Technical University of Mombasa

Faculty of Engineering and Technology

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Project proposal report submitted in partial fulfillment requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Lora Technology for Line Fault Detection

By

WASAI J MICHAEL

BTEE/0086/2018

Supervisor: Dkt. Kariuki

Date submitted

30/11/2021

1
DECLARATION
I Wasai J Michael declare the content of this project report representation is my own unaided
work, and the report has not previously been submitted for academic examination towards any
qualification. Furthermore, it represents my own opinion and not necessarily those of the
Technical University of Mombasa.

Signed………………………….. Date………………………………..

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ABSTRACT
Increasing electrical energy demand, modern lifestyles and energy usage patterns have made the
world fully dependent on power systems. This instigated mandatory requirements for the
operators to maintain high reliability and stability of the power system grid. However, the power
system is a highly nonlinear system, which changes its operations continuously. Therefore, it is
very challenging and uneconomical to make the system be stable for all disturbances. The system
is usually designed to handle a single outage at a time through circuit breakers.

The ability of power systems to maintain stability and to ensure continuous supply of electrical
power to customers in the event of a disturbance is of critical importance. As the power system is
spread over large geographic regions, the probability of facing different types of faults and
failures is high. Unfortunately, unpredictable faults and cascading events usually lead to a
blackout which might affect modern life. As the demand for energy grows, modern power
systems are operated close to steady state stability, which can easily lead to a critical situation.
Therefore, modern power systems must be equipped with suitable control and protection
schemes in order to cope with disturbances.

In power systems, frequency, voltage and rotor angle of synchronous generating units are the
most important quantities that should be properly controlled in order to maintain the power
system stability. Power imbalance between demand and generation directly affect the frequency
stability, while the voltage is directly affected by the reactive power imbalance. The rotor angle
behavior is also a representative of the stability and synchronism in the whole power system. If
the power system is subjected to an abnormal condition such as an overload due to sudden load
reconnection, a generator outage or a transmission line tripping, the frequency and voltage
instabilities must be quickly addressed. In situations where these abnormal conditions are not
addressed in time, the system would experience cascading events which might lead to a blackout
Power system protection schemes are the final defense for preventing the cascading events.

This system is addressed better by using a communication model which will be able to link the
lines to the control center through a transmitter and receivers with high range and long distance
of communication

3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to acknowledge and thank the Almighty God for His grace and for giving me the
time and strength to carry out this research.
I would also like to acknowledge my supervisor Dkt. Samuel Kariuki who tirelessly reviewed
and critiqued the proposal during its preparation. Without his guidance and valued support, this
study would not have been completed.

4
Table of Contents
DECLARATION.........................................................................................................................................2
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...........................................................................................................................4
DEDICATION............................................................................................................................................8
CHAPTER ONE..........................................................................................................................................9
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................9
1.2 Overall objective........................................................................................................................10
1.3 Specific objectives......................................................................................................................10
1.4 Problem statement....................................................................................................................11
1.5 Justification of project...............................................................................................................11
1.6 Scope of the project...................................................................................................................12
1.7 Assumptions..............................................................................................................................12
1.8 Limitations.................................................................................................................................12
CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................................12
2.0 Literature review.............................................................................................................................12
2.2 Distribution Network Configuration................................................................................................14
2.2.1 Geographical regions network configuration (Nairobi)............................................................14
2.2.2 Other Regions...........................................................................................................................14
2.3 Network Planning Issues..................................................................................................................15
2.3.1 Feeder Length...........................................................................................................................15
2.3.2 Bulk Supply Points...................................................................................................................15
2.3.3 Security of Supply....................................................................................................................16
2.4 Parameters of Transmission Line.....................................................................................................16
2.4.1 Line inductance.........................................................................................................................17
2.4.2 Line capacitance.......................................................................................................................17
2.4.3 Shunt conductance....................................................................................................................17
2.4.4 Performance of transmission lines............................................................................................18
2.4.5 Voltage regulation....................................................................................................................18
2.5 Consumers Line Supply Tolerance...................................................................................................18
2.5.1 Voltage Criteria........................................................................................................................18
2.5.2 Frequency Criteria....................................................................................................................19

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 2.5.3 Power Factor Criteria................................................................................................................19
2.6 Research Gap and Practical transmission and distribution line challenges......................................25
CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................................................29
3.0 Methodology...................................................................................................................................29
3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................29
3.2 Design..............................................................................................................................................29
3.2.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................30
3.2.2 Mathematical power network models.......................................................................................30
3.2.3 Cascade Models........................................................................................................................30
3.3 Load Flow Analysis...........................................................................................................................33
3.3.1 Basic Load Flow Formulation...................................................................................................33
3.4 Lora communication model.............................................................................................................34
3.4.1 Optimization of data transfer....................................................................................................35
3.5 DESIGN SPECIFICATION AND CODING.................................................................................................37
3.5.1 Transmitter circuit design.............................................................................................................37
The transmitter circuit comprises of the following section...........................................................38
a) current sensing section............................................................................................................38
b) power supply section for LoRA and IC-Atmega 328p..........................................................38
c) interfacing of LoRA and IC-Atmega 328p section................................................................38
3.5.2 Current sensing section................................................................................................................38
Current sensors working.................................................................................................................38
3.5.3 Power supply section....................................................................................................................42
3.5.4 Atmega328 pin mapping section..................................................................................................46
DIGITAL INPUT/OUTPUT PINS....................................................................................................49
INTERRUPT PINS............................................................................................................................50
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER Channels...........................................................................50
ATmega328P CAPTURE/COMPARE/PWM Channels....................................................................50
3.5.5 LoRa module section.....................................................................................................................51
3.5.6 Testing of transmitter circuit on bread board...............................................................................53
3.6 Receiver schematic circuit...................................................................................................................55
...........................................................................................................................................................55
3.6.1 Receiving Side- connecting Lora SX1278 with Atmega 328p and oled display..............................56

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 3.6.2 Oled display..................................................................................................................................56
Communication Pins.......................................................................................................................57
3.6.3 Testing of receiver circuit on bread board....................................................................................58
3.6.4 Testing both Transmitter and receiver circuit on bread board sending signal and receiving signal
...............................................................................................................................................................59
3.7 Coding..................................................................................................................................................59
3.7.1 Transmitter code..........................................................................................................................59
3.7.2 Receiver code...............................................................................................................................60
3.8 Project Costing.....................................................................................................................................63
3.9 Project Time Plan.................................................................................................................................64
REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................................66
APPENDIX………………………………………………………………………………………69

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CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction

Electricity produced at power plants (such as hydro, geothermal, thermal and wind), is
transported over long distances for eventual use by consumers. Due to the large amount of power
involved, and the properties of Electricity, transmission normally takes place at high voltage
(132-kilovolt or above) to reduce losses that occur over long distances.

In Kenya Electricity is usually transmitted to a substation near a populated area. At the

substation, the high voltage Electricity is converted to lower voltages suitable for consumer use,
and then transmitted to end users through relatively low-voltage Electricity distribution lines that
are owned and operated by the national Electricity utility. In Kenya, Kenya Transmission
Company (KETRACO) Limited, 100% state owned corporation incorporated, in 2008 has
been mandated to reform, plan, design, construct, own operate and maintain high voltage
electricity transmission grid and regional power interconnectors infrastructure that will form the
backbone of the National Transmission Grid.

Although studies have been made in reforming the power sector from as early as 90’s the state of
reliability of power supply substations in Kenya is still wanting because of the numerous power
shortages, power surges and line failure that the country experiences, which will not only have
affected peoples quality of life but also the economic activities of most communities as most of
the small business running the daily economy relies on electricity.

Ideally although electricity is supposed to be available to every customer who has a connection
this is not the case in most of the areas in Kenya as some of the areas can go without power for
days or even weeks especially in rural areas. This in many ways affects people’s activities.

As per the World Bank research studies, power cuts in the sub-Saharan Africa have cost
companies a lot of losses. Kenya companies being one of the most affected nations. Similar
research shows that most power cuts in Kenya are associated with problems of the power
distribution system, power outage management strategies and lack of capacity by kplc to handle
the ever increasing demand of electrical energy

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Lora technology for line fault detection is an active transmitter receiver module with a range of
communication up to 3 miles away. The communication will help improve in line fault detection
and send the information to a kplc central office.

