MEMS Module

User’s Guide
MEMS Module User’s Guide
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Part number: CM020901

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the MEMS Module 12

About MEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
About the MEMS Module. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The MEMS Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes . . . . . . 21
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 25

Overview of the User’s Guide 28

Chapter 2: Creating and Analyzing MEMS Models

Physics and Scaling for MEMS Devices 32

General Tools for MEMS Modeling 36

Infinite Elements and Perfectly Matched Layers . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Electrical Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Reduced-Order Modeling and Equivalent Circuits . . . . . . . . . . 37
Importing Mask Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
About the Material Libraries for the MEMS Module . . . . . . . . . . 43

Structural Mechanics 45
Damping and Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Electrostatics 47
Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Electric Currents in Conductive Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Lumped Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

CONTENTS |3
 Piezoresistivity 54

Thermal Effects in MEMS Devices 56

About Thermal Effects in MEMS Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Modeling Thermal Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Modeling Thermal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Thermoelastic Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Physics Interfaces for Modeling Heat Transfer in Solids . . . . . . . . 59

Microfluidics 60
Fluid-Structure Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Thin-Film Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Reference for Thin-Film Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Connecting to Electrical Circuits 63

About Connecting Electrical Circuits to Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . 63
Connecting Electrical Circuits Using Predefined Couplings . . . . . . . 64
Connecting Electrical Circuits by User-Defined Couplings . . . . . . . 64
Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Postprocessing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

SPICE Import and Export 67

SPICE Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
SPICE Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Chapter 3: AC/DC Interfaces

The Electrostatics Interface 72

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
Electrostatics Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Charge Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Conduction Loss (Time-Harmonic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Space Charge Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

4 | CONTENTS
Force Calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Zero Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Surface Charge Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
External Surface Charge Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Symmetry Plane (for Electric Field) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Electric Displacement Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Thin Low Permittivity Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Dielectric Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Floating Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Distributed Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Line Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Line Charge (on Axis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Line Charge (Out-of-Plane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Point Charge (on Axis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Change Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Charge Conservation, Ferroelectric. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Electrostatic Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface 100

Domain, Boundary, and Edge Nodes for the Electrostatics, Boundary
Elements Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Charge Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Floating Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Surface Charge Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Zero Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

CONTENTS |5
 The Electric Currents Interface 110
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electric
Currents Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Current Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
External Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Electric Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Floating Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Boundary Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Normal Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Distributed Impedance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Electric Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Contact Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Sector Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Line Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Line Current Source (on Axis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Point Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Point Current Source (on Axis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Electric Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Electric Point Dipole (on Axis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Current Conservation, Piezoresistive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

The Electrical Circuit Interface 138

Ground Node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Voltmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Ampère Meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Capacitor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Voltage-Controlled Current Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Current-Controlled Voltage Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Current-Controlled Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

6 | CONTENTS
Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Subcircuit Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Subcircuit Instance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
NPN BJT and PNP BJT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
n-Channel MOSFET and p-Channel MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Mutual Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
External I vs. U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
External U vs. I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
External I-Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
SPICE Circuit Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
SPICE Circuit Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Theory for the Electrostatics Interface 155

Charge Relaxation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Electrostatics Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
The Electrostatics Interface in Time Dependent or Frequency
Domain Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Debye Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Theory for the Electric Currents Interface 168

Electric Currents Equations in Steady State . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Dynamic Electric Currents Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface 171

Electric Circuit Modeling and the Semiconductor Device Models. . . . 171
Bipolar Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
MOSFET Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Reference for the Electrical Circuit Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 180

CONTENTS |7
 Chapter 4: Fluid Flow Interfaces

Chapter 5: Structural Mechanics Interfaces

The Electromechanics Interface 185

Electromechanical Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Deforming Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Theory for the Electromechanics Interface 189

Overview of Forces in Continuum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . 189
The Electromagnetic Stress Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
References for the Electromechanics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . 194

The Electromechanics, Boundary Elements Interface 195

Electromechanical Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

The Pyroelectricity Interface 198

Pyroelectricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

The Piezoelectricity and Pyroelectricity Interface 202

The Thermoelasticity Interface 204

Theory for the Thermoelasticity Interface 207

Background Thermoelasticity Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
References for the Thermoelasticity Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 216

Chapter 6: Piezoresistivity Interfaces

The Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents Interface 218

Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

The Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents Interface 222

Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

8 | CONTENTS
 The Piezoresistivity, Shell Interface 226
Piezoresistivity, Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

The Piezoresistivity, Layered Shell Interface 230

Piezoresistivity, Layered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Theory for the Piezoresistivity Interfaces 233

Piezoresistive Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Electric Currents Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Tensor Versus Matrix Formulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Material Property Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Coordinate Systems and Material Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . 239
References for the Piezoresistivity Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 240

Chapter 7: Glossary

Glossary of Terms 244

Index 249

CONTENTS |9
10 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction

This user’s guide describes the MEMS Module. The MEMS Module User’s Guide
introduces the modeling stages in COMSOL Multiphysics® and this module and
serves as a reference for more advanced modeling techniques and details about the
physics interfaces.

In this chapter:

• About the MEMS Module

• Overview of the User’s Guide

11
 About the MEMS Module
In this section:

• About MEMS
• About the MEMS Module
• The MEMS Module Physics Interface Guide
• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

About MEMS
The field of MEMS evolved as engineers and scientists explored new avenues to make
use of the fabrication technologies developed by the microelectronics industry. These
technologies enabled complex micron and submicron structures to be integrated with
electronic systems and batch fabricated at low cost. Mechanical devices fabricated using
these technologies have become known as microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)
or alternatively as microsystems. A proper description of these devices usually requires
multiple physical effects to be incorporated.

At the microscale, different physical effects become important to those dominant at

macroscopic scales. Inertial forces, which scale with the volume of the system, become
comparatively less important than effects that scale more favorably when the system
size is reduced, such as electrostatic forces. Consequently electrostatically actuated
devices have been developed to measure acceleration and rotation with high accuracy
in a small package. These accelerometers and gyroscopes have found widespread
application in the automotive industry (where they are used to deploy airbags), in
industrial applications (as sensors), and in consumer applications (where smartphones
have driven rapid growth in the use of MEMS devices in recent years). Capacitive
sensing has also led to widespread adoption of capacitive pressure sensors, which have
largely superseded the piezoresistive pressure sensors that were some of the first
MEMS devices to come to market. Piezoelectric MEMS devices have also become

12 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
common with the widespread adoption of FBAR (thin–film bulk acoustic resonator)
technology in mobile communication applications. Although there are few
commercially important devices that employ thermal actuation (largely due to the high
power consumption of such devices), thermal phenomena, such as packaging-induced
thermal stresses, are often important in the design of MEMS devices. Finally, for
resonant MEMS devices such as accelerometers, damping phenomena are important
and there is a need for detailed modeling of phenomena such as thin-film damping.
Very high quality factor resonators are often used in MEMS timing applications, and
for these devices the quality factor can be limited by thermoelasticity: the intrinsic
coupling of the thermal and structural domains that exists as a result of the laws of
thermodynamics.

Microfluidic systems are often included within the field of MEMS and represent a
growing market for MEMS devices. For modeling microfluidics devices, the dedicated
Microfluidics Module contains tailored physics interfaces for the simulation of
microfluidic devices, including creeping flow, multiphase flow, electrokinetic effects,
and slip flow.

About the MEMS Module

The MEMS Module is a collection of physics interfaces for the simulation of MEMS
devices. It has a range of tools to address the specific challenges of modeling
microsystems. It includes physics interfaces to model electromechanics (used for
modeling electrostatically actuated structures), solid mechanics, piezoelectricity,
piezoresistivity, and electrical circuits (which can be straightforwardly coupled to
domain models). There are several predefined interfaces to model thermal-structural
interactions, including the Thermoelasticity interface (for modeling damping in high
quality factor resonators), Joule Heating with Thermal Expansion (for modeling
thermal actuators), and the Thermal Stress interface (used for modeling thermal
stresses when thermal gradients are present within devices). The Fluid-Structure
Interaction interface implements a fully bidirectional coupling between fluid flow and
structural motion, including the viscous, pressure, and inertial fluid forces as well as
momentum transfer from the solid to the fluid. Finally the Thin-Film Flow interfaces
allow thin layers of fluid to be modeled in an efficient manner and can be
straightforwardly coupled to structural displacement to model damping phenomena,
even under rarefied conditions.

COMSOL Multiphysics is uniquely transparent because the model equations are

always visible and you have complete freedom in the definition of phenomena that are
not predefined in the module.

ABOUT THE MEMS MODULE | 13

 The MEMS Module Application Library and supporting documentation explain how
to use the physics interfaces to model a range of MEMS devices.

• Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

• Physics and Scaling for MEMS Devices
• The MEMS Module Study Capabilities by Physics Interface

The MEMS Module Physics Interface Guide

The MEMS Module extends the functionality of the physics interfaces of the base
package for COMSOL Multiphysics. The details of the physics interfaces and study
types for the MEMS Module are listed in the table. The functionality of the COMSOL
Multiphysics base package is given in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE

DIMENSION

AC/DC

Electric Currents1 ec all dimensions stationary; stationary

source sweep; frequency
domain; time dependent;
small signal analysis,
frequency domain;
eigenfrequency
Electric Currents in Shells ecis 3D stationary; frequency
domain; time dependent;
eigenfrequency
Electric Currents in ecis 3D stationary; frequency
Layered Shells domain; time dependent;
eigenfrequency

14 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Electrical Circuit cir Not space stationary; frequency

dependent domain; time dependent;
frequency domain;
eigenfrequency
Electrostatics1 es all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
stationary source sweep;
eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; small signal
analysis, frequency domain
Elastic Waves

Elastic Waves, Time elte 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent

Explicit axisymmetric
Piezoelectric Waves, — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent
Time Explicit axisymmetric
Transport in Solids ts all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Fluid Flow

Single-Phase Flow

Laminar Flow1 spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Fluid-Structure Interaction

Fluid–Solid — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Interaction2 axisymmetric
Conjugate Heat — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Transfer, Fluid–Solid axisymmetric
Interaction2
Fluid–Solid Interaction, — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent; time
Viscoelastic Flow2,7 axisymmetric dependent with phase
initialization
Fluid–Solid Interaction, — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent; time
Two-Phase Flow, Phase axisymmetric dependent with phase
Field2,6 initialization

ABOUT THE MEMS MODULE | 15

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Solid–Thin-Film — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;

Damping2 axisymmetric time dependent; time
dependent, modal; time
dependent, modal
reduced-order model;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
frequency domain, modal
reduced-order model; time
dependent; response
spectrum; random
vibration (PSD)
Shell–Thin-Film — 3D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
Damping2 axisymmetric time dependent; time
dependent, modal; time
dependent, modal
reduced-order model;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
frequency domain, modal
reduced-order model; time
dependent; response
spectrum; random
vibration (PSD)
Thin-Film Flow

Thin–Film Flow tff 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric frequency domain;
eigenfrequency
Thin–Film Flow, tff 2D stationary; time dependent;
Domain frequency domain;
eigenfrequency
Electromagnetic Heating

Joule Heating1,2 — all dimensions stationary; time dependent;

small-signal analysis;
frequency domain
Pyroelectricity — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric

16 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Structural Mechanics

Solid Mechanics1 solid 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;

axisymmetric, eigenfrequency,
1D, 1D prestressed; mode analysis;
axisymmetric time dependent; time
dependent, modal; time
dependent, modal
reduced-order model;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
frequency domain,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed,
modal; frequency domain,
modal reduced-order
model; frequency domain,
AWE reduced-order
model; response spectrum;
random vibration (PSD);
linear buckling
Phase Field Damage8 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric

Thermal–Structure Interaction

Thermal Stress, Solid2 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Joule Heating and — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Thermal Expansion2 axisymmetric
Thermoelasticity2 — 3D, 2D, 2D eigenfrequency; frequency
axisymmetric domain; time dependent
Electromechanics

Electromechanics2 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency,

axisymmetric prestressed; time
dependent; frequency
domain, prestressed

ABOUT THE MEMS MODULE | 17

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Electromechanics, — 3D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency,

Boundary Elements2 prestressed; time
dependent; frequency
domain, prestressed
Piezoelectricity

Piezoelectricity, Solid2 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;

axisymmetric eigenfrequency,
prestressed; time
dependent; time
dependent, modal;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
frequency domain,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed,
modal; small-signal analysis,
frequency domain; linear
buckling
Piezoelectricity, — 3D stationary; eigenfrequency;
Layered Shell2,5 time dependent; frequency
domain
Piezoelectricity and — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
Pyroelectricity2 axisymmetric eigenfrequency,
prestressed; time
dependent; time
dependent, modal;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
frequency domain,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed,
modal; small-signal analysis,
frequency domain; linear
buckling
Magnetomechanics

18 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Piezomagnetism2,3 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;

axisymmetric time dependent; frequency
domain; small-signal
analysis, frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed
Nonlinear — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
Magnetostriction2,3 axisymmetric time dependent; frequency
domain; small-signal
analysis, frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed
Magnetomechanics2,3 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
axisymmetric time dependent; frequency
domain; small-signal
analysis, frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed
Magnetomechanics, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
No Currents2,3 axisymmetric time dependent; frequency
domain; small-signal
analysis, frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed
Electrostriction

Ferroelectroelasticity2 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric frequency domain
Electrostriction2 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric frequency domain

ABOUT THE MEMS MODULE | 19

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Piezoresistivity

Piezoresistivity, — 3D stationary; eigenfrequency;

Domain Currents2 time dependent; time
dependent, modal;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
small-signal analysis,
frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed
Piezoresistivity, — 3D stationary; eigenfrequency;
Boundary Currents2 time dependent; time
dependent, modal;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
small-signal analysis,
frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed
Piezoresistivity, Shell2,4 — 3D stationary; time dependent;
time dependent, modal;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
small-signal analysis,
frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed

20 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Piezoresistivity, — 3D stationary; time dependent;

Layered Shell2,5 time dependent, modal;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
small-signal analysis,
frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed
1
This physics interface is included with the core COMSOL package but has added
functionality for this module.
2
This physics interface is a predefined multiphysics coupling that automatically adds all the
physics interfaces and coupling features required.
3
Requires the addition of the AC/DC Module.
4
Requires the addition of the Structural Mechanics Module.
5 Requires the addition of the Composite Materials Module.
6
Requires the addition of the CFD Module, or the Polymer Flow Module or the
Microfluidics Module.
7 Requires the addition of the Polymer Flow Module.
8
Requires the addition of the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module.

Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes

There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display in COMSOL Multiphysics.

In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for

links to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

ABOUT THE MEMS MODULE | 21

 Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces
The MEMS Module connects to COMSOL Multiphysics and other add-on modules
in the COMSOL Multiphysics product line. You can view and modify the models in
terms of the underlying PDEs. Table 1-1 summarizes the most important MEMS
couplings and other common devices you can model using this module.

The first column of the table lists phenomena, couplings, and devices that are often
associated with the word electromechanical in the narrow and literal meaning of
MEMS. The devices in this category are usually various kinds of actuators and sensors.
The microfluidic devices, although using some of the same manufacturing and
miniaturizing techniques, form a totally different application area. The
Fluid-Structure Interaction column lists various techniques and phenomena that are
useful for both electromechanical and microfluidic applications, where movement and
deformation of solids are of concern.

This table, however, shows only the tip of the iceberg — our view of the most
important applications where you can use the MEMS Module. In your hands, the
multiphysics combinations and applications are unlimited.

TABLE 1-1: EXAMPLES OF COUPLED PHENOMENA AND DEVICES YOU CAN MODEL USING THE MEMS MODULE.

ELECTROMECHANICAL FLUID-STRUCTURE
INTERACTION

PHENOMENON/ Electrostructural Moving boundary using ALE

COUPLING
Electrothermal technique
Thermomechanical Squeeze-film damping
Thermal-electric-structural
Piezoelectric
Piezoresistive
Prestressed modal analysis
Stress stiffening
DEVICES Cantilever beams Mechanical pumps and valves
Comb drives
Resonators
Micromirrors
Thermomechanical actuators
Inertial sensors
Pressure sensors

22 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
THE MEMS MODULE STUDY CAPABILITIES BY PHYSICS INTERFACE
This section lists the physics interfaces, the physical quantities they solve for, and the
standard abbreviation each one uses. The physical quantities in these physics interfaces
are:

• The structural displacements or the velocity components u, v, and w

• The film pressure variation, pf
• The electric scalar potential, V
• The concentration, c

Table 1-2 lists the physics interfaces specific to MEMS modeling and this module.

When using the axisymmetric physics interfaces, the horizontal axis

represents the r direction and the vertical axis the z direction. The
geometry in the right half plane must be created, that is, only for positive
r.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

TABLE 1-2: MEMS MODULE INTERFACE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY OPTIONS.

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DEPENDENT PRESET STUDY OPTIONS

VARIABLES
TIME-DEPENDENT MODAL

SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS,

PRESTRESSED ANALYSIS,

PRESTRESSED ANALYSIS,
FREQUENCY. DOMAIN
FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
EIGENFREQUENCY

EIGENFREQUENCY
TIME DEPENDENT
STATIONARY

MODAL

AC/DC

Electrostatics es V  
Electric Currents ec V 
Electrical Circuit cir none   
FLUID FLOW

ABOUT THE MEMS MODULE | 23

 TABLE 1-2: MEMS MODULE INTERFACE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY OPTIONS.

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DEPENDENT PRESET STUDY OPTIONS

VARIABLES

TIME-DEPENDENT MODAL

SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS,

PRESTRESSED ANALYSIS,

PRESTRESSED ANALYSIS,
FREQUENCY. DOMAIN
FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
EIGENFREQUENCY

EIGENFREQUENCY
TIME DEPENDENT
STATIONARY

MODAL
Thin-Film Flow tff pf    
Thin-Film Flow, tff pf    
Domain
Fluid-Structure — u, v, w  
Interaction p
Fluid-Structure — u, v, w  
Interaction, Fixed p
Geometry
STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

Solid Mechanics solid u, v, w         

Piezoelectricity — u, v, w         
V
Thermal Stress — u, v, w     
T
Thermoelasticity te u, v, w   
T
Joule Heating and — u, v, w, T,      
Thermal Expansion V
Electromechanics emi u, v, w    
V
Piezoresistivity, pzrd u, v, w        
Domain Currents V

24 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
TABLE 1-2: MEMS MODULE INTERFACE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY OPTIONS.

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DEPENDENT PRESET STUDY OPTIONS

VARIABLES

TIME-DEPENDENT MODAL

SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS,

PRESTRESSED ANALYSIS,

PRESTRESSED ANALYSIS,
FREQUENCY. DOMAIN
FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
EIGENFREQUENCY

EIGENFREQUENCY
TIME DEPENDENT
STATIONARY

MODAL
Piezoresistivity, pzrb u, v, w        
Boundary V
Currents
Piezoresistivity, pzrs u, v, w        
Shell V, ar

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of online resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the Application Libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions on how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the electronic
Documentation and Help content.

Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to the features in the COMSOL Desktop.
To learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click

ABOUT THE MEMS MODULE | 25

 to highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder, click a node

or window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder or Physics Builder, click a node or window and then
press F1.
• In the main toolbar, click the Help ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Help.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• In the main toolbar, click the Documentation ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW

Each model or application includes documentation with the theoretical background
and step-by-step instructions to create a model or application. The models and
applications are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as MPH-files that you can open
for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as templates for your own modeling. In most models, SI units are used to

26 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions, but other unit systems
are available.

Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at [email protected].

COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
[email protected]. An automatic notification and a case number will be sent to you
by email. You can also access technical support, software updates, license information,
and other resources by registering for a COMSOL Access account.

