, -•u

5.6 SOLUTION OF SWING EQUATION BY MODIFIED EULER METHOD AND

RUNGE-KUTTA FOURTH ORDER METHOD
Two methods are used to solve swing equations. They are:
(i) Modified Euler method,
(ii) Runga-Kutta method.
5.6.1 Solution of Swing Equation by Modified Euler Method

Generator connected to an infinite bus through two parallel lines is shown in Figure 5.12,
3~ fault occurs at the midpoint of line 2.

Infinite
Bus
F 1~

Fig. 5.12
Let the input power be Pm which is constant.
Before Fault Condition:
In case of steady state operation, the power transfer from generator to an infinite bus.
Pe =Pm

sin 80 = pm
PmaxI

~
u0 = sm
· -1 [ Pm ]
Pmaxl

_IE'IIVI
where , Pmax I - X
1
Here, X, is the transfer reactance for the prefault condition.
The rotor runs at synchronous speed, ro = 2rif 0

Change in angular velocity is zero, .1ro = O.

0

During Fault Condition:

Let the 3~ fault occurs at the midpoint of line 2 as shown in Figure 5. l 2.

Pe,, = pmax lJ sin &

IE'IIVI
where, Pmaxfl = X ·
II
 Here, XII is the transfer reactance during fault condition.
The swing equation is given by:
2
d f _ 1tf _ . 7tf
2 - H [Pm pmaxn sm o] =-p
~ H a
The above equations are transformed into the state variable form:
df}l)
--=.1co
dt
d 28 dAco(]) efpa
dt 2 - dt H

Compute the first estimate at ! = t + flt

1 0

df>(l)
8f 1 =6•+- ·.11
I+ l dt I

.1@

. a1&oi1>/
&f➔-1 =/Jm; + dt &
o;
Compute tlie Derivatives:

Using 8fz+J and Acof

z+l' determine the derivatives at the end of iteration.

d8( 2)
=ArofI+ 1
dt Aro/J
L.l i+]

dtia/ 2)
dt

Compute the average derivatives,

df/1) dr/2)
d8 dt
+ b.al
!).ro; dt ;+~

dtavg. 2

2
d LlAro()) + d-b.ai
-fl
)
d L\co dt '6; dt ;+1
- - - _ __ L..:---;::--
dtavg . - 2
 ·-- - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- -- -·'~
Compute the final estimate (corrected val '~
ue),

6f+1 =◊; J d◊ ]111

ldta vg

L\ro ci+1=/j(J) i +ld/1r. o] ut A

dtavg
5.6 .2 Flowchart fo r Modified Eu
ler Metho d

START

Carry Ot!t load flow corresponding to pre fault con

dition, get 1c, tmax• Pe = Pm, ~t

Calculate internal voltages along

with their angles E =V; + jXG i IGi
IGi =(PGi - jQG i) / V;; L\ro = ro - 2ef =0, 0 ;
find Pe= Pmax sin 8, 8 =si n -l (Pm IPmax
0 )
Modify network data for the period
when the fault takes place, find Pma
x II during fault.
e matrix et i = 0 · = 0

do
Compute - =L\roat L\ro 1. and -dl\ro = -(P
1tf
- P
dt · dt H m
sin o) ato -
max '

Calculate predictor values r,Pz+1=8 1-+ do

dt
L\t L\rol! =L\ro + dl\ro
, z+l , d L\t, at t=t; +l =t; + lit
t:i.ro I 61

Calculate corrected values f•• = +(d6) +( ~) (dlY,) ) _(d&i, I .

6 d, tJa>; d, """f.1 ru,t.rof.i=IY,),+
61 d, 6, · di J5r.
161

Calculate Ei for t= t1+ 1 , E;+1 = E.; (~o

s of~1+ Jsin of+ i)

i=i+ 1
Modify the network data and
obtain a new 'reduced yb
~ us
i=i+ 1

j =j + 1
 5- 6,3 s 0 lution of Swing Equation by Runga•Kutta Method

' Runga-Kutta method involves the following steps to detennine stability.

pt Esti.mates:

KI =[~. ·]At
, I
A'
ut A
u(O.l ·
-=='1.ro-flt
,l '
, -
I

(,.,.