1.2 Overall objective

The overall objective of this project is development of a wireless based line fault detection
system which incorporates the latest technology of transmitter receiver communication module
(Lora) technology, which will enhance collection of data about power failures in regions, which
in turn will help the transmission and distribution companies in Kenya to manage faults and take
shortest time possible to restore the lines to normalise.

1.3 Specific objectives

a) To detect the electrical faults and classify them in real time.
b) To use a power system network model, simulate it in Protease Software and develop a
prototype.
c) To perform the analysis and obtain the results through data collection using long range
communication modules (Lora technology)

1.4 Problem statement

As per the research studies, Kenya homes and industries experience more than 600hours of
power outages per annum. This is as a result of blackout, power scarcity and inability to meet the
load demand due to increase in load both in commercial and domestic use. Kenya government
has not only initiated power generating and distribution substations but also to projects that
geared up to towards ensuring reliability of the supplied electricity. Although up to date the
country still experiences numerous power outages which take days to fix.
Lora technology for line detection faults will help improve the communication between kplc
central offices and line fault areas while still collecting data in order to improve the line
efficiency and meet the customers demand. Using Raspberry Pi kit the code will be written and
faults simulation done using proteus to analyze the Lora technology line fault detection system.

9
1.5 Justification of project
Most of the times when power failures and overloading of power lines occurs, we end up calling
Kenya power and lighting company to rectify the problem or restore power which takes hours or
even days at times. This happens since the lines are not automatically monitored to send signals
in case of any failure.

Lora wireless technology is a trans- receiver module that offers long range, low power and
secure data transmission. Lora technology has the ability of connecting sensors to the Cloud and
enabling real-time communication of data and analytics that can be utilized to enhance
productivity and efficiency of power distribution.

The project aims at automating the lines using the trans-receiver modules which will be coded
using C++ language to send data to a central office (kplc maintenance offices) and also to kplc
technicians which will have new matrix display (oled) to monitor the lines wherever they are.

1.6 Scope of the project

The scope of the project is to build a hardware-software package to assist user to perform the
fault analysis calculations. The targeted user is among trainee engineer and power system
students which have less experience in computer programming or C language. In order to
achieve the objectives of the project, some command in C++ program should be studied and
understand so that the software package would operate as desired.
1.7 Assumptions
a) That power grid congestion would influence reliability of power supply from generation
to distribution and retail.
b) The analysis of power line failures is done when the load demand is assumed to be at its
peak
1.8 Limitations
1) At no time will we get the peak energy demand because all the appliances and industrial
machines are not operating at the same time

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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature review
2.1 Introduction

Kenya is one of the largest producers of geothermal energy in Africa forming one of the main
sources of electric energy including hydroelectric sources. The main generation of electricity in
Kenya is now predominantly done by Kenya Electricity Generating Company (KenGen).
However, the electric distribution market of power is monopolized by KPLC. A World Bank
study on enterprises reveals that Kenya has an average of 56 days power disruptions yearly. In
comparison, the United States of America, power interruptions occur for a day in 10years. It
found that more than half of the large firms in Kenya possess back-up generators which are an
indicator of poor consistency and reliability of the power distribution from electric power utility
firms (Public Utility Research Centre University of Florida 2013). This is attributed to poor
generation, transmission and distribution systems plagued with ineffective maintenance and
upgrade programs. The consistency of power generation in Kenya is affected by drought,
overdependence on hydro-power, as well as high demand for electricity relative to generation
plants capacity, and inadequate capital for hydroelectric power plant development. The
inconsistencies arising above challenge the distributive role of KPLC. The underproduction of
electrical energy that inhibits the ability of KPLC to meet demand adversely affects its financial
performance, indicating underperformance in KPLC. According to NEMA (2010), the cost to be
incurred by KPLC to carry out an environmental impact assessment of the proposed power plant
project along Thika Road amounted to USD 125,000,000. The assessment sought to identify both
the constructive and undesirable effects of the proposed project and compute potential impact
expected from project construction, implementation, and operation. The need to spend such a
copious amount of money to carry out environmental impact assessments for power generation
plants affects the performance of KPLC on account of high initial costs. KETRACO was
incorporated as a company in 2008 and listed under the Companies Act with the mandate to
create, construct, run and sustain high voltage electricity transmission structures that would be
the pillar of the National Transmission Grid (The GRID, 2013). KETRACO is a fully state-run
corporation commissioned to develop the national transmission grid network and enable retailing
electric power by way of its transmission web. Gitura (2006), analyzing the factors affecting the
quality of power supplied to manufacturers revealed the frequency of power surges and dips that

11
caused damage to equipment and consequently loss of revenue. According to the study,
transmission and distribution of electricity over extensive distances are proven to be challenging.
Power-lines are predisposed to weather-related troubles like thunder and lightning. Other factors
such as heavy rainfall and strong winds can destroy power lines. The subsequent disruptions and
voltage spill out play a part in the inferior quality of electric energy delivered to the end-user.
Rapid growth in some cities results in overstressing and overloading of power-line equipment,
which can result in low voltage or equipment failure and hence a power outage. Alstom (2011)
indicates that a voltage surge can cause damage to electronic control equipment resulting in
plants shut down. In order to stifle these challenges, there is a need for KPLC to adopt a smart
grid transmission system where it benefits from automatic notification of electricity outages,
remote management of electricity connect and disconnections and efficiency gains that reduce
future generation, transmission, and distribution investments (Taneja, 2017). The resulting effect
is interferences and power surge related damage that render KPLC liable. The cost of assessing
and compensating claims is an expenditure that affects the performance of the company.

2.2 Distribution Network Configuration

KPLC’s distribution network includes the main interconnected grid in addition to a number of
small off-grid networks. The grid is operated in four distinct regions; Nairobi, Coast, Western
and Mt. Kenya

2.2.1 Geographical regions network configuration (Nairobi)

Within the Nairobi Region, the network configuration differs from that of the other KPLC
regions. The region is supplied from the transmission network via several 220/66 kV and 132/66
kV transmission substations or bulk supply points (BSPs). A number of 66 kV feeders emanate
from each BSP and each 66 kV feeder supplies one or more primary (66/11 kV) substations.
Each primary substation supplies a number of 11 kV feeders, which in turn supply 11/0.433 kV
distribution substations. Larger customers may be supplied at 11 kV or 66 kV. The Nairobi
network is interconnected both at 66 kV and 11 kV, with normally open points to allow transfer
of load across BSPs or primary substations respectively. The 66 kV feeders are mostly overhead
using single and double circuit wood-pole construction. The 11kV feeders are also mostly
overhead using single circuit wood or concrete pole construction. In Nairobi city Centre, where
there are space constraints or issues with clearances, underground cables are used for 11 kV and

12
a few for 66 kV. There are a few 66/33 kV substations on the outskirts of Nairobi, which supply
neighboring areas via long 33 kV feeders.

2.2.2 Other Regions

The distribution network in the regions outside Nairobi is less interconnected, with many radial
33 kV feeders and generally with long distances between BSPs. Standard BSP design typically
consists of 2 x 132/33 kV two winding transformers, however some BSPs are equipped with only
a single transformer.
A number of 33 kV feeders emanate from each BSP and each 33 kV feeder generally supplies
one or more primary (33/11 kV) substations and many distribution (33/0.433 kV) substations.
The 11 kV feeders emanating from the primary substations in turn supply distribution
substations. In general, the primary substations are supplied from a single BSP, although some
33/11 kV substations have an alternative supply at 33 kV from a different 132 kV substation.
There are normally open points to avoid parallel supply from different BSPs. The 33 kV and 11
kV feeders are generally overhead using single circuit wood-pole or concrete-pole construction.
Underground cables are used as necessary due to space constraints in urban centers, although
their present level of use outside Nairobi is minimal. In the urban centers, the 11 kV networks
are interconnected where possible to provide alternative supply, however in the rural areas the 11
kV feeders are radial.

2.3 Network Planning Issues

The distribution network suffers from poor reliability and quality of supply, which is generally
due to under investment.

