UNIT – I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

A hybrid vehicle combines any two power (energy) sources. Possible combinations include
diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery. Typically, one energy source is storage, and
the other is conversion of a fuel to energy. The combination of two power sources may support two
separate propulsion systems. Thus to be a True hybrid, the vehicle must have at least two modes of
propulsion. For example, a truck that uses a diesel to drive a generator, which in turn drives several
electrical motors for all-wheel drive, is not a hybrid. But if the truck has electrical energy storage to
provide a second mode, which is electrical assists, then it is a hybrid Vehicle. These two power sources
may be paired in series, meaning that the gas engine charges the batteries of an electric motor that
powers the car, or in parallel, with both mechanisms driving the car directly.

CONVENTIONAL VEHICLES:

A conventional engine-driven vehicle uses its engine to translate fuel energy into shaft power, directing
most of this power through the drive train to turn the wheels. Much of the heat generated by combustion
cannot be used for work and is wasted, both because heat engines have theoretical efficiency limit.
Moreover, it is impossible to reach the theoretical efficiency limit because:

• Some heat is lost through cylinder walls before it can do work

• Some fuel is burned at less than the highest possible pressure

• Fuel is also burned while the engine is experiencing negative load (during braking) or when the vehicle is
coasting or at a stop, with the engine idling.

1.5. 1. BASIC VEHICLE PERFORMANCE:

The performance of a vehicle is usually described by its maximum cruising speed, grade ability, and
acceleration. The predication of vehicle performances based on the relationship between tractive effort and
vehicle speed discussed in Sections 2.5 and 2.6. For on-road vehicles, it is assumed that the maximum
tractive effort is limited by the maximum torque of the power plant rather than the road adhesion capability.

1.5.1.1. General Description of Vehicle Movement

Figure 2.1 shows the forces acting on a vehicle moving up a grade. The tractive effort, Ft, in the contact area
between tires of the driven wheels and the road surface propels the vehicle forward. It is produced by the
power plant torque and is transferred through transmission and final drive to the drive wheels. While the
vehicle is moving, there is resistance that tries to stop its movement. The resistance usually includes tire
rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag, and uphill resistance. According to Newton’s second law, vehicle
acceleration can be written as where V is vehicle speed, ΣFtris the total tractive effort of the vehicle, ΣFtris
the total resistance, Mvis the total mass of the vehicle, and δ is the mass factor, which is an effect of rotating
components in the power train. Equation.

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 Figure 1.5.1.1. Forces acting on a vehicle
The above fig indicates that speed and acceleration depend on tractive effort, resistance,
And vehicle mass.
Vehicle Resistance
As shown in Figure 1.5.1.1, vehicle resistance opposing its movement includes rolling resistance of the
tires, appearing in Figure 1.5..1 as rolling resistance torque Trf and Trr, aerodynamic drag, Fw, and
gradingresistance (the term Mv g sin α in Figure). All of the resistances will be discussed in detail in the
following sections.
Rolling Resistance
The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is primarily caused by hysteresis in the tire materials. This is
due to the deflection of the carcass while the tire is rolling. The hysteresis causes an asymmetric distribution
of ground reaction forces. The pressure in the leading half of the contact area is larger than that in the
trailing half, as shown in Figure1.5.1.1 (a).This phenomenon results in the ground reaction force shifting
forward. This forwardly shifted ground reaction force, with the normal load acting on the wheel center
,Creates a moment that opposes the rolling of the wheel. On soft surfaces, the rolling resistance is primarily
caused by deformation of the ground surface as shown in Figure 1.5.1.1(b). The ground reaction force
almost completely Shifts to the leading half.