L _d_ --::-..,~1ttf:
Aro ,·,· ]-. '1.t . ~ (Pho. _: ·· ~··Pe('•U~·)]tiI ".
I - [ , dt ,(). : . H . ".'
1
. 1
- ,- l :. :, ,, , " , , - ·': i ', ,.,. :·,:

2nd Estimates: ,r !
I
1• ~
1
I
,. , It I <

-[~~-·+I]'
" I

K II - ~I ~1 ::
1 2
\I

I '
/ ,1 ' '1 )

- :•., -, K·
L - - nf_[P,. . ·. ~i (o.1+--1)]~t /,,1
n- H · ~ e.. l ,, 2·
f' I I ' fl

rd
3 Estimates: - ' '\,,/, \ • '. \ 'I ' ',, .J ~
h ' ,: ' I

\. 'll/

4th t' .
estimates:

KIV=[ L\roi + Lm Jilt /

if . )]L\I
Lrv = -7t [Pm - Pe (8·1 + Km
H .
ri na1 estimates at 1 = 11+1' ]

+ 2Krn + K1v
J[K
-8-+- I
+2K11
)
1
0;+1 - 6 + L,v
1(L + 2Lu +2LIII
i1roi+I = ~
AU) ,
z +-6 I
5.6.4 Flow Chart for Runge-Kutta Method

START

Carry out load flow corresponding to pre fault condition, get~. tmax• Pe= Pm, L\t

Calculate internal voltages along with their angles Ea =V; + jXGi IGi ;
.
Irn =(Prn - jQGi) / V;; ~ro = ro - 2rcf =0, find Pe =Pmax sino, o0 =sin -1 (Pm I Pmax)

Modify network data for the period when· the fault takes place, find Pmax during fault.
II
Sett= 0. Obtain new reduced admittance matrix set i = O · = 0

Compute 6f'+1 =61 +(ddt6) &ii

!ll., 6rof'+, =&o, +(ddt6ro) 61
!ll., at I =·'1+1 =I;+ !lJ

6 6
K 1=(d ) !ll.=6w1 !lJ and L1 =(d ro) !ll.= pf (Pm - Pmax sin 6, )61
~ ~ ~ ~ H

Ku=(6w;+ L; )!ll. and L11=! (Pm-Pma"sin(6,+ \ 1 ))!ll.

=(6w; + L~, )ru and Lm =!(Pm - Pmax sin(6; + i'))!ll.
K 111

K IV=( 6w, + L~i )ru and Liv=! ( Pm - sin(6; + Kt ) )ru

Pmax

Calculate 8;+1 =8; + 1 ( K1 +2Ku +2Km +K 1v );L\ro;+I =~ro; + I (L +2Ln +2Lm +L v)

6 1 1
6
Calculate Ei fort= ti+ 1 , Ei+l = E; ( cos O;+I + jsino;+l)

i=i + 1
Modify the network data and
obtain a new reduced y
~ bus

i=i+ 1

Fig. 5.13
 v ,v I

[ PROBLEMS I
As shown in Figur e S.t 4, the three phase fault is applied at point 'P'. Find the critical
I, clearing angle for cleari ng the fault with simultaneous opening of the breake rs 1 and
2. The reacta nce values of variou s components are indicated on the diagram. The
generator is delive ring 1.0 p.u power at the instant preceding the fault.

. j0.5 Infinite
Bus
j0.25 j0.05

0
iE'I = 12 PU. j0.4
0
1v1 = 1.0~

Fig. 5.14 ...

Solution :

(i) Normal Opera tion (Befo re Fault)

0.5x0.4 +0.05 = 0.522 p.u.

XI =0.25+ 0.5+0.4

P IE'jjVj sin. 8 -_ 01.2xl

=_,__ _ 522
sin8=2.3sin8
e1 X1 .

pe, = 1.0 p.u.

J .0 = 2.3 sin 80
o === 0.45 radi ans.
l\= 25.8 . , Fault
. d c
.lurang
Oi) I) · trans f e rre
llrin g Fault : No powe r as

Peu - 0
 . "''-''YSIS
(iii) After Fault Operation:

Xm = 0.25 +0.5+ 0.05 = 0~8.