2.3.1 Feeder Length

Many parts of the distribution network are supplied over extremely long, radial 33 kV and 11 kV
feeders, with no alternative source of supply. In some cases, 33 kV feeders may be hundreds of
km long, with many spurs, resulting in a total length (in extreme cases) in excess of 1000 km
supplied from a single source. A fault on such a long feeder will have wide-spread impact, be
difficult to locate and therefore will result in a long restoration time. These parts of the network
are not surprisingly subjected to frequent and prolonged outages.

13
Due to excessive feeder lengths and use of undersized conductors, voltage levels on feeders,
particularly outside of the urban areas are typically poor and significantly under the required
standard. Automatic voltage regulators (AVRs) have been installed on feeders in the past,
however many of these have failed and have subsequently been bypassed.

2.3.2 Bulk Supply Points

A related issue concerns the number of BSPs across the system. In many parts of the country, the
BSPs are sparsely distributed; with no available alternative should that BSP fail. This issue of
course has a direct bearing on the 33 kV feeder lengths and the associated reliability and power
quality issues. KETRACO is currently investing in new transmission lines and associated
substations, both in Nairobi and in other parts of the country. These new BSPs will relieve
loading on existing overloaded BSPs and will allow for shorter feeder lengths and greater levels
of interconnection. These measures will therefore improve voltage levels and reliability.
In some cases the new BSPs will result in extension of the grid to currently off-grid areas,
improving reliability of supply to those areas and reducing the cost of supply by displacing
expensive diesel generating plant.

2.3.3 Security of Supply

Much of the distribution network does not have adequate capacity to effectively manage the
present demand, and many of the primary substations are loaded well beyond firm capacity.
Adequate excess capacity is unavailable, making it difficult to manage contingencies and meet
future demand.
KPLC aims to achieve security of supply at least for major substations. However many primary
substations (and BSPs) are equipped with just a single transformer and even those with two or
three transformers are often loaded such that no spare capacity exists to cater for a transformer
failure. This is a particular issue for parts of the network with no alternative means of supply. In
the event of such a failure, it is often necessary to source a spare transformer from another part of
the network, resulting in a prolonged outage before supply is restored.

14
2.4 Parameters of Transmission Line
The performance of transmission line depends on the parameters of the line. The transmission
line has mainly four parameters, resistance, inductance, and capacitance and shunt conductance
as shown in fig 2.1below. These parameters are uniformly distributed along the line. Hence, it is
also called the distributed parameter of the transmission line.

Fig 2.1 long transmission line showing distributed parameters

The inductance and resistance form series impedance whereas the capacitance and conductance
form the shunt admittance. Some critical parameters of transmission line are explained below in
detail

2.4.1 Line inductance – The current flow in the transmission line induces the magnetic flux.
When the current in the transmission line changes, the magnetic flux also varies due to which
emf induces in the circuit. The magnitude of inducing emf depends on the rate of change of flux.
Emf produces in the transmission line resist the flow of current in the conductor, and this
parameter is known as the inductance of the line.

2.4.2 Line capacitance – In the transmission lines, air acts as a dielectric medium. This
dielectric medium constitutes the capacitor between the conductors, which store the electrical

15
energy, or increase the capacitance of the line. The capacitance of the conductor is defined as the
present of charge per unit of potential difference.

Capacitance is negligible in short transmission lines whereas in long transmission; it is the most
important parameter. It affects the efficiency, voltage regulation, power factor and stability of the
system.

2.4.3 Shunt conductance – Air act as a dielectric medium between the conductors. When the
alternating voltage is applied to conductor, some current will flow in the dielectric medium
because of dielectric imperfections. Such current is called leakage current. Leakage current
depends on the atmospheric condition and pollution like moisture and surface deposits.

Shunt conductance is defined as the flow of leakage current between the conductors. It is
distributed uniformly along the whole length of the line. The symbol Y represented it, and it is
measured in Siemens.

2.4.4 Performance of transmission lines

The term performance includes the calculation of sending end voltage, sending end current,
sending end power factor, power loss in the lines, and efficiency of transmission, regulation and
limits of power flows during steady state and transient conditions. Performance calculations are
helpful in system planning. Some critical parameters are explained below

2.4.5 Voltage regulation – Voltage regulation is defined as the change in the magnitude of the
voltage between the sending and receiving ends of the transmission line.

Voltage regulation= Sending end voltage- Receiving end voltage x100 ……..eqn2.1

Sending end voltage

The efficiency of transmission lines – Efficiency of the transmission lines is defined as the ratio
of the input power to the output power.

16
2.5 Consumers Line Supply Tolerance

2.5.1 Voltage Criteria

Kenya Power maintains the average or steady state R.M.S. value of voltage at a customer’s point
of supply according to all applicable Government codes and regulations. The standard nominal
low voltages are 230V and 400V for single-phase and three-phase systems although some legacy
240/415V systems exist. The network was developed to accommodate an IEC compatible
230V/400V standard.
The tolerance levels under normal operating conditions are:
 66kV +10% /-10%
 33kV +10% /-10%
 11kV +6% / -6%

On particularly long 11kV feeders, a tolerance level of +10% /-10% is allowable.

2.5.2 Frequency Criteria

The distribution system is designed to ensure that under normal and planned contingency
conditions, frequency will remain within a band between 47 to 52Hz. Sustained operation
outside this frequency range have been taken into account when planning, designing and
operating the network.

2.5.3 Power Factor Criteria

Demand power factors are taken from the load forecast from each grid substation. All
distribution networks have a target power factor of 0.90 with large customers (over 1MVA)
required to achieve 0.95.

2.5.4 Global research on power outages as a result of line faults

The ability of power systems to maintain stability and to ensure continuous supply of electrical

power to customers in the event of a disturbance is of critical importance [Kundur p 1994,

Alhelou, H. et al]. In light of this fact, when a power system blackout occurs, the consequences

can be far reaching. Causes of power system blackouts include transmission line tripping or

overloading, control and protection systems mal-operation, lightning strikes on power systems

17
equipment, poor maintenance, human error, voltage collapse, equipment failure, cyber-attacks,

quick-frequency declines, and other. As of 2010, several power systems blackouts have occurred,

which left millions of customers stranded for hours. For instance, a power outage occurred in the

Pacific Southwest on 8 September 2011, which lasted for about 12 h affecting 2.7 million

residents of San Diego, California, Arizona and Mexico [Winter Simulation Conference 2014].

In this event, tripping of a major transmission line during peak load led to the system collapse.

During that time, San Diego experienced a total blackout and simulations in showed that

insufficient load shedding led to the cascading effects. Earlier in the same year on 4 February

2011, power system blackout occurred in Brazil due to flaws in the transmission lines and it

lasted for about 16 h [Lin, W, Tang, Y.et al, 2012].

About 53 million customers were directly affected. On 30 July 2012, a blackout occurred, which

lasted for about 15h, affecting nearly 620 million residents of the north and east of India. The

blackout was due to overloading of one of the 400 kV Gwali–Binar transmission lines while the

other transmission line was out for maintenance [Tang, Y Bu, G.et al]. The system failed again

the following day due to demand-generation imbalance and about 700 million people were

affected when nearly 32 GW of energy was interrupted. This blackout is the largest power outage

in terms of people affected ever-recorded. In Vietnam, a 500 kV line tripped on 22 May 2013,

separating the northern and southern grid of Vietnam power system [Trung, S.P and Voropai,

N 2013]. The same year, in the Philippines, 14 power plants were curtailed affecting their capital

city Manila and nearly 40 % of the Luzon islands. The number of affected people was estimated

to be 8 million. The tripping of generators and transmission lines led to the overall voltage

collapse in the system [Gomes, P, 2004]. A lightning bolt struck the Thailand power system in

2013 affecting almost 8 million people in 14 provinces [Phuong pornpitak and N.Tia, S.].