COMSOL ONLINE RESOURCES

COMSOL website www.comsol.com

Contact COMSOL www.comsol.com/contact
COMSOL Access www.comsol.com/access
Support Center www.comsol.com/support
Product Download www.comsol.com/product-download
Product Updates www.comsol.com/product-update
COMSOL Blog www.comsol.com/blogs
Discussion Forum www.comsol.com/forum
Events www.comsol.com/events
COMSOL Application Gallery www.comsol.com/models
COMSOL Video Gallery www.comsol.com/videos
Support Knowledge Base www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase

ABOUT THE MEMS MODULE | 27

 Overview of the User’s Guide
The MEMS Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling MEMS systems
using COMSOL Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module.
Instructions how to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.

TABLE OF CONTENTS, GLOSSARY, AND INDEX

Use the Contents, Glossary of Terms, and Index to help you navigate through this
guide.

MEMS MODELING
Creating and Analyzing MEMS Models familiarizes you with modeling procedures
useful when working with this module and MEMS applications such as microactuators
and microsensors. Because the module is fully integrated with COMSOL Multiphysics,
the design and analysis process is similar to the one you use in the base environment.
The MEMS-specific modeling aspects should prove valuable during the modeling
phase. There is also a short section (with model examples) about the materials
databases available with this module.

THE AC/DC BRANCH

AC/DC Interfaces chapter describes the physics interfaces for modeling conducting
and nonconducting materials, including the enhanced versions of the Electrostatics
and Electric Currents interfaces. It also has all the information about the Electrical
Circuit interface. The Magnetic Fields interface is also included as part of the
COMSOL Multiphysics base package, but this is detailed in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE FLUID FLOW BRANCH

The types of momentum transport that you can simulate include laminar and thin-film
flow. The Laminar Flow interface is available with the base license and is described in
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual. Fluid Flow Interfaces chapter
describes the Thin-Film Flow and Fluid-Structure Interaction interfaces.

28 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The Thin-Film Flow Interfaces (in the CFD Module User’s Guide) can be added
either singularly or in combination with other physics interfaces such as mass and
energy transfer. The Thin-Film Flow interface is for 2D, 2D axisymmetric and 3D
models, and the Thin-Film Flow, Domain interface is for 2D models.

The Fluid–Solid Interaction Interface (in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s
Guide) is an interface found under the Fluid Flow branch. It has the equations and
physics for fluid-structure interaction, solving for the displacements, fluid velocity, and
fluid pressure. You have access to all functionality from the Solid Mechanics interface
and Single-Phase Flow interfaces for modeling the solid and fluid domains. From the
Laminar Flow (the default) and Solid Mechanics submenus on the solid and boundary
level you can access materials, sources, loads, and boundary conditions for the
individual physics interfaces.

Fluid–Structure Interaction, Fixed Geometry multiphysics coupling (in the Structural

Mechanics Module User’s Guide) can be used to model phenomena where a fluid and
a deformable solid structure affect each other. Both the fluid loading on the structure
and the structural velocity transmission to the fluid can be taken into account. The
interface models situations where the displacements of the solid are assumed to be
small enough for the geometry of the fluid domain to be considered as fixed during
the interaction.

THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS BRANCH

Structural Mechanics Interfaces chapter describes the Solid Mechanics,
Piezoelectricity, Thermal Stress, Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion, and
Electromechanics interfaces.

The Solid Mechanics Interface

The Electromechanics Interface has the equations and physics features for stress
analysis and general linear solid mechanics, solving for the displacements.

The Piezoelectricity Interface

The Piezoelectricity Interface, Solid combines piezoelectricity with solid mechanics
and electrostatics for modeling of piezoelectric devices where all or some of the
domains contain a piezoelectric material. The piezoelectric coupling can be on
stress-charge or strain-charge form.

The Thermal Stress Interface

The Electromechanics Interface combines Solid Mechanics and Heat Transfer for
modeling stress analysis and general linear and nonlinear solid mechanics by solving for
the displacements.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 29

 The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface
The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface combines solid mechanics using
a thermal linear elastic material with an electromagnetic Joule heating model. This is a
multiphysics combination of solid mechanics, electric currents, and heat transfer for
modeling of, for example, thermoelectromechanical (TEM) applications.

The Electromechanics Interface

The Electromechanics Interface combines solid mechanics and electrostatics with a
moving mesh to model the deformation of electrostatically actuated structures. The
physics interface is also compatible with piezoelectric materials.

The Thermoelasticity Interface

The Thermoelasticity Interface combines the Solid Mechanics and Thermal Stress
interfaces, together with the thermoelastic coupling terms. These coupling terms
result in local cooling of material under tension and heating of material that is
compressed. The resulting irreversible heat transfer between warm and cool regions of
the solid produces mechanical losses, which can be important, particularly for small
structures.

THE PIEZORESISTIVITY BRANCH

These physics interfaces are appropriate for modeling piezoresistivity under various
assumptions.

The Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents Interface is appropriate for situations when the
thickness of the conducting and piezoresistive layers are both resolved by the mesh.

The Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents Interface should be used when the thicknesses
of the conducting and piezoresistive layers are much smaller than those of the
structural layers (this is often the case in practice).

The Piezoresistivity, Shell Interface is used when the structural layer is thin enough to
be treated by the shell interface, but the conducting and piezoresistive layers are still
much thinner than the structural layers.

30 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

Creating and Analyzing MEMS Models

This chapter gives an overview of the physics interfaces and features available for
modeling MEMS devices in COMSOL Multiphysics®.

In this chapter:

• Physics and Scaling for MEMS Devices

• General Tools for MEMS Modeling
• Structural Mechanics
• Electrostatics
• Piezoresistivity
• Thermal Effects in MEMS Devices
• Microfluidics
• Connecting to Electrical Circuits
• SPICE Import and Export

| 31
 Physics and Scaling for MEMS Devices
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) is a term that covers a broad range of
manufactured mechanical components characterized by a small size. Many of these
devices are fabricated with micron-scale dimension and represent mixed
mechanical/electrical systems, although the term now encompasses systems that do
not necessarily contain electrical parts, such as microfluidic devices. Thousands of
MEMS devices can be batch fabricated on a single wafer, using technologies derived
from the semiconductor industry. As a result of the smaller size and reduced
manufacturing costs, MEMS-based equivalents of macroscopic devices such as
accelerometers have been able to penetrate new markets. Additionally, MEMS
technology has enabled entirely new devices to be created, such as the micromirror
arrays that enable Texas Instruments’ DLP projectors.

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

The smaller size of MEMS devices has important effects on the physical processes that
govern their operation (Ref. 1). In general, as the length scale (L) of the device is
reduced, the scaling of a physical effect with respect to L determines its relative
importance (see Table 2-1). The inertial force required to produce a fixed acceleration
of a solid body scales volumetrically as L3. The scaling of other forces in comparison
to this inertial force has important consequences for MEMS devices. For example, the
effective spring constant for a body scales as L1. The spring stiffness therefore
decreases much more slowly than the system mass as the size of the system is reduced,
resulting in higher resonant frequencies for smaller devices (resonant frequency scales
as L1). This means that micromechanical systems typically have higher operating
frequencies and faster response times than macroscopic systems.

See Structural Mechanics for more information about modeling the

mechanics of MEMS devices.

Electrostatic forces scale favorably as the device dimensions are reduced (for example,
the force between parallel plates with a fixed applied voltage scales as L0) (see
Table 2-1). Additionally, electrostatic actuators consume no DC power and can be

32 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

manufactured using processes that are compatible with standard semiconductor
foundries. In comparison, magnetic actuators scale less favorably (for example, the
force between wires carrying a fixed current density scales as L4) and can involve
materials that are incompatible with standard semiconductor processing. In some cases
magnetic actuators or sensors require a DC bias current, which increases power
consumption. These factors explain the prevalence of electrostatic actuation and
sensing and the absence of magnetically actuated commercial MEMS devices.
TABLE 2-1: SCALING OF VARIOUS PHYSICAL PHENOMENA WITH DECREASING LENGTH (L) AND THE
CONSEQUENCES FOR MEMS DEVICES.

PROPERTY LENGTH CONSEQUENCES

SCALING

Volume L3 Surface related properties increase in

Area L 2 importance relative to volumetric properties,
Surface area to volume ratios are high.
Inertial Forces L3 How other forces scale with respect to inertial
forces determines how effective device
actuation is.
Spring Constant L1 Spring constant to mass ratio is reduced. Higher
1 resonant frequencies, faster response times.
Resonant Frequency L
Electrostatic force L0 Electrostatic actuation becomes more efficient
(parallel plates, constant and is widely used in MEMS devices.
voltage)
Magnetic force (parallel L4 Magnetic actuation scales poorly; there are no
wires, constant current commercial magnetically actuated devices.
density)
Piezoelectric force L1 Piezoelectric actuation is efficient
(constant voltage) (manufacturing difficulties have hindered
commercial adoption).
Thermal force (constant L2 Thermal actuation is efficient and fast. However,
temperature difference) power consumption is typically greater than
Thermal time scale L2 other methods.

Squeeze film damping L1 Squeeze film damping becomes relatively more

force important.

Electrostatically actuated and sensed MEMS devices dominate the market for inertial
sensors (usually employed in the automobile and consumer electronics industries).
Magnetic MEMS devices can also be modeled in COMSOL Multiphysics, but since

PHYSICS AND SCALING FOR MEMS DEVICES | 33

 these are less common, the AC/DC Module is required in addition to the MEMS
Module.

See Electrostatics for information about how to model electrostatic

phenomena in MEMS devices.

Piezoelectric forces also scale well as the device dimension is reduced (the force
produced by a constant applied voltage scales as L1). Furthermore, piezoelectric
sensors and actuators are predominantly linear and do not consume DC power in
operation. Piezoelectrics are more difficult to integrate with standard semiconductor
processes, but significant progress has been made with commercial successes in the
market (for example, Avago Technologies (formerly Agilent/HP) FBAR filters). High
frequency FBAR resonators fabricated from aluminum nitride thin films on silicon
wafers are now widely used as filters used in consumer devices such as mobile phones.