1.2
x 1 . s: l ; s:
Pe Ill = --sm u = . smu
0;8 5.
. . .,

1
Omax =1t-sin- I - - = 2.41 radians
1.5
Applying equal area criterion for critical clearing angle 6 ,
0

=1.0 (6cc -0.45) = 0cc -0.45

0max
A2= J (Pem -pm)do
Ocr
2.41
= J (1.5 sin o-l)do : ·'I
0cr

=-1.s(o so-o)l~ · 41
cc

=l.5cos6cc +6cc-l.293

Setting A1 = A2 and solving,

8cc -0.45=1.Scosocc +,6cc -1.293

6cc =0.974 radians

6cc =55.8°
2. A 50 Hz, 500 MVA, 400 kV generator (with transformer) is connected to a 400 kV
infinite bus bar through an interconnector. The generator has H = 2.5 MJfMYA,
voltage behind transient reactance of 450 kV and is loaded 460 MW. The transfer
reactance betwee n generator and busbar under various conditions .are:
Prefault = 0.5 p.u.
During fault= 1.0 p.u.
Post fault= 0. 7s p.u.
S(IJV" .. I •

Calculate the swing curve using intervals of 0.05 sec. and assuming that theJault is
cleared at 0.15 sec. '

Solution:
KVb=400

400
V=-= I p.u.
400

45
E'= 0 = 1.125 p.~.,
400

p = 460 =0.92
er 500 ' I

Prefau1t, X1 =0.5 p.u. , 11 ,

' ·1· t '

Pe1 /E'//Y/ sm· 8o ~ 092

--------- 7 •
Xr .. · . .

1.125xl . ~ _·
---sm uo- 0.92
0.5

00 = 0.42 rad.

Assume 3q, fault occur, pen --0 ·

Po st fault condition,

p /E'f f V/ . us::
--sm
em
Xm

.
I I25 x I SW s::
= ' u
0.75

= 1.5 sin 8
Using Modified Euler's Method:

ro0 =2nf =21r, x50 = 314 .15 9

L\t=0.05 sec.

Iteration I: t = 0,

dB
=L\ro0 =ro0 -2n / = 0
dt .1roo

d!J.w 1t f~
=- [P m -Pe(So)]
dt 60 H

= 1tx 50 [0.9 2-0 ]=5 7.8

2.5
End of the first step il; t = 0.05 se5,
- . = Aro 0 _05 = 2.89 rad/ sec.
Pre dict ed values are dt tirofos

oC.os =Oo +-
0A
~1
c c At [TtiAro
=roo os +-
~ 11! 2 dt Bo.Os + d 11ro
dt
IoC. ]
l
dt ·o
X= jo. ~+ J · s XJ·o · 4 =
1.1
j0.9
·o 472 2
J .
=0.42 +(0 x0. 05) =0. 42

'1roop.os ='1roo + di:'dt.wl xt1t

So

=0+ 57. 8x0 .05 =2. 89 rad/sec.

Derivation at the end oft = 0.05

d8 P
- = ~ro0 _05 =2.89 rad/sec.
di ~WP
0.05

d l\ w = 1tH/ [ P,,, - Pe ( Bb.05 )]

di '(j P
0 05

n x 50
= -- [0.9 2-0 ]=5 7.8
2.5
 C or re ct ed va lu es , 0c00 5= 11-1[-do +do .]
80 + -
· 2 dt 11ro dt 6.roC,
0
05
0
=0 .4 2+ ·05 (0 + 2. 89 )
2
= 0. 49 2 rad.

c
Llcoo.os =Llooo + 2
flt [d!lrdto Oo +dllro ]
dt Ob.os

=0 + 0.0 5 [5 7. 8+ 57 .8 ]= 2. 89
2 ra d/ se c.
It er at io n II :

do C =droo.05 =2 .8 9
dt llroo.os

d6.ro = 1tx50 (0 .9 2- 0) =57.8

dt 80.os 2.5
At t = 0. I, pr ed ic te d va lu es
are:

P - c
80 .1-8 0. os
+ do c x ~t
dt llroo.os

=0 .4 92 +2 .8 9 x0.0S
= 0. 63 7 ra d.
d~ro x ~t
llrob.1= 6.roo.05 + dt bo.05

=2 .8 9+ 5 7 •8 X 0 ' 05 ==5.78

~ - !!J.roP = 5. 78 rad/ se c.
dt ~rob. 1 - o.1

~ = 1t x5 0 [0 .9 2- 0] ==5 7.8
dt og 1 2.5
 C _ C
60.1 - 60.05
M[do/
+- --
2 dt Aro0.os . dt .1wo.1
do/
+- p ]
0 05
=0.492 + · (2.89+5. 78]
2
= 0.709 rad.