18
Bangladesh Power System (BPS) experienced a total system collapse on 1 November 2014,

which lasted for about 24 h. According to findings in, this was due to unplanned high voltage

direct current (HVDC) station outage. The unresponsive spinning reserve and the fact that some

generators were under-maintenance worsened the situation [Kabir, M.A, 2015]. The total

amount of load shed after all the under frequency load shedding (UFLS) stages were activated

was less compared to the disturbance that was experienced and this led to the blackout [Kabir,

M.A, 2015]. An improvement of the BPS load shedding scheme was proposed as a long-term

solution in case of similar outages in the future in. The power outage in BPS affected almost 150

million people. A technical fault at a power station in Sindh affected nearly 140 million people in

Pakistan on 26 January 2015 [Marwat, I. Khan and F. Rehman, 2017]. In Turkey, nearly 70

million people had to endure power outages on 31 March 2016 due to power system failure

[Veloza, O.P, 2016]. Nevertheless, some regions which are linked to the Iran power network

such as Hakkari and Van did not experience the blackout. About 10 million Kenyans had their

power supply interrupted for more than 4 h on 7 June 2016 when a monkey fell on a transformer

in Gitaru hydro power station leading to the subsequent tripping of the transformer and

interrupting 180 MW of power. Uncontrolled events following the 180 MW power loss

worsened the situation and led to system collapse [Okumu, J.O, Hood, A, 2017].

Table 2.1 shows the number of power outages recorded across the globe in 2011. The average

duration for each outage is given in hours in the same table. From the Table 2.1, it can be seen

that, regardless of the lower number of outages recorded in Latin America and Caribbean, the

average time taken during each outage was much longer than the other areas. About 1200 power

outages with a much lesser duration were experienced in South Asia. The table is to show the

reality of the wide prevalence of power systems blackouts across the globe. Based on a report

19
published by Eaton in 2015, a total of 1673 power outages were recorded out of the selected top

10 most affected states in the USA [Eaton, B.T.United States Annual Report 2013].

Number of power outages recorded in different parts of world in 2011 [Laghari, J.2011].

S/No. Region Number of power outages Duration of power

outages in hours
1. East Asia and pacific 200 6.00

2. Eastern Europe and central Asia 100 6.50

3. Latin America and Caribbean 40 8.00

4. Middle east and north Africa 50 4.00

5. South Asia 1200 2.50

6. Sub-Sahara Africa 210 7.50

7. The rest of the countries 250 5.00

Major Blackout Causes around the Globe

Major power outages that affected people around the world from 2011 to 2018 have been

comprehensively reviewed. Table 2.3 summarizes the most well-known blackout and cascading

events in this decade. In addition, the blackout duration per hour for each event is given in Table

2.3. It can be seen that the blackout occurred in Bangladesh on 1 November 2014 has the highest

duration of 24 h [Kabir, M.A et al, 2014-2015]. The Indian blackout on 30 July 2012 has

impacted the highest number of people during history (620 million). The majority of causes of

the blackout are related to transmission system operation, control and protection. Other

useful information about the major blackouts in this decade is given in Table 2.3.

20
Philippines 6 August 2013 12 8 Voltage collapse

Thailand 2013 10 8 Lightning strike

Bangladesh 1 November 2014 24 150 HVDC station outage

Pakistan 26 January 2015 2 140 Plant technical fault

Holland 27 March 2015 1.5 1 Bad weather conditions

Turkey 31 March 2015 4 70 Power system failure

Ukraine 23 December 2015 6 1.2 Cyber-attack

21 November 2015 6 230 Power system failure

Kenya 7 June 2016 4 10 Animal shorted

transformer

Sri Lanka 3 March 2016 16 10 A severe thunderstorm

South Australia 28 September 2016 6.1 1.7 Storm damage to

transmission infrastructure

& cascading events

the US (NY) 26 August 2017 11 21 Cascading failure in

transmission system

Major power system blackout causes can be narrowed down in a pie chart in terms of
percentages as shown below

21
 Major electric power system blackout causes globally (Laghari, J. et al 2013)

Electrical power outages in Africa in percentage

22
Reported causes of outages over one year in Kenya. (Kenya Power, “Annual Report,”
www.kplc.co.ke/category/view/39/ annual-reports, 2015)

2.6 Research Gap and Practical transmission and distribution line challenges

Traditional power systems have been known as vertically integrated utilities. In these types of

power systems, one utility had a monopoly on the industry and handled all the functions. The

operation and coordination of generation, transmission and distribution within a certain

geographical area were under a single operator. Protective functions were simple and easily

implemented without facing many challenges [Salimian, M.R Smart Grid 2018, 9, 5123–

5131.]

In contrast to traditional power systems, modern power systems Energies 2019, 12, 682 18 of 28

face new complexities. Due to the ever-increasing demand for energy, modern power systems

are usually operating near the steady state stability margins [Wang, H. and Thorp, J.S, 2001].

23
In case of major imbalance, the powers systems do not have enough reserve/time to close the

deficit and this may lead to cascading failures.

To compensate the increasing demand and reduce the effects of conventional generation units,

many countries have increased the penetration of renewable energy resources in their systems.

Such high penetration results in high reduction in the total system inertia, which leads to

noticeable fluctuation in the frequency and active power.

The main challenge in modern power systems is the existence of the traditional protective

functions that cannot adapt to the deregulation concept and the new types of generations.

Unfortunately, there is no coordination between the different protective functions that result in

erroneous operation. In some practical cases, it has been shown that the mal-operation of some

protective functions is the main reason behind blackouts. Therefore, the reliability of both

control and protective functions need further investigations and improvements. The reliability is

another important factor and has a direct impact on the occurrence of blackout and cascading

events [Musharraf, M et al 2018. and Faza, A.2018].

One element with low reliability rate is enough to make the overall ratability of the system

worse. Therefore, there is a need for online assessment of the overall reliability of the system in

order to reduce the power outage rate in modern power systems. These are some of the

challenges and gaps, which still need thorough attention of researchers in the implementation of

control and protective schemes in order to reduce the power outages in modern power systems

and future smart grids. The aforementioned most recent practical challenges associated with

protective and operation functionalities are presented below

24
 Considering the high penetration of renewable energy resource and distributed generation
in blackout studies and planning of power system protection schemes.

 Considering the fluctuations of some important parameters in the modern power systems
such as total inertia, damping coefficient, and stability indices.

 Investigating other indices for online stability and reliability assessment.

 Online coordination of the different control schemes in power systems can help with
reduction of power outages.

 Online coordination of the different protective functions has a direct impact on the rate of
blackout cascading events.

 Considering the real-time monitoring technologies for improving decision-making

in the emergency situations in power systems.

 Investigating the ability of wide-area measurement systems in improving the reliability

and security of the modern power system.

 Investigating the possibility of online coordination of protective functions for improving

their performance in modern and future power systems.

 Considering the smart grid features in future protective function design.

 Proposing new protective methods that make use of wide area measurement system
(WAMS) technologies.

 Increasing the protection against the cyber-attack issues.

25
The current overhead line protection scheme particularly use multi-shot circuit breakers or
reclose and sectionalizes to ensure that only the faulty section is isolated. Current design
standards also use air-break isolators and transformer fuse isolators. Regular line patrols
monitoring unauthorized connections and clearance infringements method are also applied to
check the lines.
The current isolation methods do not use or involve remote control and/or automation schemes.
The study will help in automation of the lines for easy monitoring. Due to automation data will
also be collected and analyzed which will help in identifying excessive feeder loading, poor
voltage regulation and excessive consumer transformer loading. Additionally it will help solve
the problem of excessively long and undersized feeders which cause losses in the lines.

26
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Methodology
3.1 Introduction
As stated earlier Kenya has an average of 56 days power disruptions yearly, this has a huge
impact on the economy due to productions. Transmission line protection is important for secure
and reliable operation of the power system. With the advent of the Lora Trans-receiver
technology and advances in the communication system, current differential relays can be
implemented as a reliable protection system for the transmission lines. For this reason a new
current differential protection scheme has been suggested for transmission line protection using
Lora trans-receiver modules and graphical user interface for data collection on a particular line.
The effect of parameter uncertainty on the protection scheme is also investigated.

3.2 Design.

3.2.1 Introduction
In this power lines fault detection, one approach is involved to help ensure that there is send-
receive communication flow in case of any changes in line parameters and transformer loading.
Data collected will help analyze system feeders and transformers for future expansions. The
scheme will involve the simulation of the power network distribution and communication
system using PROTEASE.