Modeling Piezoelectric Problems

Thermal forces scale as L2, assuming that the forces are generated by a fixed
temperature change. This scaling is still favorable in comparison to inertial forces, and
the thermal time scale also scales well (as L2), making thermal actuators faster on the
microscale (although thermal actuators are typically slower than capacitive or
piezoelectric actuators). Thermal actuators are also easy to integrate with
semiconductor processes although they usually consume large amounts of power and
thus have had a limited commercial applicability. Thermal effects play an important
role in the manufacture of many commercial MEMS technologies with thermal stresses
in deposited thin films being critical for many applications.

See Thermal Effects in MEMS Devices, which discusses thermal actuation

and stresses in more detail.

The interaction of MEMS devices with a fluid leads to a range of microfluidic devices.
COMSOL also has the Microfluidics Module, which is geared to model microfluidic
devices, but some functionality to model fluids is included with the MEMS Module.
In particular, the interaction of moving components with a fluid can be modeled using
the Fluid-Structure Interaction Interface. In addition to modeling microfluidic
actuators, this multiphysics interface can be used to model the damping of moving

34 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

structures in an air ambient. Damping in MEMS devices is often more conveniently
modeled by treating the air as a thin layer and solving the Reynolds equations (or a
modified form). These equations are also included in this module. The damping forces
scale as L1 and are often important for MEMS devices, frequently leading to a
requirement for vacuum packaging.

Microfluidics

This discussion has focused on actuators; however, many of the actuators discussed can
also be used as sensors. Many MEMS devices (for example, gyroscopes and resonant
sensors) require both actuators and sensors to be integrated into the same device.
Electrostatic, magnetic, piezoelectric, and even thermal devices have all been employed
as MEMS sensors. Another commonly used sensing mechanism found in commercial
MEMS devices is that of piezoresistivity. The piezoresistive effect refers to the change
in a material’s conductivity that occurs in response to an applied stress. Piezoresistors
are relatively easy to manufacture using common semiconductor processes and are
inherently shielded from electromagnetic interference, and it is usually straightforward
to implement electronics to interface with them. Pressure sensors based on the
piezoresistive effect were some of the first MEMS devices to be mass produced.
Piezoresistive devices do, however, usually consume more power and generate more
electrical noise than capacitive sensors, which are displacing piezoresistive devices in
some applications.

Piezoresistivity

PHYSICS AND SCALING FOR MEMS DEVICES | 35

 Ge ne r a l T o o ls for ME MS Mod el i n g
Several tools are required to model MEMS devices in addition to the
application-specific physics interfaces. These are discussed in the following sections:

• Infinite Elements and Perfectly Matched Layers

• Electrical Circuits
• Reduced-Order Modeling and Equivalent Circuits
• Importing Mask Data
• About the Material Libraries for the MEMS Module

Infinite Elements and Perfectly Matched Layers

Infinite elements and perfectly matched layers (PMLs) are frequently required when
modeling MEMS devices.

• Infinite elements are used in stationary or transient computations enabling a (finite

sized) region of the model to represent a region stretching out to infinity. This
applies to problems where the solution varies without oscillation in the infinite
domain, a typical MEMS application is to compute the capacitance of a structure in
a surrounding air ambient.
• Perfectly matched layers enable outgoing waves in a frequency domain model to be
perfectly adsorbed. A typical MEMS application is to use PMLs to compute the
anchor losses for a vibrating structure.

Infinite Elements, Perfectly Matched Layers, and Absorbing Layers in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Electrical Circuits
Many MEMS devices include accompanying electrical circuits, either integrated on the
same chip or, increasingly, through connections to an adjacent chip that is packaged
with the device. COMSOL Multiphysics includes tools to connect physical finite

36 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

element models to electrical circuits as well as an Electric Circuits interface to model
the circuits themselves.

The Connecting to Electrical Circuits section discusses how to use

COMSOL Multiphysics in conjunction with external circuits.

Reduced-Order Modeling and Equivalent Circuits

Reduced-order modeling seeks to reduce the number of degrees of freedom in a
physical model, whilst still retaining the essential physics. It is frequently used in the
design of resonant MEMS devices, which are usually designed to operate with the
system vibrating in a particular mode. For a lightly damped resonant system driven at
one of its resonant frequencies, it is reasonable to consider only the contributions to
the system of a small number (m) of modes within the signal bandwidth. In some cases
a single mode is sufficient. A system with n degrees of freedom has mass, stiffness, and
damping matrices of size n-by-n. A reduced-order representation of the system
considering m modes has size m-by-m. The reduction in complexity of the system, and
the computational speed up is therefore significant when m « n. Determining a
suitable reduced-order model of a complex system is a common simulation goal for
MEMS designers. Frequently this is implemented as an equivalent circuit that can
easily be integrated with SPICE models of the system as a whole. This section describes
the theory of the reduced-order system and gives guidelines on how to obtain
reduced-order models from a COMSOL Multiphysics model.

THE MODAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

Consider a mechanical system, with n degrees of freedom, described by an equation of
the form

ꞏꞏ + Duꞏ + Ku = F
Mu (2-1)

where u is the displacement vector (size: n-by-1), K is the stiffness matrix (size:
n-by-n), D is the damping matrix (size: n-by-n), and M is the mass matrix (size:
n-by-n). In the frequency domain the problem takes the form

2
–  M u 0 + iDu 0 + Ku 0 = F

where u = u0eit.

GENERAL TOOLS FOR MEMS MODELING | 37

 Initially consider the system in the absence of damping and forces. The undamped
system has n eigenvalues i, which satisfy the equation

2
Kû i =  i Mû i (2-2)

These eigenvectors are orthogonal with respect to M, as can be seen from the
following construction, based on Equation 2-2:

T 2 T
û j Kû i –  i û j Mû i = 0
T 2 T
û i Kû j –  j û i Mû j = 0
T 2 T T T 2 T
 û i Kû j –  j û i Mû j  = û j Kû i –  j û j Mû i = 0

using the results MT  M, and KT  K, which apply for physical reasons. Subtracting
the first equation from the third gives:

2 2 T
–   j –  i û j Mû i = 0

so provided that the eigenfrequency are different:

T
û j Mû i = 0 i  j , i  j (2-3)

Note that the above equations also imply

T
û j Kû i = 0 i  j , i  j (2-4)

Next the following n-by-n matrix is constructed, with columns taken from the n
eigenvectors:

U = û 1 , û 2  û n

Then consider the following matrix:

38 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

 T T
û 1 Mû 1 û 1 Mû 2
T T
û 2 Mû 1 û 2 Mû 2
T
U MU =
T T
û n – 1 Mû n – 1 û n – 1 Mû n
T T
û n Mû n – 1 û n Mû n

From Equation 2-3 it is clear that this is a diagonal matrix. Similarly from Equation 2-4
it is clear that UTKU is also diagonal.

From the properties of the eigenvectors it is possible to expand any function in terms
of the eigenvectors. Thus the displacement u can be written as:

u =  ai ûi
i=1

This equation can also be expressed in the form:

u = Ua (2-5)

where a is a column vector containing the coefficients ai as rows. In general a is time

dependent.

Now consider the original equation: Equation 2-1. First substitute for u using
Equation 2-5. Then transform the equation to the modal coordinate system by
premultiplying by UT. This gives:

T ꞏꞏ + U T DUaꞏ + U T KUa = U T F
U MUa (2-6)

It has already been established that the matrices UTMU and UTKU are diagonal, and
frequently a damping model is chosen that results in a diagonal damping matrix. For
example, in Rayleigh damping D  M + K, where  and  are constants.
Alternatively, a damping ratio, i, is assigned to each mode.

EIGENVALUE SCALING AND EQUIVALENT ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL

SYSTEMS
The precise form of Equation 2-6 is determined by the normalization adopted for the
eigenfunctions. In structural applications the eigenfunctions are often normalized such
that UTMU  I. This is referred to as mass matrix scaling in the eigenvalue solver. In
this case Equation 2-2 gives

GENERAL TOOLS FOR MEMS MODELING | 39

 T 2 T 2
û i Kû i =  i û i Mû i =  i

so that

T 2
U KU = diag   i 

where diag(i2) is the diagonal matrix with diagonal elements i2. Similarly, if
damping ratios for each mode are defined, the damping matrix can be expressed in the
form

T
U DU = diag  2 i  i 

Thus if mass matrix scaling is used Equation 2-6 takes the form

ꞏꞏ + diag  2  aꞏ + diag   2 a = U T F

a (2-7)
i i i

In MEMS applications it is common to scale the eigenvectors so that the point of

maximum displacement has unit displacement magnitude. This is referred to as max
scaling in the eigenvalue solver. For an individual mode this scaling has a simple
physical interpretation — the corresponding component of a, ai, is the amplitude of
the ith mode, measured at the point of maximum displacement, when the mode is
driven by the force F. In this case Equation 2-6 takes the form

ꞏꞏ + diag  c
diag  m eff , i a ꞏ T
eff , i a + diag  k eff , i a = U F (2-8)

Here meff,i is the effective mass of the ith mode, ceff,i = 2meff,iii is the effective
damping parameter for the mode, and keff,i is the effective spring constant. Each
element of the vector UTF gives the force component that acts on each of the
respective modes.

For electromechanical systems it is common to express the force term, UTF, in terms
of a driving voltage, V, applied to a terminal in the system. Given this:

T
U F = V

here the vector  has components i which correspond to the electromechanical

coupling factor for each of the modes in the system. Equation 2-8 now takes the form

ꞏꞏ + diag  c
diag  m eff , i a ꞏ
eff , i a + diag  k eff , i a = V (2-9)

40 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

To obtain the electromechanical coupling coefficients for a set of modes, it is possible
to apply a 1 V signal to the system and then compute the induced forces: UTF  .
Reciprocally, energy conserving transducers also have the property that the current
that flows into the transducer when it is operating in a particular mode (imot,i) is
related to the displacement through the equation

ꞏ
i mot , i =  i a i

So Equation 2-9 can be rewritten in the form

 m eff , i di  c eff , i  k eff , i

diag  --------------
 i  2
- + diag  ------------
d t  i  2
  2i  
- i + diag  ------------
- i dt = V (2-10)

For each mode, the terms on the left of Equation 2-10 can be identified with a resistor
capacitor and inductor, such that the mechanical system behaves like a set of parallel
series LCR circuits. The equivalent modal resistances, capacitances, and inductances
are given by:

m eff , i
L i = --------------
-
2
i
c eff , i
R i = ------------
-
2
i
2
i
C i = ------------
-
k eff , i

For a given mode, these quantities are frequently referred to as the motional
inductance, resistance, and capacitance.