11.t[~t1.ro
dro0.1 =roO.os +2 . dt c ~ ]
-+;dt/1>P
Bo.os · 0.1 ·
' ' '

5
=2.89 + o.o [57.8+57.8] = 5.7~ rad./sec.
2 ' I
I
,
',
I
"'
'.
'.

Iteration III: t =0. I sec.

do = Llco01 =5.78
dt Llmo.1 .

dL\ro 5
1t x 0 [0.92- OJ =57.8
dt f>o. 1 2.5 .. .

End of the third step at t = 0.15, predicted values are:

oP0.15 --oc0.1 +:!.§_/

dt L\roc x L\t
0.1

=0.709+5.78 x0.05 = 0.998 rad./sec.

p s == L\roo.
L\wo.1 c t+dL\rol
-- c
dt 00.1 X L\t

==5 . 78+57.8x0.05 = 8.67 rad.I sec.

Derivation at the end of t == 0.15 sec.

do/
-d I p 15 ==
oA w0. L\ro{{ 1~ == 8.69 rad./sec.

dl\w nxso
dt o0p_15 ==--[0.92
2.5 - OJ== 57.8
 ---- · - - - - - - -- -
.. Sf8l/fll~•,_
corrected Values:
-
5.37

~c 0~c
uo.1s= 0.1+
d81 c
!!it [
-
2 dt llcoo.1 +~1 ] dt LlcooP
.5

=O. 709 + o;s [5.78 +8.67J

= 1.07 rad.

11rno.15 = l!iroo. I + ~ [ d rol

t' i +d 60)1 ]
2 , l~ t 80.1 dt ab.is
0.05
5
= .78 + 2 (57.8+57.8]

= 8..67 rad./sec. ' · , 1'

Post fault condition, Pe =1.Ssin S:.

. is
3 MV A generator ; tra nsfor. ~er uni t ha~ing ·an ov~ral~ reactance of 0.3 p.u
· A 150 cuit of 220 kV line having
to
" irifibite.,lfos "\b~r',ove r ·a,r double cir
delivering 150 M W along
cta nce per phase pe r circu'it of 100 oh~s. A 3-phase fault occurs midway
rea
line s~•Ca lc.ulate the ma xim um ang le of swing that the generator
one of the transmission
may achieve before the fault 'is cle
ared without loss of stability.

100 n
L--------1 tnfinite Bus

15 0M W
50 O F 50 n 220 kV

150 MVA
j0.3 p.u.
Fig. 5.15

Soft,1 .0
1 11 _.

Reactance of line, Xp.u.

I00 J50 == J0.31 p.u .

- __ -:-X
2
- 220
 • - ..... -• - r -• -••• r 7 t fU ty ~ ·J

Prefault Condition: Impedance diagram for prefault condition is shown in Figure.

j0.31

j0.31

1v1 = 1.0 p.u.

IE'I = 1.0 p.u.

Fig.

j0.155
j0.455

IVI = 1.0 p.u. IE'l =1.0 p.u. IVI =1.0 p.u.

IE'I = 1.0 p.u.

Fig.

/E'I/VI . ~ 1.0 x 1.0 .

Per = --smu = ---sm 8=2.198 sin8
X1 0.455

Operating power angle cS is given by:

0

2.198 sin 80 = 1.0

cSo =sin - I ( I.O J=27.06° =0.472 rad.

2.198
~
puri . ~~==:--:-------
. ·ng Fault: Positive sequence re t .
ac ance diagram. -------~
G) j0.31
0
j0.155
j0.155

IV/= 1.0 p.u.

IE'I = 1.0 p.u.

@Ref.

Fig.