3.2.2 Mathematical power network models

We describe a model of power networks which may be useful for studying power blackouts. The
model is a combination of the admittance model of the network and the probabilistic model of
faults of its component, to compute the probability of a power outage possible failure events are
considered and in each case the possibility of a cascading is studied. Graph representation of the
network is used to detect to connected components in the network, and then network equations
are solved separately in each component. We use this model to compute the probability of a
power blackout in power network and how this model can be used to develop suggestion for
improving power networks design.

27
3.2.3 Cascade Models
Cascade model is an analytically tractable model based on load of the component. It assumes a
random initial load on all identical components and a given disturbance load on each component
to initiate cascading. Some components may fail when load exceeds a certain threshold, where
the load of other components will be redistributed, thus forming a cascading process. The
cascading only stops when no overloaded component exists or the whole system fails.

The redistributed formulas are much simpler when compared with detailed models that simulate
detailed cascading failure mechanisms such as power flows. It is easier to obtain the total number
of component outages as well as the probability distribution of the blackout sizes. The model
shows how system loading affects the risk of a cascading failure. When there is low load level,
the tail part of component failures is approximately exponential.

The probability of a large cascading outage is also low. However, when a critical loading level is
exceed, the distribution of the component outages follows the power law and the risk of a large
blackout increases significantly. This model is good for understanding the general property of
cascading outages but it ignores all physical properties of power systems. The above model is
modified further and applied to analyze several factors related to cascading outages. Cascading
outage model includes;

 DLF Model
 ACOPFF model
 generator and line protection models

3.2.2.1 Power System Steady-State Analysis

The steady state stability of a power system is defined as the ability of the system to return to
steady state following a small disturbance. Power systems bear a great deal of disturbance at all
times, such as small variations of loads in a system and subtle changes of distance between
parallel overhead transmission lines cables caused by wind, which will affect line impedance. In
steady-state analyses, systems are assumed to be under three-phase balanced operation condition
and the total generation always matches the total loads in the system. Therefore, systems in this
analysis are simplified as single phase per unit system.

28
3.2.2.2 Bus Admittance Matrix and Bus-Impedance Matrix
For an n buses system, the bus admittance matrix or the Y bus is an n × n matrix that shows the
relationship between nodal current injection and nodal voltage in the system

I=Ybus V

Y bus= Y11 Y12................Y1n

Y21 Y22…………Y2n

Yn1 Yn2…………Ynn………………….eqn 3.1

I is an n × 1 vector which contains current injections on all nodes, from bus 1 to bus 𝑛 whereas V
is an n × 1 vector contains voltage phasors refer to ground on all buses. The diagonal element,
Yjj, in Ybus is the self-admittance of bus 𝑗. It is equal to the sum of the admittance of all
transmission lines, transformers, and capacities connected to bus 𝑗. The off-diagonal element,
Yjk, is the transfer admittance between bus 𝑗 and bus 𝑘, which equals to the negative value of
admittance of lines, transformers, and capacities connected between bus 𝑗 and bus 𝑘. If there is
no connection between bus 𝑗 and bus 𝑘, Yjk is equal to zero. For a large scale power system
with thousands of buses, Ybus is a symmetrical and sparse matrix that most elements in it are
zeros. It shows the topology of the network. The bus impedance matrix or Z bus shows the
relationship between the nodal voltage and the nodal current injection in the system. Generally,
the calculation of Zbus is equal to the inverse of Y bus.

V=Zbus I………………eqn 3.2

The diagonal element, Zjj, in Zbus is the self-impedance or driving impedance of bus 𝑗 whereas
the off-diagonal element, Zjk, is the transfer impedance between bus 𝑗 and bus 𝑘. Unlike Ybus
matrix, Zbus is a full matrix whose elements cannot be calculated separately. There is no direct
relation between elements in Ybus and Zbus. Zjk is equal to Vj /Ik when all other buses are open
circuit while Yjk is equal to Vj /Ik when all other buses are short circuit.

In real life, sometimes the system is too large with more than 50000+ buses to calculate Zbus
matrix by inverting Ybus. However, a Zbus building algorithm can be utilized to calculate Zbus
matrix. Practically, Ybus is usually used in power flow problem. Since power flow problems

29
involve an iterative solution, the sparsity of Ybus makes it more efficient to solve the problem. In
comparison, Zbus is usually used in fault analysis because each element in Zbus represents the
relationship between node voltage and node current injection when there is only one non-zero
current injection which corresponds to the faulted bus. Therefore, all bus voltages can be
acquired with only one current injection. If this current is fault current, all bus voltages will be
easily calculated and then, the system state variables in fault situation are also accessible.

3.2.2.3 Electrical Distance

Several methods have been developed to express electrical distance, this include sensitivity
method and impedance method. This method use Thevenin’s impedance between two nodes to
indicate the electrical distance between them. When a network with N buses is energized by
current injections ∆Ij on bus 𝑗 and ∆Ik on bus 𝑘, the changes in voltages on all buses can be
obtained using matrix model.

Power flow distribution is affected by grid structure and load level of the system. According to
Newton-Raphson method, neglected influence of reactive power, system power flow equation
can be expressed as equation

∆P] = [H] [∆θ]…………………….eqn 3.3

Where n is number of system nodes. Dimension of H matrix is n. and the matrix is a symmetric
sparse matrix. The value of Hij is in equation.

Considering electrical distance from perspective of power transmission, effect of phase angle is
more important than the voltage. Assuming that voltage of the system is constant, all are rated
voltages. And in transmission network, resistance on line can be ignored only when reactance is
considered, that is equation

3.3 Load Flow Analysis

In a network, with system topology, power generations, and power consumptions given, this
analysis method can be used to calculate voltage magnitudes and angles on all buses as well as
the real and reactive power distribution in the network.

30
3.3.1 Basic Load Flow Formulation
In load flow analysis method, an assumption can be made that systems are operated under three-
phase balanced operation condition, which allows a single-phase representation of the system.
The loads are assumed to be constant during calculation. For an n buses system network, the
relationship between current injection on bus 𝑖 and voltage on bus 𝑖 can be derived using
equation

I𝑖 = ∑ Y𝑖𝑘V𝑘 𝑛 𝑘=1 𝑖 = 1, 2 …, n……………eqn 3.2

Kirchhoff’s current law requires that the sum of the currents injected and withdrawn at bus n
equal zero:
i n=∑ k i nmk ……………eqn 3.3

If we define current to ground to be y no( v n - v o) and v o= 0

We have:
i n = ∑ k y nmk ¿ - v m) + y no v o…………………eqn 3.4
i mk = y nmk ¿ - v m) = gnmk ¿ - v rm) -b nmk ¿ - v jm) +j¿ - v rm) + gnmk ¿ - v jm)) …………………

i nmk = gnmk ¿ - v rm) ‐b nmk ¿ - v jm) …………eqn 3.5

r

i nmk = b nmk ¿- v rm) + gnmk ¿- v jm)) …………eqn 3.6

j

Current being a linear function of voltage we get the following equation after rearranging,
i n = v n y no + ∑ k y nmk‐∑ k y nmk v m ……..eqn 3.7
In matrix notation, the IV flow equations in terms of current (I) and voltage (V)
I = YV = (G + jB) ( v r + j v j) = G v r‐ B v j+ j (B v r+G v j) …
Wherei r=G v r‐ B v j andi j = B v r+G v j
In another matrix format
I =i r i j= (v r v j ) y T ……………………..eqn 3.8

( )
r
G −B V
I =i r i j = ( ) ……………eqn 3.9
B G Vj

Where Y = (GB −B
G )
31
The I =Equations are linear. If not, the linearity is lost since some elements of the Matrix will be
functions of The traditional power‐voltage power flow equations defined in terms of real power
(P), reactive power (Q) and voltage (V) are
S = P + jQ = ……………eqn 3.10
The power‐voltage power flow equations are quadratic. The IV flow equations are linear.