REDUCED-ORDER MODELS
The preceding discussion did not consider how to reduce the number of degrees of
freedom in the system. For systems in which the vector UTF has only a few significant
components (for example, components i = 1, …, m where m « n) the following
approximation can be made:

u  ai ûi
i=1

The expression for u in matrix becomes:

GENERAL TOOLS FOR MEMS MODELING | 41

 u = U'a'

where U' is now an m-by-n and a' is a vector with m components. The equation
system in modal coordinates now takes the form

T ꞏꞏ + U' T DU'a'
U' MU'a' ꞏ + U' T KU'a' = U' T F (2-11)

The matrices U'TMU', U'TDU', and U'TKU' now have dimensions m-by-m. Similarly
the vector U'TF has m components. This results in a significant reduction in the
system complexity.

REDUCED-ORDER MODELS WITH PHYSICAL DAMPING

If physically relevant damping is present in the system, the above theory must be
modified as the damping matrix is no longer diagonal in the modal coordinate system.
COMSOL can still handle this case as the modal solver does not make the assumption
that any of the matrices are diagonal. In this case the eigenvalues become complex and
the eigenvectors split into right and left eigenvectors. The right eigenvectors Ur are
solutions of the equation:

2
–  i M û r ,i + i i Dû r ,i + Kû r ,i = F

As in the previous section, for a reduced set of modes, it is assumed that:

u = U' r a'

where U'r is the n-by-m matrix containing the right eigenvectors chosen for the modal
analysis. Once again a' is a vector with m components. The system in modal
coordinates takes the form

T ꞏꞏ + U' T DU' a'

U' l MU' r a' ꞏ T T
l r + U' l KU' r a' = U' l F

where U'l is the n-by-m matrix containing the left eigenvectors chosen for the modal
analysis.

The matrices U'lTMU'r, U'lTDU'r, and U'lTKU'r are no longer necessarily diagonal.
The modal solver accepts any linearly independent set of vectors to project the solution
vector and equations onto and constructs the reduced-order system accordingly.

42 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

ACCESSING THE REDUCED-ORDER MODEL MATRICES
The Model Reduction and Modal Reduced-Order Model study steps have the property that
they can assemble the modal matrices and make them available for output. In the Model
Reduction node, the Store reduced matrices check box must be selected.

After the model has solved, right-click the Results>Derived Values node and select
System Matrices. In the output section choose the Matrix to display in the list. The mass
matrix corresponds to the matrix U'lTMU'r the stiffness matrix corresponds to
U'lTKU'r, and the damping matrix corresponds to U'lTDU'r. The vector U'lTF is
available as the load vector. These matrices are given in a format that respects the
normalization of the preceding Eigenvalue Solver. To change this select the Eigenvalue
Solver node, and change the Scaling of Eigenvectors setting under the Output section.
Use the Max setting if an equivalent Mass-Spring-Damper system is required, in which
case the modal amplitude corresponds to the maximum displacement of the mode.

To convert this into an equivalent circuit representation, see the discussion in the
section Eigenvalue scaling and Equivalent Electrical and Mechanical Systems.

Importing Mask Data

The semiconductor processes used to manufacture MEMS devices are usually specified
layer by layer through the definition of a mask set. It is often convenient to use these
mask sets when building models of the 3D devices in COMSOL Multiphysics.

Use the ECAD Import Module to import mask data into COMSOL
Multiphysics. See the ECAD Import Module User’s Guide or go to
https://www.comsol.com/ecad-import-module for more information
about this and other COMSOL products.

About the Material Libraries for the MEMS Module

The MEMS Module includes these material libraries:

• MEMS, an extended solid materials library with metals, semiconductors, insulators,

and polymers common in MEMS devices.
• Piezoelectric, with over 20 common piezoelectric materials. The materials include
temperature-dependent fluid dynamic and thermal properties.
• Piezoresistivity, with four materials each with seven material properties.

GENERAL TOOLS FOR MEMS MODELING | 43

 In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• MEMS Material Library

• Piezoelectric Materials Library
• Piezoresistivity Material Library
• Materials

For an example of the MEMS materials database, see Microresistor Beam:

Application Library path MEMS_Module/Actuators/microresistor_beam.

For examples of the Piezoelectric materials database, see:

• Piezoelectric Shear-Actuated Beam: Application Library path

MEMS_Module/Piezoelectric_Devices/shear_bender
• Piezoceramic Tube: Application Library path
MEMS_Module/Piezoelectric_Devices/piezoceramic_tube

For examples of the Piezoresistivity materials database, see:

• Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor: Application Library path

MEMS_Module/Sensors/piezoresistive_pressure_sensor
• Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings: Application Library path
MEMS_Module/Sensors/piezoresistive_pressure_sensor_shell

44 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

Structural Mechanics
Many of the COMSOL Multiphysics structural mechanics physics interfaces are
available in the MEMS Module and are found under the Structural Mechanics
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface.

Many important aspects of the creation of structural mechanics models are covered in
the chapter Structural Mechanics Modeling in the Structural Mechanics Module
User’s Guide. The following sections are of special importance for MEMS modeling;

• Selecting the Physics Interface

• Applying Loads
• Defining Constraints
• Calculating Reaction Forces
• Modeling Piezoelectric Problems
• Mechanical Damping and Losses
• Modeling Geometric Nonlinearity
• Contact Modeling
• Springs and Dampers
• Defining Multiphysics Models
• Thermally Coupled Problems
• Solver Settings for Structural Mechanics

In the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide

• The Solid Mechanics Interface

• Structural Mechanics Theory

The links to external guides, such as the Structural Mechanics Module

User’s Guide, do not work in the PDF, only from the online help in
COMSOL Multiphysics.

STRUCTURAL MECHANICS | 45
 Damping and Losses
For frequency domain (eigenfrequency or frequency domain studies) and transient
simulations it is often necessary to include damping in the model. This is particularly
important for resonant MEMS devices.

Within COMSOL Multiphysics, damping can be modeled explicitly by coupling the

relevant physics interfaces into the model. Examples of such couplings include:

• Modeling the movement of the structure through a fluid directly by means of a

complete fluid-structure interaction model. This can be done using the
Fluid-Structure Interaction interface.
• Modeling thin films of a fluid using The Thin-Film Flow Interfaces (in the CFD
Module User’s Guide), or by means of the thin film damping boundary condition,
integrated into the structural mechanics physics interfaces.
• Modeling thermoelastic damping explicitly by including heat transfer and the
relevant thermodynamics in the model. See The Thermoelasticity Interface.
• Modeling acoustic losses through anchor structures in the frequency domain using
a perfectly matched layer.

Infinite Elements, Perfectly Matched Layers, and Absorbing Layers in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

• Modeling losses through anchor structures in the time domain using a spring
damper system.

In the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide

• The Fluid–Solid Interaction Interface

• Mechanical Damping and Losses
• Springs and Dampers

46 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

Electrostatics
Most MEMS devices meet the electroquasistatic criterion (Ref. 2) in which the
wavelength of the applied fields is substantially larger than the modeled device. The
electric field can therefore be treated as quasi static and The Electrostatics Interface or
The Electric Currents Interface can be used.

In this section:

• Electrostatics
• Electric Currents in Conductive Media
• Lumped Parameters

Electrostatics
The Electrostatics Interface solves for the electric potential V using the equation

–     V  = 

For most MEMS devices the details of the charge distribution, , inside material are
unimportant and the charge usually resides only on surfaces held at fixed potentials.
The Electric Potential, Ground, and Terminal boundary conditions are usually used to
fix the potential on the surfaces of a MEMS device. At symmetry boundaries the Zero
Charge boundary condition applies. To represent infinite regions adjacent to the
model a common approach is to use infinite elements. Note that it is possible to model
electric circuits associated with a terminal, as described in the Connecting to Electrical
Circuits section.

Infinite Elements, Perfectly Matched Layers, and Absorbing Layers in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

ELECTROSTATIC FORCES
The Maxwell stress tensor is a general method for calculating electromagnetic forces
and torques. Force and torque calculations using Maxwell’s stress tensor are available
in the Electrostatics interface. In electrostatics the force is calculated by integrating

1 T
n 1 T 2 = – --- n 1  E  D  +  n 1  E D (2-12)
2

ELECTROSTATICS | 47
 on the surface of the object that the force acts on where E is the electric field, D the
electric displacement, and n1 the outward normal from the object.

In practice, electric fields are modeled not only in the air but also inside the solid
materials. By entering the electromagnetic force variable name into the domain
settings, the force calculations are activated, and the physics interface automatically
generates new domain and boundary variables.

The form of the stress tensor in Equation 2-12 assumes no material

electrostriction. Support for isotropic electrostriction is included in The
Electromechanics Interface.

CAPACITANCE CALCULATIONS
The capacitance of a system can be computed using the functionality built into the
Terminal boundary condition. This is discussed in more detail in the section Lumped
Parameters.

Electric Currents in Conductive Media

The Electric Currents Interface uses the equation

e
–     V – J  = Q j

where  is the conductivity, Je is an externally generated current density, and Qj is the

volume current source, which is usually zero in MEMS applications. Current flow
through the device is specified by means of the Normal Current Density and Electric
Insulation physics nodes. The Electric Potential, Ground, and Terminal physics nodes
are frequently employed to specify constant potential surfaces, which can also act as
current sources or sinks.

Conductors in MEMS designs are often thin sheets. For cases in which large aspect
ratio differences occur it is often convenient to represent thin layers using a planar
approximation.