Figure 1.5.1.1(a)&(b): Tire deflection and rolling resistance on a (a) hard and (b) soft road surface
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The moment produced by the forward shift of the resultant ground reaction force is called the rolling
resistant moment, as shown in Figure 1.5.1.1(a),and can be expressed as

.........................eq.1
To keep the wheel rolling, a force F, acting on the center of the wheels, is required to balance this rolling
resistant moment. This force is expressed as

............................eq.2

Where rd is the effective radius of the tire and fr= a/rd is called the rolling resistance coefficient. In this
way, the rolling resistant moment can be replaced equivalently by horizontal force acting on the wheel
center in the opposite direction of the movement of the wheel. This equivalent force is called rolling
resistance with amagnitude of

……….. eq.3
Where P is the normal load, acting on the center of the rolling wheel. When a vehicle is operated on a slope
road, the normal load, P, should be replaced by the component, which is perpendicular to the road surface.
That is

…………………. eq.4

The rolling resistance coefficient, fr, is a function of the tire material, tire structure, tire temperature, tire
inflation pressure, tread geometry, road roughness, road material, and the presence or absence.

The rolling resistance coefficient of passenger cars on concrete road may be calculated from the
following equation:

…………………. eq.5

Where V is vehicle speed in km/h, and f0 and fs depend on inflation pressure of the tire.1
In vehicle performance calculation, it is sufficient to consider the rolling resistance coefficient as a linear
function of speed. For the most common range of inflation pressure, the following equation can be used for
a passenger car on concrete road.

………………. eq.6
This equation predicts the values of fr with acceptable accuracy for speeds upto128km/h.

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1.5.1.2 Aerodynamic Drag:
A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resisting its motion. This force is referred
to as aerodynamic drag. It mainly results from two components: shape drag and skin friction.
Shape drag: The forward motion of the vehicle pushes the air in front of it. However, the air cannot
instantaneously move out of the way and its pressures thus increased, resulting in high air pressure. In
addition, the air behind the vehicle cannot instantaneously fill the space left by the forward
Motion of the vehicle. This creates a zone of low air pressure. The motion hast herefore created two zones
ofpressure that oppose the motion of a vehicle by pushing it forward (high pressure in front) and pulling it
backward (low pressure in the back) as shown in Figure . The resulting force on the vehicles the shape
drag.3

Skin friction: Air close to the skin of the vehicle moves almost at the speed of the vehicle while air far
fromthe vehicle remains still.

Figure 1.5.1.2.Shapedrag
molecules move at a wide range of speeds. The difference in speed between two air molecules produces a
friction that results in the second component of aerodynamic drag. Aerodynamic drag is a function of vehicle
speed V, vehicle frontal area Af, shape of the vehicle, and air density ρ. Aerodynamic drag is expressed as

..................................... eq7

where CD is the aerodynamic drag coefficient that characterizes the shape of the vehicle and Vw is the
component of wind speed on the vehicle’s moving direction, which has a positive sign when this component
is opposite to the vehicle speed and a negative sign when it is in the same direction as vehicle speed. The
aerodynamic drag coefficients for a few types of vehicle body shapes are shown in Figure 1.5.1.3.

1.5.1.3. Grading Resistance

When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a component ,which is always directed to the
downward direction, as shown in Figure This component either opposes the forward motion (grade
climbing) or helps the forward motion (grade descending). In vehicle performance analysis, on uphill
operation is considered. This grading force is usually called grading resistance.

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 Figure1.5.1.3.Indicative drag coefficients for different body shapes

Figure 1.5.1.3.Automobile climbing a grade

The grading resistance, from Figure 2.5, can be expressed as

………...eq8
To simplify the calculation, the road angle, α, is usually replaced by grade value when the road angle is
small. As shown in Figure 1.5.1.3, the grade is defined as

………...eq9
In some literature, the tire rolling resistance and grading resistance to gather are called road resistance,
whichis expressed as

……………eq10
When the road angle is small, the road resistance can be simplified as

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 VEHICLE POWER SOURCE CHARACTERIZATION:

An automotive power train, as shown in Figure 2.8, consists of a power plant(engine or electric motor), a
clutch in manual transmission or a torque converter in automatic transmission, a gearbox (transmission),
final drive,

differential, drive shaft, and driven wheels. The torque and rotating speed of the power plant output shaft are
transmitted to the drive wheels through the clutch or torque converter, gearbox, final drive, differential, and
drive shaft.
The clutch is used in manual transmission to couple the gearbox to or decouple it from the power plant. The
torque converter in automatic transmissions a hydrodynamic device, functioning as the clutch in manual
transmission with a continuously variable gear ratio.
The gear box supplies a few gear ratios from its input shaft to its output shaft for the power plant torque–
speed profile to match the requirements of the load.
The final drive is usually a pair of gears that supply a further speed reduction and distribute the torque to
each wheel through the differential.
The torque on the driven wheels, transmitted from the power plant, is expressed as