Using Delta-Star conversion, the circuit becomes,

ZIN Z12 x Z10 - J0.3Ixj0.I55 =J0.07755 p.u.

z 12 +z10 +z20 j0.3I+J0.I55+J0.155 ·

Z1oxZ20 = jO.ISSxjO. I~S =J0.039p.u.

ZoN Z12 +Z10 +Z20 J0.31+ J0.155+ 10.155

j0.0775 j0.0775 1 N 2
2
N

"
(j
•..) V
~ iO 3 E' j0.039
V q

lt
j0.039

0
 Using Star-Delta conversion,

j0.3775 xj0.039 + j0.039x j0.0775 + j0.3775 xj0.077 5

j0.039
=jl.2
j 1.2
CD

IE'I 1v1

Fig.

. f: l p
Power transfer d unng au t, en = jE'jjvj
x sin8
12

1.0 X l.Q . ~
- ---s m u=0.833 sin6
1.2

Post Fault Condition: Faulted line is removed by opening the circuit breaker at ends.
Impedance diagram for post fault i.s shown in Figure.

j0.31

IVI

IE'I

Fig.
 Z=X111 =0.3+0.31==0.6Jp.u.

~ = /E'I/V/ sin o~ 1.0 x LO .

em X111 - 0.61 sm o==I.64 sino p.u.

Power angle curve is shown below.

Pe

Pe, = 2.198 sin o

P8111 = 1.64 sin o

P811 = 0.833 sin o

=3. 14- 0.6 56= 2.4 8 rad.

Determination of Cr itic al Cle ari ng Angle:

P,11

0
Fig.
 0cc
Area A , = 1.0 [bee - bo] - JPer1db
80

6max
Area A2 J Pern d o - Pm (8 max - occ)
0cc

0 max
J 1.5 sin od,~-1.Q (2.4- 8cc)
0cc

Applying equal area criterion, A1 = A2

0cc 2.48
6cc-0.472+ J 0.833 sin 8 = f 1.64 sin 8- (2.48 - 8cc)
0.472 bee

-0.472+0.833[cos 8]~~472 = - 1.64 (coso)t:8 - 2.48

-0.472+0.833cosocc -0.393= 1.294 + l.64cos8cc - 2.48

cos8cc (0.833-1.64) = 1.294 -2.48+0.472+0.393

-0.807 COS<>cc =- 0.321

COS<>cc = 0.398

8cc =1.16 rad.

4. A 50 Hz generator is delivering 50 % of the power that is capa ble of delivering

through a transmission line to an infinite bus. A fault occurs that increase the reactance
between the generator and the infinite bus to 500% of the value. When the fault is
isolated, the maximum power that can be delivered is 75% of the original maximu.[11
value. Determine the critical clearing angle for the condition described.

Solution:
Line F 1 l 0° ·
Infi nite
Bu s
 Line diagram is shown above:
Pe

Power Angle Curve

Prefault Condition: Generator is delivering 50% of power

p
e1
=f E'XIIV/ sin oo
12

Pel = Pmax1sinoo=0.5Pmaxl

sinS0 =0.5 .

Bo =sin- 1(0.5)=0.524 rad.

During Fault: Reactance is 500% of the value during fault.

500
X1 I :J00=5.

= jE'l!Vlsin6
Pen 5

Pe = 0.2 Pmax II sin 6

11

. . i·maximum value
p = 75% of the ongma
max Ill

pmax Ill == 0.75% Pmax I

's
510
p :::0.75 Pmaxx
em
 0.75
. _ _ Pe111 = 0.75 Pmax l sin 8

Pel = 0.5 Pma xl

p8 11 = Q.2 P max I sin o

Fig.

Pm = 0.5

6
max PmaxIII 0.75
J
=1t-sin- 1( Pm )=1 t-si n- 1( O.S = 2.412 rad.

Critical clearing angle 6cc,

Pm (60 - 6max) + Pmax III cos 60 - Pmax III cos 0 max

cos6cc
Pmax11-Pmaxlll

0.5 (-2.4 2 +0.5 24)- 0.75 cos2 .412 + 0.2x cos0 .524
=
-0.7 5+0 .2

COSOcc = 0.385

6cc = 1.176 rad.