48 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

RESISTANCE AND CONDUCTANCE CALCULATIONS
Use Terminal boundary conditions to calculate resistances or conductances of the
system. For more details see the Lumped Parameters section.

Thin-Film Resistance: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Electromagnetics/thin_film_resistance

Lumped Parameters
Lumped parameters are matrices describing electromagnetic properties such as
resistance, capacitance, and inductance. In the time-harmonic case the lumped
parameter matrix is either an impedance matrix or an admittance matrix depending on
how the model is excited (current or voltage). In a static calculation only the resistive,
capacitive, or inductive part of the lumped parameter matrix is obtained.

CALCULATING LUMPED PARAMETERS WITH OHM’S LAW

To calculate the lumped parameters, there must be at least two electrodes in the
system, one of which must be grounded. Either a voltage or a current can be forced
on the electrodes. After the simulation, extract the other property or the energy and
use it when calculating the lumped parameter.

There are several available techniques to extract the lumped parameters. Which one to
use depends on the physics interface, the parameter of interest, and how the model is
solved. The overview of the techniques in this section use a 4-by-4 matrix example for
the lumped parameter matrix. This represents a system of at least five electrodes, where
four are used as terminals and the rest are grounded, as illustrated in Figure 2-1.

V1 V3

Ground

V2 V4

Figure 2-1: A five-electrode system with 4 terminals and one ground electrode.

If a system specifies that all electrodes are terminals, the results are redundant matrix
elements. This is better understood by considering a two-electrode system. If both

ELECTROSTATICS | 49
 electrodes are declared as terminals, a 2-by-2 matrix is obtained for the system. This is
clearly too many elements because there is only one unique lumped parameter between
the terminals. If in addition one or more ground electrodes are declared, the system
has three unique electrodes and the lumped parameter matrix becomes a 2-by-2
matrix.

FORCED VOLTAGE
If voltages are applied to the terminals, the extracted currents represent elements in the
admittance matrix, Y. This matrix determines the relation between the applied voltages
and the corresponding currents with the formula

I1 Y 11 Y 12 Y 13 Y 14 V 1
I2 Y 21 Y 22 Y 23 Y 24 V 2
=
I4 Y 31 Y 32 Y 33 Y 34 V 3
I4 Y 41 Y 42 Y 43 Y 44 V 4

so when V1 is nonzero and all other voltages are zero, the vector I is proportional to
the first column of Y.

In electrostatics the current is replaced with charge and the admittance matrix is
replaced with the capacitance matrix

Q1 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 V 1
Q2 C 21 C 22 C 23 C 24 V 2
=
Q4 C 31 C 32 C 33 C 34 V 3
Q4 C 41 C 42 C 43 C 44 V 4

FIXED CURRENT
It might be necessary to calculate the Z-matrix in a more direct way. Similar to the Y
calculation, the Z calculation can be done by forcing the current through one terminal
at the time to a nonzero value while the others are set to zero. Then, the columns of
the impedance matrix are proportional to the voltage values on all terminals:

V1 Z 11 Z 12 Z 13 Z 14 I 1
V2 Z 21 Z 22 Z 23 Z 24 I 2
=
V3 Z 31 Z 32 Z 33 Z 34 I 3
V4 Z 41 Z 42 Z 43 Z 44 I 4

50 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

FIXED CHARGE
The Electrostatics interface can use total charge instead of total current. This gives the
inverted capacitance matrix in a similar manner as the Z and Y matrices.

–1
V1 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 Q1
V2 C 21 C 22 C 23 C 24 Q2
=
V3 C 31 C 32 C 33 C 34 Q4
V4 C 41 C 42 C 43 C 44 Q4

CALCULATING LUMPED PARAMETERS USING THE ENERGY METHOD

When using this method the potential or the current is nonzero on one or two
terminals at a time and the energy density is extracted and integrated over the whole
geometry. The following formulas show how to calculate the capacitance matrix from
the integral of the electric energy density.

2  0 ji
Vi 

C ii = ------2- W e d Vj = 
 Vi j = i

0 k  i j
1 Vi Vj 
C ij = ------------ W e d – ---  ------ C + ------ C jj
1
Vi Vj  2  V j ii V i 
Vk =  Vi

k = i

 Vj k = j

S-PARAMETERS
Scattering parameters (or S-parameters) are complex-valued, frequency-dependent
matrices describing the transmission and reflection of electromagnetic waves at
different ports of devices like filters, antennas, waveguide transitions, and transmission
lines. S-parameters originate from transmission-line theory and are defined in terms of
transmitted and reflected voltage waves. All ports are assumed to be connected to
matched loads/feeds, that is, there is no reflection directly at a port.

For a device with n ports, the S-parameters are

S 11 S 12 . . S 1n
S 21 S 22 . . .
S = . . . . .
. . . . .
S n1 . . . S nn

ELECTROSTATICS | 51
 where S11 is the voltage reflection coefficient at port 1, S21 is the voltage transmission
coefficient from port 1 to port 2, and so on. The time average power
reflection/transmission coefficients are obtained as |Sij |2.

Now, for high-frequency problems, voltage is not a well-defined entity, and it is

necessary to define the scattering parameters in terms of the electric field.

S-Parameter Calculations
The MEMS interfaces have built-in support for S-parameter calculations. In the
Electric Currents and Electrostatics interfaces, use the terminal boundary feature with
the terminated setting to approximate a connecting transmission line or a voltage
source with a known internal impedance. For a terminal the voltage measurement is
always with respect to ground so at least one ground feature is also required in the
model.

S-Parameter Variables
This module automatically generates variables for the S-parameters. The port names
(use numbers for sweeps to work correctly) determine the variable names. If, for
example, there are two ports with the numbers 1 and 2 and Port 1 is the inport, the
software generates the variables S11 and S21. S11 is the S-parameter for the reflected
wave and S21 is the S-parameter for the transmitted wave. For convenience, two
variables for the S-parameters on a dB scale, S11dB and S21dB, are also defined using
the following relation:

S 11dB = 20 log 10  S 11 

The model and physics interface names also appear in front of the variable names so
they can vary. The S-parameter variables are added to the predefined quantities in
appropriate plot lists.

Port/Terminal Sweeps and Touchstone Export

The, Manual Terminal Sweep Settings section in the Electrostatics interface and the
Manual Terminal Sweep Settings section in the Electric Currents interface describe
how to cycle through the terminals, compute the entire S-matrix and export it to a
Touchstone file.

LUMPED PARAMETER CONVERSION

When the impedance matrix, Z, or the admittance matrix, Y, is available it is possible
to calculate all other types of lumped parameter matrices from the relations below.

52 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

 –1
S = G ref   E –  Z ref  Y     E + Z ref  Y 
–1
 G ref ,
–1 Im  Z  Im  Y 
Z = Y , L = ----------------- , C = ----------------- ,
 
R = Re  Z , G = Re  Y 

where L is the inductance, C is the capacitance, R is the resistance, and G is the

conductance. S is the S-parameter. The relations also include the following matrices

1 0 0 0
E = 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

Z ref = E  Z 0
1
G ref = E  ------------------------------
2 Re  Z 0 

where Z0 is the characteristic impedance.

You can compute conversions between the impedance matrix, Z, the admittance
matrix, Y, and the S-parameter matrix S in a results table using the Settings window
for the Global Matrix Evaluation node, which you can add under Results>Derived Values.

Global Matrix Evaluation in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

ELECTROSTATICS | 53
 P i e z o r e s i s ti v i t y
The piezoresistive effect describes the change in a material’s conductivity when a stress
is applied to the material. Unlike the piezoelectric effect, piezoresistivity is not
reversible, so an applied current does not induce a stress (unless other secondary effects
are present, such as heating). Piezoresistance is usually associated with semiconductor
materials. In semiconductors, piezoresistance results from the strain-induced alteration
of the material’s band structure and the associated changes in carrier mobility and
number density.

Piezoresistivity can be described in terms of a stress-induced change in the resistivity

of the material. The relation between the electric field, E, and the current, J, becomes:

E =   J +   J

where is the resistivity and  is the induced change in the resistivity. In the general
case, and  are both rank-2 tensors (matrices). The change in resistance is related
to the stress, , (for the piezoresistance form of the equations) or the strain, , (for the
elastoresistance form of the equations) by the constitutive relationship:

 =    (piezoresistance form)
(2-13)
 = M   (elastoresistance form)

where  is the piezoresistance tensor (SI unit: Pa1m) and M is the elastoresistance
tensor (SI unit: m). Note that both of these quantities are material properties.  and
M are in this case rank-4 tensors; however, they can be represented as matrices if the
resistivity, stress, and strain are converted to vectors within a reduced subscript
notation.

In practice, piezoresistors are fabricated by doping a thin layer of a lightly doped wafer,
either using the process of ion implantation or by diffusing dopant into the wafer from
its surface at high temperatures. Both processes usually produce thin piezoresistors,
typically 100s of nm thick in structures that are microns or tens of microns thick. These
aspect ratios are challenging to resolve with a practical mesh, so the MEMS Module
includes physics interfaces that make it possible to model the current conduction in a
thin layer, represented by a boundary in the model geometry. The Piezoresistivity,
Boundary Currents interface is appropriate for situations in which the thickness of the
piezoresistive layer is much less than that of the structural layer. If the structural layer
is also sufficiently thin that it can be represented using the Shell interface, then the
Piezoresistivity, Shell interface can be used (requires the Structural Mechanics Module

54 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

in addition to the MEMS Module). This circumstance is frequently encountered in
modeling pressure sensors, which usually have piezoresistors embedded near the edge
of large membranes. Note that the Piezoresistive Layer is still assumed to be much
thinner than the structural layer in this physics interface. Finally if both the conducting
and structural layers are meshed through their thicknesses the Piezoresistivity, Domain
Currents interface can be used. This physics interface allows for advanced modeling of,
for example, nonuniform doping profiles in the piezoresistor at the expense of
additional degrees of freedom in the model.