……………...eq1

where ig is the gear ratio of the transmission defined as ig_Nin/Nout (Nin —input rotating speed, Nout —
output rotating speed), i0 is the gear ratio of the final drive, ηt is the efficiency of the driveline from the
power plant to the driven wheels, and Tp is the torque output from the power plant.
The tractive effort on the driven wheels, as shown in Figure 1.6, can be expressed as

. .....................eq2

Substituting (eq1) into (eq2) yields the following result

.................eq3

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 Figure 1.5.2.2: Tractive effort and torque on a driven wheel

The friction in the gear teeth and the friction in the bearings create losses in mechanical gear transmission.
The following are representative values of the mechanical efficiency of various components:
Clutch: 99%
Each pair of gears: 95–97%
Bearing and joint: 98–99%
The total mechanical efficiency of the transmission between the engine output shaft and drive wheels or
sprocket is the product of the efficiencies of all the components in the driveline. As a first approximation,
thefollowing average values of the overall mechanical efficiency of a manual gear-shift transmission may be
used:
Direct gear: 90%
Other gear: 85%
Transmission with a very high reduction ratio: 75–80%
The rotating speed (rpm) of the driven wheel can be expressed as

..........................eq4

where Np is the output rotating speed (rpm). The translational speed of the wheel center (vehicle speed)
canbe expressed as

...........................eq5

Substituting (eq4) into (eq5) yields

.....................eq6

VEHICLE POWER PLANT AND TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS:

There are two limiting factors to the maximum tractive effort of a vehicle. One is the maximum tractive
effort that the tire–ground contact can support and the other is the tractive effort that the power plant torque
with given driveline gear ratios can provide (equation [2.29]). The smaller of these two factors will
determine the performance potential of the vehicle. For on-road vehicles, the performance is usually limited
by the second factor.
In order to predict the overall performance of a vehicle, its power plant and transmission characteristics
must be taken into consideration.

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 .2.POWER PLANT CHARACTERISTICS:

For vehicular applications, the ideal performance characteristic of a power plant is the constant power
output over the full speed range. Consequently, the torque varies with speed hyperbolically as shown in
Figure 1.5.2.1.
At low speeds, the torque is constrained to be constant so as not to be over the maximaimited by the
adhesion between the tire–ground contact areas. This constant power characteristic will provide the vehicle
with a high tractive effort at low speed, where demands for acceleration, drawbar pull, or grade climbing
capability are high.
Since the internal combustion engine and electric motor are the most commonly used power plants for
automotive vehicles to date, it is appropriate to review the basic features of the characteristics that are
essential to predicating vehicle performance and driveline design.
Representative characteristics of a gasoline engine in full throttle and an electric motor at full load are
shown in Figure 1.5.2.2 and Figure 1.5.2.3, respectively.
The internal combustion engine usually has torque–speed characteristics far from the ideal performance
characteristic required by traction. It starts operating smoothly at idle speed.
Good combustion quality and maximum engine torque are reached at an intermediate engine speed. As the
speed increases further, the mean effective pressure decreases because of the growing losses in the air-
induction manifold and a decline in engine torque.
Power output, however, increases to its maximum at a certain high speed. Beyond this point, the engine
torque decreases more rapidly with increasing speed. This results in the decline of engine power output. In
vehicular applications, the maximum permissible

Figure1.5.2.1: Ideal performance characteristics for a vehicle traction power plant

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 Figure1.5.2.2: Typical performance characteristics of gasoline engines

Figure1.5.2.3:Typical performance characteristics of electric motors for traction