6cc = 67.35°

5. Find the critical clearing angle for clearing the faul

t with the sim ulta neo us open ing of
the breaker when a three phase fault occurs at poin
t P clos e to bus 1. The generato r
is delivering 1.0 p.u. power at the instant precedin
g the fault.
 X<, :: j0.15 j0.1

G G----1 ~
E' = 1.2 p.u.
t-----...1
Xu = j0.5
p
V = 1.0 p.u.

CD

Solution:
Prefault:

j0.5

j0.4

Fig.

X=j0.25+ j0.5x j0.4 =j0.4722

j0.9

l. 2x 1 · · ~ 1
5412 smuo==
Pe, - --sm8==2.
0.4722

sin 80 = 1 ==0.3935
2.5412

Oo =23. I3330 :c0.4044rad.

 - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - . -·· - · >J,.,,r::,111-J.na/ys· i
- - - -- - - - - . : . IS
During Fault: Pe = 0
11

Pos t Fau lt:

j0.25 j0.5

Xm =j0 .75

1.2x-1.0
Pmaxm = 0.751 16·

6max =n-sin-•( PmaPm )=.141.317°

xIII ,
= 2.46646 rad.
= 2.47

Pm (Ber -6 0 )=(- 1.5c os6 -6)~ · 47

cc

occ-0.4244=-1.4986-2.47+1.5cos6cc +Bee

= 3.5642

COSOcc =0.8285

6cc =0.9344 rad. =53.537°

6. A 3 phase gen erat or delivers 1.0 p.u power to an

infinite bus thro ugh a transmission
network when a fault occurs. The maximum pow er whi
ch can be tran sfer red during
pref ault , duri ng fault and post fault c~nditions is 1.75
p.u., 0.4 p.u., 1.25 p.u. Fi nd
critical clearing angle.

Solt1tion:

· . I 6 = cos -t[P m( 6max - 6o)-Pmaxmcos6max. +Pmaxllcos~>o]

Critical cIearmg ang e, cc pmax II - pmax III
 ~ -
stabtfllY ~ - -:-=~~-----------
Pm lp.u.
-------------:.:...:
Pmaxl =1.75 p.u.

Pmax II =0.4 p.u.

Pmax rn =1.25 p.u.

80 . -1(
= stn p Pm
maxi
J=34.85° =0.608 radians.

0max= 7t · -1 ( p pm
-sm ·
J=126.87° =2.214 radians.
max II

On substituting, we get,

cos8cc =0.621

7. A generator having Xd = O. 7 p.u. delivers rated load at a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
Find Qe, Pe, E and 8.

Solution:

Let V =I LO, I=l.0 (0.8 -j 0.6)

E = V + jXd I =1.53L21.5

E= 1.53 p.u., 8= 21.5°

:. Pe== /EI/V/ sin 8=0.8 p.u.

Xd

Qe ~ /E//v/ cosll - /V/2 "'0.6 p.u.

ij, xd xd pOl~er to an infinite bus through a
A. 1
d fvers p.u.
genera to • f ng at 50 Ilz e 1 • • red A fault takes place reducing the
tra r 1s opera 1 • tance 1s 1gno ·
. circuit
llsrnis s1on . w h•· ch rests
. 10
 maximum power trans&rable to 0.5 p.u. whereas before the fault, this power was -
2.0 p.u. and after the clearance of the fault, it is 1.5 p.u. By the use of equal area
criterion, determine the critica·l ·clearing angle.
Solution:

p e Ill

Pm(6 0 -6max )+ Pmaxll cos6o-PmaxIII cos6max

cos6cc
Pmax II - Pmax III

pmax I = 2.0 p.u.

pmax 11 =0.5 p .u.

Pmax III =l.S p .u .

. - 1(
&max= 1t-sm Pm J
PmaxIII

8o =sin- 1( Pm J =sin - •(_!_) =30° =0.5235 .

Pmaxl 2

1
8 = n -sin -I ( -- ) =2.4 118 rad .
max 1.5
os
6
= 1(0.5235 - 2.4118)+0.5(0.5 - 0.5235)- (1.5) cos2.4 I 18
C cc . 0.5 -1.5

= 0.3373.
&cc =cos- 1 (0.3333)

=l .2267 rad.

8cc =70.28°.