3.4 Lora communication model

Lora WAN is a type of LPWAN network, which stands for Low-power Wide-area Network
energy-efficient long-range network. LPWAN networks are wireless and have a wide coverage
radius, the main advantage of such networks is low power consumption, and the amount of data
transfer in such networks is measured in bytes, but this is enough to transmit the necessary
telemetry from the end device to the dispatcher server. The lifetime of these end devices is
several years on a single battery and depends on the data transfer schedule.
Basically, devices with LPWAN connection are typical microcontrollers with minimal power
consumption and a wireless network interface. These devices usually communicate with their
gateway (base station), which has an IP address for accessing the Internet.
Lora WAN is a technology standard developed and supported by the Lora Alliance, which
consists of international telecommunications companies and manufacturers, as well as
integrators. The LoRaWAN technology platform can be segmented into two components:
Lora: Proprietary technology with LoRaWAN radio modulation that uses wireless connectivity
to connect between end devices and gateways. LoRaWAN: an access control Protocol that uses
MAC address identification (MAC-media access control) to transmit and manage messages
between the LoRaWAN Network Server and the end devices

3.4.1 Optimization of data transfer

The speed of data exchange is determined by the modulation levels and the SF (Spreading
Factor) coefficient in combination with the channel bandwidth. All these parameters affect the
transmission of long range receiver transmitter module. Table 3.1 shows the data configuration
for bits transfers.

32
Table 3.1 LoRa TX data configuration

Data rate configuration Indicative physical bit rate(bit/s)

0 LORA SF12/125kHZ 250

1 LORA SF12/125kHZ 440

2 LORA SF12/125kHZ 980

3 LORA SF12/125kHZ 1760

4 LORA SF12/125kHZ 3125

5 LORA SF12/125kHZ 5470

6 LORA SF12/125kHZ 11000

7 FSK 50kbps 50000

8…15 RFU

To maximize the battery life of your devices, Lora uses the adaptive data rate (ADR) scheme.
The ADR manages individual speeds for each connected device. End devices can transmit over
any available channel at any time using any available ADR speed subject to the following rules:
The end device changes the channel in a pseudo-random way for each transmission, thus
ensuring frequency diversity. The end device must comply with any transmission duty cycle
restrictions defined by the range specification.

33
3.5 DESIGN SPECIFICATION AND CODING
3.5.1 Transmitter circuit design.

The transmitter circuit comprises of the following section

34
 a) current sensing section
b) power supply section for LoRA and IC-Atmega 328p
c) interfacing of LoRA and IC-Atmega 328p section

3.5.2 Current sensing section

Current sensors, also commonly referred to as current transformers or CTs, are devices that
measure the current running through a wire by using the magnetic field to detect the current and
generate a proportional output. They are used with both AC and DC current. Current sensors
allow us to be able to measure current passively, without interrupting the circuit in any way.
They are placed around the conductor that’s current we want to measure.

Current transformers are essential in many applications. For instance, they are often used in sub-
metering to determine energy usage by separate tenants. They can also help with facility
regulation by providing information on how much energy is being used and when in order to
keep costs down and increase efficiency.

Current sensors working

When current flows through a conductor, it creates a proportional magnetic field around the
conductor. Current transformers use this magnetic field to measure current flow. If the CT is
designed to measure AC current, inductive technology is often used. AC current changes
potential, which causes the magnetic field to continually collapse and expand. In an AC current
sensor, wire is wrapped around a core. The magnetic field produced by the current flowing
through your conductor induces a proportional current or voltage in the wire that is within the
current sensor. The sensor then outputs a certain voltage or current that a meter connected to the
sensor can read and translate into the amount of current flowing through the conductor. For
instance, you could have a current transformer that outputs 333mV (333mV is a common output
for CTs) when the current through the conductor is at 400A. Once you configure your meter to
read 400A when it receives a 333mV input, it will be able to calculate how many amps are
flowing through the conductor based on what input it is receiving. DC current sensors work
similarly, but they rely on Hall Effect technology to operate.

35
Current transformers can either step-up, step-down, or keep the current the same. Sensors that
step-up or step-down current are often referred to as transformers. Sensors typically consist of
two coils. The coil on which the current passes is called the primary winding and the coil in
which voltage is induced is called the secondary winding. For many of the current transformers
that we sell at Aim Dynamics, the conductor that the CT is installed around serves as the primary
winding and the secondary winding is within the transformer. The core that the secondary
winding is wrapped around depends on what the sensor is designed to handle.

The turn’s ratio of a transformer is the number of turns in the secondary winding divided by the
number of turns in the primary winding .this ratio determines whether a transformer steps the
voltage up or down. The ratio of the secondary to the primary voltage is equal to the turn’s ratio,
as given by the equation.

So, when the number of turns on the secondary winding is greater than the number on the
primary winding, the voltage on the secondary is higher and it is a step-up transformer. The
opposite is true for current, where the ratio of the secondary to the primary current is equal to the
inverse of the turn’s ratio.

Note

Pass the current through a resistor and you will get a proportional voltage drop across the resistor
e.g. 4-20mA through 250 Ohm give 1 - 5 Volts.

Voltage divider

It’s a simple circuit that can reduce voltage. It distributes the input voltage among the
components of the circuit. The best example of a voltage divider is two resistors connected in
series, with the input voltage applied across the resistor pair and the output voltage taken from a
point between them. It is used to produce different voltage levels from a common voltage source
but with the same current for all components in the series circuit.

36
Current Sensor and voltage divider calculation

V0 = VI (R1/ (R1+R2))

For the design of 10kΩ;

V0 = VI (R1/ (R1+R2))

R1 = 10kΩ; from the data sheet,

R2 = 10kΩ;

V0 = 5 (10000/ (10000+10000)) = 5/2 =2.5v

For the design of 50kΩ;

V0 = 5(10000/ (10000+50000)) = 5/6 = .8333v

37
Fig.3.2. Image of current sensor with a rectifier.

Component specification

 Current sensor 20A/20Ma

 Power diodes ¼ watt
 Resistors 4.7KΩ

Results for current sensor section

Load Induced voltage current

7w LED bulb 6.9volts 0.3mA

12w LED bulb 9volts 0.5mA

38
3.5.3 Power supply section
Block diagram

Step-down transformer

The step down transformer consists of primary winding and secondary winding wound over
laminated iron core. The number of turn of primary will be higher than the secondary. Each
winding acts as separate inductors. When primary winding is supplied through an alternating
source, the winding gets excited and flux will be generated. The secondary winding experiences
the alternating flux produced by the primary winding which induces emf into the secondary
winding. This induced emf then flows through the external circuit connected. The turns ratio and
inductance of the winding decides the amount of flux generated from primary and emf induced
in secondary. In the transformer used below

The 230V AC power supply from the wall receptacle is stepped down to 15V AC rms using a
step-down transformer. The supply is then applied across the rectifier circuit.

Rectifier

Bridge Rectifiers has four diodes that are arranged to convert the AC supply voltage to a DC
supply voltage. The output signal of such a circuit is always of the same polarity regardless of
the polarities of the input AC signal. The signal from this section is fed into the capacitor
connected in parallel.

39
The average load voltage (i.e. DC output voltage) is found follows as

Vave = 2Vm / Φ

Peak Inverse Voltage

When one of the diodes in a full-wave rectifier is reverse biased, the peak voltage across that
diode will be approximately equal to Vm. This point is illustrated in figure 11. With the
polarities shown, D1 is conducting and D2 is reverse biased. Thus, the cathode of D1 will be at
Vm. Since this point is connected directly to the cathode of D2, its cathode will also be Vm.
With –Vm applied to the anode of D2, the total voltage across the diode D2 is 2Vm. Therefore,
the maximum reverse voltage across either diode will be twice the peak load voltage.

PIV  2Vm

Filtering

Knowledge of Ripple factor is essential while designing the values of capacitors. It is given by;

 Y=1/(4√3fRC) (as the capacitor filter is used) where;

F = frequency of AC (50 Hz), R = resistance calculated

But

R = V/Ic

V = secondary voltage of transformer

 V = 6√2 = 8. 4
 R = 8.45/500Ma = 16.9Ω standard 18Ω chosen

C = filtering capacitance

We have to determine the filtering capacitor

Y = Vac-rms/Vdc
40
Vac-rms = Vr/2√3

Vdc = VMax - (Vr/2)

Vr = VMax - VMin

 Vr = 5.2 - 4.8 = 0. 4V
 Vac-rms = .3464V
 Vdc = 5V
 Y = 0 .06928

Hence the capacitor value is found out by substituting the ripple factor in Y = 1/ (4√3fRC).Thus,

C = 2314 µF and standard 2200µF is chosen.