• The Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents Interface

• The Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents Interface
• The Piezoresistivity, Shell Interface
• Theory for the Piezoresistivity Interfaces

PIEZORESISTIVITY | 55
 Thermal Effects in MEMS Devices
In this section:

• About Thermal Effects in MEMS Devices

• Modeling Thermal Actuators
• Modeling Thermal Stresses
• Thermoelastic Damping
• Physics Interfaces for Modeling Heat Transfer in Solids

The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

About Thermal Effects in MEMS Devices

Heat transfer is characterized by three mechanisms: conduction, convection, and
radiation. In MEMS actuators and sensors heat transfer by conduction is usually the
dominant mechanism. Conductive heat transfer is diffusive and is driven by a
temperature gradient. Within a solid the heat transfer equations take the following
form:

T- +    – k T  = Q
C p ------ (2-14)
t

Here  is the density of the solid, Cp is its heat capacity, k is Boltzmann’s constant, T
is the temperature, and Q is a term that includes heat sources and sinks. The Heat
Transfer in Solids interface solves Equation 2-14, without additional coupling
assumed.

Equation 2-14 is solved in the Joule Heating interface, along with the equations for
electric current flow. In this case the volumetric heat source Q takes the value:

Q = JE (2-15)

where J is the current density, and E is the electric field. The electric field component
in the direction of the current flow expresses the voltage drop per unit length of
material in the direction of flow. Since the current density gives the current per unit
area through a surface with normal parallel to the direction of flow, the quantity Q is

56 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

a power per unit volume, with dimensions W/m3. The Joule Heating interface
includes heat transfer and electromagnetic fields; in addition, solid mechanics is
required to model thermal actuators. The MEMS Module includes The Joule Heating
and Thermal Expansion Interface interface for this purpose.

Modeling Thermal Actuators

To model thermal actuators, The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface is
required. This multiphysics interface adds a Solid Mechanics interface, a Heat Transfer
in Solids interface, and an Electric Currents interface. Joule heating and the resulting
thermal expansion are included as multiphysics coupling nodes under Multiphysics in
the model tree. Note that a reference temperature, at which the thermal strains are
zero, must be added to the Thermal Expansion node. In the absence of thermal
residual stresses this temperature should be specified as the operating temperature.

The Modeling Thermal Stresses section explains how to use this feature
to include residual stresses in the film in addition to the thermal stresses
generated by Joule heating.

Modeling Thermal Stresses

Some MEMS devices are fabricated by sequential depositions of thin or thick films.
This process introduces thermal residual stresses in the structures due to the
mismatched thermal expansivity of the deposited layers and the substrate as well as the
difference between the deposition and operating temperatures.

Thermal stresses in a single added layer can be modeled in multiphysics interfaces using
a coupled multiphysics interface that include the Solid Mechanics interface by adding
a The Fluid–Solid Interaction Interface subnode under the Multiphysics node (in the
Solid Mechanics interface you can also add it as subnode to the material model). A
reference temperature, Tref, for zero thermal strain must be specified, and the
operating temperature, T, is set by selecting a heat transfer interface in a multiphysics
model, which sets up this temperature coupling automatically, or by selecting a
temperature as a model input (that is, temperatures generated by other physics
interfaces can be selected or a user-defined value or expression for the temperature can
be supplied), if the thermal expansion is defied in the Solid Mechanics interface. If the
device is operated at a constant temperature, then The Solid Mechanics Interface
should be used with T specified as a user-defined constant value in the model input. If

THERMAL EFFECTS IN MEMS DEVICES | 57

 temperature gradients resulting from external heat sources are present in the structure
then The Thermal Stress, Solid Interface is the natural choice because this physics
interface couples heat transfer with the Solid Mechanics interface (in this case you only
need to specify the strain reference temperature Tref in the Thermal Expansion
subnode; the temperature coupling to the heat transfer interface is set up by the
Thermal Stress multiphysics interface). Finally for Joule-heated structures, The Joule
Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface make it possible to use arbitrary zero strain
reference temperatures, which enables the inclusion of thermal stress in addition to the
Joule heating effects. For this physics interface you only need to specify the strain
reference temperature Tref in the Thermal Expansion subnode as in the Thermal Stress
interface.

Thermal stresses in multilayered structures can also be modeled. As an example,

consider a trilayer structure (a substrate plus two deposited layers), modeled using the
Solid Mechanics interface with a Thermal Expansion subnode. For the first added
layer, the zero strain temperature should be set to the deposition temperature of this
layer, but the solution temperature (set through the model input), should be set to the
deposition temperature of the second layer. A second study step should then be added
with the output of the first study step supplied as an initial stress (this requires two
Solid Mechanics interfaces to be added to the model, and some adjustment of the
solver settings). For the second study step the zero strain reference temperature is
chosen as the deposition temperature of the second added layer and the solution
(model input) temperature should be set to the operating temperature. This process
can naturally be extended to any number of deposited layers.

Thermal Stresses in a Layered Plate: Application Library path

MEMS_Module/Actuators/layered_plate

Thermoelastic Damping
When the product of the coefficient of thermal expansion and the temperature of the
structure at rest is large, mechanical vibrations cause significant oscillations of the
temperature field. The resulting energy transfer from the mechanical domain to the
thermal domain is called thermoelastic damping. The Thermoelasticity Interface
provides a predefined multiphysics interface to model thermoelastic damping.

58 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

 Physics Interfaces for Modeling Heat Transfer in Solids
Table 2-2 gives a summary of the thermal physics interfaces showing which physics
nodes are available in each interface.
TABLE 2-2: SUMMARY OF THE PHYSICS INTERFACES FOR MODELING HEAT TRANSFER AND THERMAL EXPANSION
IN THE MEMS MODULE.

PHYSICS ID HEAT SOLID ELECTRIC MODELING THERMAL

INTERFACE TRANSFER MECHANICS CURRENTS AND STRESSES
INCLUDED INCLUDED? JOULE HEATING
INCLUDED?

Heat Transfer in ht Yes No No Not applicable —

Solids would need to add
Solid Mechanics
separately.
Solid Mechanics solid No Yes No Add Thermal Expansion
node & specify Tref and
T.
Thermal Stress — Yes Yes No Specify Tref in the
Thermal Expansion
node under
Multiphysics.
Joule Heating — Yes No Yes Not applicable —
would need to add
Solid Mechanics
separately.
Joule Heating — Yes Yes Yes Specify Tref in the
and Thermal Thermal Expansion
Expansion node under
Multiphysics.

THERMAL EFFECTS IN MEMS DEVICES | 59

 Microfluidics
COMSOL provides a dedicated Microfluidics Module that is designed for users
developing microfluidic devices. This module includes features for modeling
single-phase and multiphase flow, electrokinetics, flow in porous media, rarefied gas
flows, and chemical transport.

In the MEMS Module, the microfluidics physics interfaces are focused on modeling
the interaction of fluids with microstructures.

In this section:

• Fluid-Structure Interaction
• Thin-Film Damping

Fluid-Structure Interaction
The Fluid-Structure Interaction interface can be used to compute the flow of a liquid
or gas around a moving microstructure. A typical application is the simulation of
microvalves. The physics interface can be used to model both turbulent and laminar
flows at low Mach numbers.

The Fluid-Structure Interaction interface uses the arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian

(ALE) method to combine the fluid flow equations, formulated using an Eulerian
description and a spatial frame, with the solid mechanics equations, formulated using
a Lagrangian description and a material (reference) frame. The Fluid-Structure
Interaction couplings appear on the boundaries between the fluid and the solid.

• Damping and Losses

• The Fluid–Solid Interaction Interface (in the Structural Mechanics
Module User’s Guide)
• The Piezoelectricity Interface, Solid (in the Structural Mechanics
Module User’s Guide)

Thin-Film Damping
In many MEMS devices a released structure moves relative to the substrate,
compressing or shearing a thin layer of gas between the two structures. The fluid film

60 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

can be the dominant form of damping for the moving microstructure. If the film is
compressed by a structure moving perpendicular to its plane, this type of damping is
usually referred to as squeeze-film damping. Damping induced by motion of the
structure parallel to the plane in which the fluid flows is called slide-film damping.

Figure 2-2: Diagram showing a circumstance in which squeeze-film damping applies.

It is often convenient to model the film using the Reynolds equation — enabling the
3D gas layer to be modeled on a 2D surface. The Reynolds equation applies for
isothermal flows of a thin film in which the film height, h, is much less than a typical
lateral dimension of the device, L. It must also be possible to neglect inertial flow
effects in comparison to the viscous effects (for MEMS devices, this assumption is
reasonable below MHz frequencies). Additionally, the curvature of the reference
surface is neglected.

For isothermal, ideal gases the Reynolds equation can be simplified, leading to a
modified Reynolds equation, formulated in the pressure only (the full Reynolds
equation is formulated using both the pressure and the density). COMSOL
Multiphysics includes both forms of the Reynolds equations in the Thin-Film Flow
interfaces, and it is possible to switch between them using the Equation Type setting.
Both forms of the equations include squeeze-film damping and slide-film damping.

The Thin-Film Flow interfaces are available as standalone physics interfaces that can be
manually coupled to, for example, the physics interfaces in the Structural Mechanics
branch. Thin-Film Damping has also been added as a boundary condition to the
structural mechanics physics interfaces — these include Solid Mechanics,
Piezoelectricity, Electromechanics, and Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion. The
boundary condition automatically couples the damping forces to the model.

For gas damping, especially in vacuum packaged devices, the Knudsen number for the
thin film gap is an important parameter to consider. This is the ratio of the gas mean
free path to the gap height. Below Knudsen numbers of 0.01 it is necessary to use a
slip boundary condition for the fluid by specifying a characteristic slip length. As the
Knudsen number decreases further additional rarefaction effects need to be accounted

MICROFLUIDICS | 61
 for. These can be included empirically in the Reynolds equation using models that
require the mean free path and the tangential momentum accommodation coefficient
(TMAC) to be specified. The TMAC is a measure of the mean fractional loss of
tangential momentum of the gas molecules on collision with the walls — typical values
for various gas surface combinations are available in Ref. 1 (see Table 6 in this
reference).