Speed of the engine is usually set just a little above the speed of the maximum power output. The internal
combustion engine has a relatively flat torque–speed profile (compared with an ideal one), as shown in
Figure1.5.2.1.Consequently, a multi gear transmission is usually employed to modify it, as shown in Figure
1.5.2.3.Electric motors, however, usually have a speed–torque characteristic that is much closer to the ideal,
as shown in Figure 1.5.2.2. Generally, the electric motor starts from zero speed.
As it increases to its base speed, the voltage increases to its rated value while the flux remains
constant.Beyond the base speed, the

Figure 1.5.2.4: Tractive effort of internal combustion engine and a multi gear transmission vehicle vs.vehicle
speed

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 Figure1.5.2.5:Tractive effort of a single-gear electric vehicle vs. vehicle speed

Voltage remains constant and the flux is weakened. This results in constant output power while the torque
declines hyperbolically with speed. Since the speed–torque profile of an electric motor is close to the ideal,
a single-gear or double-gear transmission is usually employed, as shown in Figure 1.5.2.5.

TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS:

The transmission requirements of a vehicle depend on the characteristics of the power plant and the
performance requirements of the vehicle. As mentioned previously, a well-controlled electric machine such
as the power plant of an electric vehicle will not need a multi gear transmission. However, an internal
combustion engine must have a multi gear or continuously varying transmission to multiply its torque at low
speed. The term transmission here includes all those systems employed for transmitting engine power to the
drive wheels.
For automobile applications, there are usually two basic types of transmissions: manual gear transmission
and hydrodynamic transmission.

Manual Gear Transmission

Manual gear transmission consists of a clutch, gearbox, final drive, and driveshaft. The final drive has a
constant gear reduction ratio or a differential gear ratio. The common practice of requiring direct drive (non-
reducing) in the gearbox to be in the highest gear determines this ratio.
The gearbox provides a number of gear reduction ratios ranging from three to five for passenger cars and
more for heavy commercial vehicles that are powered with gasoline or diesel engines. The maximum speed
requirement of the vehicle determines the gear ratio of the highest gear (i.e., the smallest ratio). On the other
hand, the gear ratio of the lowest gear (i.e., the maximum ratio) is determined by the requirement of the
maximum tractive effort or the grade ability. Ratios between them should be spaced in such a way that they
will provide the tractive effort–speed characteristics as close to the ideal as possible, as shown in Figure
In the first iteration, gear ratios between the highest and the lowest gear may be selected in such a way that
the engine can operate in the same speed range for all the gears. This approach would benefit the fuel
economy and performance of the vehicle. For instance, in normal driving, the proper gear can be selected
according to vehicle speed to operate the engine in its optimum speed range for fuel-saving purposes. In fast
acceleration, the engine can be operated in its speed range with high power output. This approach is
depicted in Figure 1.5.3.2.For a four-speed gear box, the following relationship can be established.

……….eq1

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and

…………..eq2

where ig1, ig2, ig3, and ig4 are the gear ratios for the first, second, third, and fourth gear, respectively. In a
more general case, if the ratio of the highest

Figure1.5.3.1: Tractive effort characteristics of a gasoline engine-powered vehicle

Figure1.5.3.2:Demonstration of vehicle speed range and engine speed range for each gear

gear, ign(smaller gear ratio), and the ratio of the lowest gear, ig1 (largest gear ratio), have been determined
and the number of the gear ng is known, the factor Kg can be determined as

…………eq3

and each gear ratio can be obtained by

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 …………eq4

For passenger cars, to suit changing traffic conditions, the step between the ratios of the
upper two gears isoften a little closer than that based on (eq4).That is,

……..eq5

This, in turn, affects the selection of the ratios of the lower gears. For commercial
vehicles, however, the gear ratios in the gearbox are often arranged based on (eq5).
Figure 1.5.3.3 shows the tractive effort of a gasoline engine vehicle with four gear
transmission and that of an electric vehicle with single-gear transmission. It is clear that
electric machines with favorable torque– speed characteristics can satisfy tractive effort with
simple single-gear transmission.

Figure1.5.3.3:Tractive efforts of a gasoline engine vehicle with four-gear transmission

and an electric vehicle with single-gear transmission