In this circuit the capacitor is used to smooth (filter) the pulsating DC output after rectification so
that a nearly constant DC voltage is supplied to the dc to dc converter. Filter capacitors reduce
the amount of ripple voltage to a level that is acceptable.

Dc
output to be fed to the DC-DC converter after filtering.

LM2596 -DC-DC Converter

DC-DC Buck Converter Step down Module LM2596 Power Supply is a step-down (buck)
switching regulator, capable of driving a 3-A load with excellent line and load regulation. These
devices are available in fixed output voltages of 3.3 V, 5 V, 12 V, and an adjustable output
version. The LM2596 series operates at a switching frequency of 150 kHz, thus allowing smaller
sized filter components than what would be required with lower frequency switching regulators.
41
Lm 2596 specifications

 Conversion efficiency: 92%(highest)

 Switching frequency: 150KHz
 Output ripple: 30mA9maximum)
 Load Regulation: ± 0.5%
 Voltage Regulation: ± 0.5%
 Dynamic Response speed: 5% 200uS
 Input voltage:4.75-35V
 Output voltage:1.25-26V(Adjustable)
 Output current: Rated current is 2A,maximum 3A(Additional heat sink is required)
 Conversion Efficiency: Up to 92% (output voltage higher, the higher the efficiency)
 Switching Frequency: 150KHz
 Rectifier: Non-Synchronous Rectification
 Module Properties: Non-isolated step-down module (buck)
 Short Circuit Protection: Current limiting, since the recovery
 Operating Temperature: Industrial grade (-40 to +85 ) (output power 10W or less)

Complete power supply section

42
The stable output of the dc- dc is then fed to the microcontroller.

Results for power supply section

Output results from this section give an adjustable voltage ranging from 0v to 15.6v. This
voltage is suitable for microcontroller which uses voltages between 3.3v to 5v and LoRA
modules which use 3.6v.
So a voltage of 3.6v will be set and used to power the microcontroller and LoRA module

3.5.4 Atmega328 pin mapping section

ATmega328 comes in Arduino, which helps the users to code the program in Arduino instead of
assembly or other controller languages. Arduino is popular because of its vast online data and
high-level language, and this helps the developer to code the controller program in Arduino and
they convert it into the microcontroller code. In case of Arduino the pin configuration for the
controller will be the following:

43
In the case of Arduino, the pins become specific to their functionality. During using the compiler
of ATmega328 almost all pins can be used as GPIO. However, during the usage of Arduino,
each pin will perform the specific function only, but the controller will still be able to perform all
the operations like ATmega328.

Specifications of at mega 328p microcontroller

 IC type: AVR microcontroller

 Core size: 8-bit
 Speed: up to 20MHz
 Number of I/O: 23
 Program memory size: 32Kb (16K x 16)
 Program memory type: Flash
 EEPROM size: 1K x 8
 RAM size: 2K x 8
 Package: DIP-28 (0.1" x 0.3" pin spacing)

44
  Supply voltage: 1.8 V - 5.5 V

POWER: Every controller needs the power to operate and it always has a power input pin. In
ATmega328P the power pins are three in number. One pin is for voltage and the remaining two
are for common ground. Both of these ground pins are connected internally, it doesn’t matter
which one is used. The power pins of the microcontroller are:
 VCC – Pin7
 GND – Pin8, Pin22

OSCILLATOR: The controller comes with 8MHz changeable oscillator. However, it can also
use the external oscillator up to 40MHz. To use the external oscillator, oscillation pins will be
required for input and output of the signal. Those pins are given below:
 XTAL1 – GPIO9
 XTAL2 – GPIO1

RESET: In ATmega328 there is some reset to restart the microcontroller in some conditions. In
all of these resets there is an external reset to reset the device using an external signal:
 RESET – GPIO1

PULL down resistor calculation

V = IR;
I = V/R,
For the design of 10kΩ;
V = 5V and therefore I = (5/10000)
=.5mA;
For the design of 50kΩ;
= (5/50,000)
=.0001A
=0.1mA
For the design of 5kΩ,
I = (5/5000) =1mA

45
 Out of my design, I realized that having 10kΩ pull up resistor, which maintained a gain
of 0.5mA in resetting the microcontroller was efficient, compared to 5kΩ and 50kΩ
respectively.

DIGITAL INPUT/OUTPUT PINS

This microcontroller has three digital ports (B, C, and D) such as PORTB, PORTC, and PORTD.
All these pins can be used as digital input/output. On top of that, each port can be used for other
purposes. To use them as output/input or for any other function it should be defined first
otherwise there won’t be any default function by all I/O pins. Digital I/O pins of the controller
are:

 PB0 – GPIO14
 PB1 – GPIO15
 PB2 – GPIO16
 PB3 – GPIO17
 PB4 – GPIO18
 PB5 – GPIO19
 PB6 – GPIO9
 PB7 – GPIO10
 PC0 – GPIO23
 PC1 – GPIO24
 PC2 – GPIO25
 PC3 – GPIO26
 PC4 – GPIO27
 PC5 – GPIO28
 PC6 – GPIO1
 PD0 – GPIO2
 PD1 – GPIO3
 PD2 – GPIO4
 PD3 – GPIO5
 PD4 – GPIO6

46
  PD5 – GPIO11
 PD6 – GPIO12
 PD7 – GPIO13

INTERRUPT PINS
Most of the electrical functions required an interrupt system to operate like AC dimmer, etc.
ATmega328P gives the support of 2 interrupts within the controller which can be used to get the
attention of the CPU at any instant. Interrupt pins of ATmega328P are given below:

 IN0 – GPIO4
 IN1 – GPIO5

ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER Channels

In ATmega328P there are 6 ADC channels that can be used to convert the analog signal to
digital. The analog converter needs to be activated first by its power pin (AVCC). The ADC
channels use power supply voltage as a reference to differentiate the different levels of the
analog signal. The analog pins of the controller are:

 ADC0 – GPIO23
 ADC1 – GPIO24
 ADC2 – GPIO25
 ADC3 – GPIO26
 ADC4 – GPIO27
 ADC5 – GPIO28
 AVCC – Pin20

ATmega328P CAPTURE/COMPARE/PWM Channels

There are six capture/compare/PWM pins are used to generate the desired time pulse-based
signal. It uses a Prescaler to divide the time pulse. All of these pins in ATmega328P are:

 OC0B – GPIO11
 OC0A – GPIO12
 OC1A – GPIO15

47
  OC1B – GPIO16
 OC2A – GPIO17
 OC2B – GPIO5

3.5.5 LoRa module section

The term LoRa stands for Long Range. It is a wireless Radio frequency technology This LoRa
technology can be used to transmit bi-directional information to long distance without
consuming much power. This property can be used by remote sensors which have to transmit its
data by just operating on a small battery. Typically Lora can achieve a distance of 15-
20km and can work on battery for years. LoRa transmits over license-free megahertz radio
frequency band. E.g. 169 MHz and 433MHz license free radio frequency channels in Kenya
which are also used by car remotes

In any typical IoT solution provided for warehouse management or field monitoring, there will
hundreds of Sensors nodes deployed on the field which will monitor the vital parameters and
send it to the could for processing. But these sensors should be wireless and should operate on a
small battery so that it is portable. Wireless solutions like RF can send data to long distance but
requires more power to do so thus cannot be battery operated, while BLE on the other hand can
work with very little power but cannot send data to long distance. So this is what brings in the
need for LoRa.

In LoRa we can achieve high distance communication without using much power, thus
overcoming the drawback of Wi-Fi and BLE communication. But how is it possible? If that is
the case why do BLE and RF still exist?

That is because LoRa comes with its own drawbacks. In order to achieve high distance with
Low power LoRa compromises on Bandwidth, it operates on very low bandwidth. The
maximum bandwidth for Lora is around 5.5 kbps, this means that you will be able to send only
small amount of data through LoRa. So, you cannot send Audio or video through this
technology, it works great only for transmitting less information like sensor values. The chart
below shows where LoRa lies compared with Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and Cellular devices.

48
LoRa is more like cellular communication. Signal from one LoRa Node reaches another Node
through a LoRa Gateway. A LoRa Node usually operates on a Battery and consists of a Radio
Module and Microprocessor. The Microprocessor is used to read the data from the senor and
send it in the air through the Radio module which will then be picked up by a LoRa Gateway.

