*pn = 10 * *pn + (c - '0');
*pn *= sign;
if (c != EOF)
ungetch(c);
return c;
}

Throughout getint, *pn is used as an ordinary int variable. We have also

used getch and ungetch so the one extra character that must be read can
be pushed back onto the input.

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3.5 Pointers and Arrays

In C, there is a strong relationship between pointers and arrays, strong

enough that pointers and arrays should be discussed simultaneously.
Any operation that can be achieved by array subscripting can also be
done with pointers. The pointer version will in general be faster but, at
least to the uninitiated, somewhat harder to understand. The declaration
int a[10];
defines an array of size 10, that is, a block of 10 consecutive objects
named a[0], a[1], .. , a[9]. The notation a[i] refers to the i-th element of
the array. If pa is a pointer to an integer, declared as
int *pa;
then the assignment
pa = &a[0];
sets pa to point to element zero of a; that is, pa contains the address of
a[0]. Now the assignment
x =*pa;
will copy the contents of a[0] into x. If pa points to a particular element
of an array, then by definition pa+1 points to the next element, pa+i
points i elements after pa, and pa-i points i elements before. Thus, if pa
points to a[0], *(pa+1) refers to the contents of a[1], pa+i is the address
of a[i], and *(pa+i) is the contents of a[i]. These remarks are true
regardless of the type or size of the variables in the array a. The meaning
of ``adding 1 to a pointer,'' and by extension, all pointer arithmetic, is
that pa+1 points to the next object, and pa+i points to the i-th object
beyond pa. The correspondence between indexing and pointer arithmetic
is very close. By definition, the value of a variable or expression of type
array is the address of element zero of the array. Thus after the
assignment
pa = &a[0];
pa and a have identical values. Since the name of an array is a synonym
for the location of the initial element, the assignment
pa=&a[0]
can also be written as
pa = a;

Rather more surprising, at first sight, is the fact that a reference to a[i]
can also be written as *(a+i). In evaluating a[i], C converts it to *(a+i)
immediately; the two forms are equivalent. Applying the operator & to
both parts of this equivalence, it follows that &a[i] and a+i are also
identical: a+i is the address of the i-th element beyond a. As the other
side of this coin, if pa is a pointer, expressions might use it with a
subscript; pa[i] is identical to *(pa+i). In short, an array-and-index
expression is equivalent to one written as a pointer and offset. There is
one difference between an array name and a pointer that must be kept in
mind. A pointer is a variable, so pa=a and pa++ are legal. But an array

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name is not a variable; constructions like a=pa and a++ are illegal.
When an array name is passed to a function, what is passed is the
location of the initial element. Within the called function, this argument
is a local variable, and so an array name parameter is a pointer, that is, a
variable containing an address. We can use this fact to write another
version of strlen, which computes the length of a string.
int strlen(char *s)
{
int n;
for (n = 0; *s != '\0', s++)
n++;
return n;
}

Since s is a pointer, incrementing it is perfectly legal; s++ has no effect

on the character string in the function that called strlen, but merely
increments strlen's private copy of the pointer. That means that calls like
strlen("hello, world");
strlen(array); strlen(ptr);
all work.
As formal parameters in a function definition,
char s[]; and char *s;
are equivalent; we prefer the latter because it says more explicitly that
the variable is a pointer. When an array name is passed to a function, the
function can at its convenience believe that it has been handed either an
array or a pointer, and manipulate it accordingly. It can even use both
notations if it seems appropriate and clear. It is possible to pass part of
an array to a function, by passing a pointer to the beginning of the
subarray. For example, if a is an array,

f(&a[2])and f(a+2)
both pass to the function f the address of the subarray that starts at a[2].
Within f, the parameter declaration can read
f(int arr[])
{ ... } or
f(int *arr) { ... }

So as far as f is concerned, the fact that the parameter refers to part of a

larger array is of no consequence. If one is sure that the elements exist,
it is also possible to index backwards in an array; p[-1], p[2], and so on
are syntactically legal, and refer to the elements that immediately
precede p[0]. Of course, it is illegal to refer to objects that are not within
the array bound.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. What is a structure in C programming language?

ii. Declare a structure in C with the flowing members: Employee
name, identification number, salary.
iii. Declare a pointer for each of the following integer, double, float
and character. Use comment to document your declarations.

Solution
1. What is a structure in C programming language?
A structure is a key word that create user defined data type in C.
A structure in C Programming language is a group of variables of
different data types represented by a single name. It Allows us to
store a collection of different data types in one memory location
with one name. Each element of a structure is called a member.
1 Declare a structure in C with the flowing members: Employee
name, identification number, salary.
struct employee Name { char name[50];
int idNo;
float salary; };
3 Declare a pointer for each of the following integer, double, float
and character. Use comment to document your declarations.

int *ip; /* pointer to an integer */

double *dp; /* pointer to a double */
float *fp; /* pointer to a float */
char *ch /* pointer to a character */

4.0 CONCLUSION

Structure is a group of variables of different data types represented by a

single name. A structure is used to represent information about
something more complicated than a single number, character, or boolean
can do. It is more complicated than an array or single data type. A
pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another variable
as its value. A pointer variable points to a data type (e.g., int) of the
same type, and is created with the * operator.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt about structure and pointers. You have been
exposed to how to declare a structure, how to initialize a structure, how
to declare a pointer variable, how to dereference a pointer. You have
also learnt about pointers and addresses, pointers and functions
arguments, pointers and arrays etc.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016

Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

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