LoRa modules do come in different frequency ranges, the most common being the 433MHz,
915MHz and 868MHz. The frequency at which your module works will be mentioned at the
back of the module. The LoRA module is show below.

49
Transmitting Side- Connecting LoRa SX1278 with Arduino UNO

For the transmitting side we will use an Atmega 328p with our LoRa module. The circuit
diagram to connect Atmega 328p with LoRa is shown below.

3.5.6 Testing of transmitter circuit before transferring it to a PCB

The LoRa module consists of 16 pins with 8 pins on each side. Out of these 16 pins, six are used
by GPIO pins ranging from DIO0 to DIO5 and four are used by Ground pins. The module
operates in 3.3V and hence it gets power from the variable lm 2596. Then we connect the SPI
pin on the LoRa to the SPI pins on Atmega 328p as shown above. Pin arrangement is shown
on the table.

LoRa Module Atmega 328p

50
3.3V 3.3V

Gnd Gnd

En/Nss D10

G0/DIO0 D2

SCK D13

MISO D12

MOSI D11

RST D9

51
3.6 Receiver schematic circuit

52
3.6.1 Receiving Side- connecting Lora SX1278 with Atmega 328p and oled display
The connections almost remain the same except for one subtle change. The 3.3V pin of the LoRa
module is powered by an external 3.3V battery in order to make it portable for the operator to
move with it around. The other connection remain as above for the transmitter. An oled display
unit is incorporated in order to read the data from the transmitter as show in the receiver circuit
below.

3.6.2 Oled display

OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diodes) is a flat light emitting technology, made by placing a
series of organic thin films between two conductors. When electrical current is applied, a bright
light is emitted. OLEDs are emissive displays that do not require a backlight and so are thinner
and more efficient than LCD displays (which do require a white backlight).

OLED displays are not just thin and efficient - they provide the best image quality ever and they
can also be made transparent, flexible, foldable and even rollable and stretchable in the future.
OLEDs represent the future of display technology

OLED vs. LCD

An OLED display has the following advantages over an LCD display:
 Improved image quality - better contrast, higher brightness, fuller viewing angle, a wider
color range and much faster refresh rates.
 Lower power consumption.
 Simpler design that enables ultra-thin, flexible, foldable and transparent displays
 Better durability - OLEDs are very durable and can operate in a broader temperature range

53
Pin description

Power Pins

PINS DETAILS

Connect the Pin1 with the ground pin to make the common ground for
Pin1 GND
proper working.

Power (VCC, VDD,

Pin2 OLED uses a single power pin for all the power inputs.
5V)

Communication Pins
The Pin3 will perform a common clock signal for both microcontroller/Arduino with OLED.
Pin3 SCL
In SPI and I2C communication, it will act as a clock pin.

This pin will receive the data from the controlling device/Arduino. In OLED only “data” in
SD
Pin4 should have to receive data, there won’t be any data output. So, the Pin4 will act as data
A
input for both SPI and I2C.

Specifications

Size: 0.96 inch / 24 mm

Resolution: 128 x 32
Board size: 28 x 28 mm

54
Effective display surface: 11 x 23 mm
Visual Angle: > 160 °
Input Voltage: 3.3 V ~ 6 V
Wide voltage support: 3.3 V, 5 V
Viewing angle: > 160
Drive IC: SSD1306
Operating temperature: -30 °C to 80 °C

3.6.3 Testing of receiver circuit before transferring to a PCB

55
3.6.4 PCB design for transmitter and receiver circuit

3.6.5 Arched PCB circuit

56
3.6.6 Complete transmitter and receiver circuit

3.7 Coding

3.7.1 Transmitter code

#include <SPI.h>

57
#include <LoRa.h>
int pot = A0;

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(pot,INPUT);

while (!Serial);
Serial.println("LoRa Sender");
if (!LoRa.begin(433E6)) { // or 915E6, the MHz speed of yout module
Serial.println("Starting LoRa failed!");
while (1);
}
}

void loop() {
int val = map(analogRead(pot),0,1024,0,255);
LoRa.beginPacket();
LoRa.print(val);
LoRa.endPacket();
delay(50);

3.7.2 Receiver code

#include <SPI.h>
#include <LoRa.h>
#include <Wire.h>
#include <Adafruit_GFX.h>
#include <Adafruit_SSD1306.h>

58
String inString = ""; // string to hold input
int val = 0;

#define SCREEN_WIDTH 128

#define SCREEN_HEIGHT 64
#define OLED_RESET 4 // Reset pin # (or -1 if sharing Arduino reset pin)
#define SCREEN_ADDRESS 0x3C ///< See datasheet for Address; 0x3D for 128x64, 0x3C
for 128x32
Adafruit_SSD1306 display(SCREEN_WIDTH, SCREEN_HEIGHT, &Wire,
OLED_RESET);

#define NUMFLAKES 10

#define LOGO_HEIGHT 16
#define LOGO_WIDTH 16
static const unsigned char PROGMEM logo_bmp[] =
{ 0b00000000, 0b11000000,
0b00000001, 0b11000000,
0b00000001, 0b11000000,
0b00000011, 0b11100000,
0b11110011, 0b11100000,
0b11111110, 0b11111000,
0b01111110, 0b11111111,
0b00110011, 0b10011111,
0b00011111, 0b11111100,
0b00001101, 0b01110000,
0b00011011, 0b10100000,
0b00111111, 0b11100000,
0b00111111, 0b11110000,
0b01111100, 0b11110000,
0b01110000, 0b01110000,

59
 0b00000000, 0b00110000 };

void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
if(!display.begin(SSD1306_SWITCHCAPVCC, SCREEN_ADDRESS)) {
Serial.println(F("SSD1306 allocation failed"));
for(;;); // Don't proceed, loop forever
}
display.display();
delay(2000); // Pause for 2 seconds

// Clear the buffer

display.clearDisplay();
display.clearDisplay();
display.setTextSize(1); // Normal 1:1 pixel scale
display.setTextColor(WHITE); // Draw white text
display.setCursor(0,0); // Start at top-left corner
display.println(F("LoRa Data System"));
display.display();
delay(2000);

while (!Serial);
Serial.println("LoRa Receiver");
if (!LoRa.begin(433E6)) {
Serial.println("Starting LoRa failed!");
while (1);
}
}

void loop() {

60
int packetSize = LoRa.parsePacket();
if (packetSize) {
// read packet
while (LoRa.available())
{
int inChar = LoRa.read();
inString += (char)inChar;
val = inString.toInt();
}
inString = "";
LoRa.packetRssi();
}

display.clearDisplay();
display.setTextSize(2); // Normal 1:1 pixel scale
display.setTextColor(WHITE); // Draw white text
display.setCursor(10,10); // Start at top-left corner
display.println(val);
display.display();
delay(200);
display.clearDisplay();
}

61
3.8 Project Costing
Project cost is an activity for estimating costs, developing project budget and
controlling spending. Table shows the project cost.

Table 3.2 Project Estimation and Costing

S/ Item component Price

no. specification (ksh)
1. Lora-trans- SX-1280 1800
receiver module
2. Microcontroller + Atmega-328 550
Accessories
3. Normal 12v, 2A 1200
transformer
4. Current 5A 800
transformer
5. Copper glad 15by10 (cm) 600
6. Power supply Stable 900
12v,5v
7. casing Wooden and 1200
Perspex
8. switches 5A 50
9. Visual display 5v, 400ma 450
(oled)
10. buzzer 5v, 300ma 150
11. Solar and mini- 10watts, 2000
battery 8AH
12. Aching agents Hydrogen 650
peroxide
Sulphuric
acid.

62
3.9 Project Time Plan
Time is a key aspect of project management and involves skills such as planning, setting goals
and prioritizing for a better performance. Table shows project time management
Table 3.3 Project Time Planning

Month/activities May June July August September October November

2021 2021 2021 2021 2021 2021 2021
Concept paper
Proposal
writing
Research
documentation
Proposal
presentation
Hardware
development
and simulation
Design, coding
and data
collection
60%
presentation
Final
presentation

63
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APPENDIX

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