In the CFD Module User’s Guide:

• The Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

• Theory for the Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

Reference for Thin-Film Damping

1. F. Sharipov, “Data on the Velocity Slip and Temperature Jump on a Gas-Solid
Interface”, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, vol. 40, no. 2, 023101, 2011.

62 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

Connecting to Electrical Circuits
In this section:

• About Connecting Electrical Circuits to Physics Interfaces

• Connecting Electrical Circuits Using Predefined Couplings
• Connecting Electrical Circuits by User-Defined Couplings
• Solving
• Postprocessing

About Connecting Electrical Circuits to Physics Interfaces

This section describes the various ways electrical circuits can be connected to other
physics interfaces in COMSOL Multiphysics. If you are not familiar with circuit
modeling, it is recommended that you review the Theory for the Electrical Circuit
Interface.

In general electrical circuits connect to other physics interfaces via one or more of three
special circuit features:

• External I vs. U
• External U vs. I
• External I-Terminal

These features either accept a voltage measurement from the connecting noncircuit
physics interface and return a current from an Electrical Circuit interface or the other
way around.

The “External” features are considered “ideal” current or voltage sources

by the Electrical Circuit interface. Hence, you cannot connect them
directly in parallel (voltage sources) or in series (current sources) with
other ideal sources. This results in the error message The DAE is
structurally inconsistent. A workaround is to provide a suitable parallel
or series resistor, which can be tuned to minimize its influence on the
results.

CONNECTING TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS | 63

 Connecting Electrical Circuits Using Predefined Couplings
In addition to these circuit features, interfaces in the AC/DC Module, RF Module,
MEMS Module, Plasma Module, and Semiconductor Module (the modules that
include the Electrical Circuit interface) also contain features that provide couplings to
the Electrical Circuit interface by accepting a voltage or a current from one of the
specific circuit features (External I vs. U, External U vs. I, and External I-Terminal).

This coupling is typically activated when:

• A choice is made in the Settings window for the noncircuit physics interface feature,
which then announces (that is, includes) the coupling to the Electrical Circuit
interface. Its voltage or current is then included to make it visible to the connecting
circuit feature.
• A voltage or current that has been announced (that is, included) is selected in a
feature node’s Settings window.

These circuit connections are supported in Terminals.

Connecting Electrical Circuits by User-Defined Couplings

A more general way to connect a physics interface to the Electrical Circuit interface is
to:

• Apply the voltage or current from the connecting “External” circuit feature as an
excitation in the noncircuit physics interface.
• Define your own voltage or current measurement in the noncircuit physics interface
using variables, coupling operators and so forth.
• In the Settings window for the Electrical Circuit interface feature, selecting the
User-defined option and entering the name of the variable or expression using
coupling operators defined in the previous step.

DETERMINING A CURRENT OR VOLTAGE VARIABLE NAME

To determine a current or voltage variable name, look at the Dependent Variables node
under the Study node. To do this:

1 In the Model Builder, right-click the Study node and select Show Default Solver.

64 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

2 Expand the Solver>Dependent Variables node and click the state node, in this
example, Current through device R1 (comp1.currents). The variable name is shown in
the Settings window for State.

Typically, voltage variables are named cir.Xn_v and current variables

cir.Xn_i, where n is the “External” device number — 1, 2, and so on.

Solving

Some modeling errors lead to the error message The DAE is structurally
inconsistent being displayed when solving. This error typically occurs
from having an open current loop, from connecting voltage sources in
parallel, or connecting current sources in series.

In this respect, the predefined coupling features are also treated as (ideal)
voltage or current sources. The remedy is to close current loops and to
connect resistors in series with voltage sources or in parallel with current
sources.

Postprocessing
The Electrical Circuits interface, unlike most of the other physics interfaces, solves for
a relatively large number of global dependent variables (such as voltages and currents),

CONNECTING TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS | 65

 instead of solving for a few space-varying fields (such as temperature or displacement).
For this reason, the Electrical Circuit interface does not provide default plots when
computing a study.

The physics interface defines a number of variables that can be used in postprocessing.
All variables defined by the Electrical Circuit interface are of a global scope, and can
be evaluated in a Global Evaluation node (under Derived Values). In addition, the time
evolution or dependency on a parameter can be plotted in a Global plot (under a 1D
Plot Group node).

The physics interface defines a Node voltage variable for each electrical node in the
circuit, with name cir.v_name, where cir is the physics interface Label and <name>
is the node Name. For each two-pin component, the physics interface also defines
variables containing the voltage across it and the current flowing through it. For
resistors it adds a heat source variable as well.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Derived Values, Evaluation Groups, and Tables and Global Evaluation

• Plot Groups and Plots and Global

References
1. V. Kaajakari, Practical MEMS, Small Gear Publishing, Las Vegas, 2009.

2. S.D. Senturia, Microsystem Design, Springer Science and Business Media, New
York, 2001.

3. A.F. Bower, Applied Mechanics of Solids, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2010
(http://www.solidmechanics.org).

66 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

S P I C E I m po r t an d E xp ort
The following text is a generic description of the SPICE Import and Export
functionality available with various add-on products from COMSOL.

SPICE Import
The circuit definition in COMSOL Multiphysics adheres to the SPICE format
developed at the University of California, Berkeley (Ref. 1). SPICE netlists can be
imported and the corresponding circuit nodes are generated in the COMSOL
Multiphysics model. Most circuit simulators can export to this format or some version
of it.

The Electrical Circuit interface supports the following device models:

TABLE 2-3: SUPPORTED SPICE DEVICE MODELS.

STATEMENT DEVICE MODEL

R Resistor
C Capacitor
L Inductor
V Voltage Source
I Current Source
E Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source
F Current-Controlled Current Source
G Voltage-Controlled Current Source
H Current-Controlled Voltage Source
D Diode
Q NPN BJT and PNP BJT
M n-Channel MOSFET and p-Channel MOSFET
X Subcircuit Instance

Statements corresponding to multiple devices are resolved by parsing the associated

.model statement. The physics interface also supports the .subckt statement, which
is represented in COMSOL by a Subcircuit Definition node, and the .include
statement. SPICE commands are interpreted case-insensitively. The statement defining
each device is also interpreted as the Device name.

SPICE IMPORT AND EXPORT | 67

 According to SPICE specification, the first line in the netlist file is assumed to be the
title of the netlist and it is ignored by the parser.

SPICE Export
The SPICE Export functionality creates a SPICE netlist file containing a description of
the circuit represented by the physics interface. This functionality can be accessed from
the physics interface context menu (right-click the physics interface node and select
Export SPICE Netlist). After specifying a filename, the circuit is exported and messages
from the export process display in the Messages window. During the export process, a
series of operations are performed:

• In order to avoid conflicts, each component must be identified by a unique Device

name. If one or more components have the same device name, the export operation
fails and an error message is displayed. All characters in a Device name that are not
letters, digits, or underscores are replaced by underscores.
• According to the SPICE specification, each circuit must have a node with name 0,
which is assumed to be the only ground node. When exporting a circuit, any node
with name 0 that is not connected to a Ground component is exported with a
different node name. All nodes that are connected to a Ground components are
exported as a merged node with name 0. The Messages window shows a log message
if these operations are performed, showing the name of the renamed or merged
nodes.
• All characters in node names that are not letters, digits, or underscores are replaced
by underscores.
• Some components (most notably, the External components used to couple to other
physics interfaces) cannot be exported to a SPICE netlist. These components are
ignored during the export process, and a message is shown in the Messages window.
Note that this can change the exported circuit, since some components are then
missing.
• Subcircuit definitions are added as .subckt statements in the netlist.
Semiconductor devices (such as MOSFETs, BJTs, and diodes) are exported as a
SPICE device with a corresponding .model statement.

The title of the exported netlist file is the model’s filename, and the time, date, and
version of COMSOL Multiphysics is added as a comment in the netlist file.

68 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS

Reference
1. http://bwrcs.eecs.berkeley.edu/Classes/IcBook/SPICE/

SPICE IMPORT AND EXPORT | 69

70 | CHAPTER 2: CREATING AND ANALYZING MEMS MODELS
 3

AC/DC Interfaces

This chapter describes the physics interfaces found under the AC/DC branch .

In this chapter:

• The Electrostatics Interface

• The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface
• The Electric Currents Interface
• The Electrical Circuit Interface
• Theory for the Electrostatics Interface
• Theory for the Electric Currents Interface
• Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface

See the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details about The Magnetic
Fields Interface and the Theory of Magnetic Fields.

71
 The Electrostatics Interface
The Electrostatics (es) interface ( ), found under the AC/DC>Electric Fields and
Currents branch when adding a physics interface, is used to compute the electric field,
electric displacement field, and potential distributions in dielectrics under conditions
where the electric charge distribution is explicitly prescribed. The formulation is
stationary except for when it is used together with other physics interfaces.
Eigenfrequency, frequency-domain, small-signal analysis, and time-domain modeling
are supported in all space dimensions.

The physics interface solves Gauss’ law for the electric field using the scalar electric
potential as the dependent variable.

Charge Conservation is the main node, which adds the equation for the electric
potential and has a Settings window for defining the constitutive relation for the
electric displacement field and its associated properties such as the relative permittivity.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Charge Conservation, Zero Charge (the default boundary condition), and
Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions and space charges. You can also right-click Electrostatics
to select physics features from the context menu.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Mesh node’s Settings window (if the
Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). There, in the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the check box in the Use column on the same table row for enabling (the default) or
disabling contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

Information from the physics, such as the presence of an infinite elements domain or
periodic condition, will be used to automatically set up an appropriate meshing
sequence.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the

Physics-Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to
define the physics-controlled mesh.

72 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is es.

CROSS-SECTION AREA (1D COMPONENTS)

For 1D components, enter a default value for the Cross-section area A (SI unit: m2).
The default value of 1 is typically not representative for a thin domain. Instead it
describes a unit thickness that makes the 1D equation identical to the equation used
for 3D components. See also Change Cross Section.

THICKNESS (2D COMPONENTS)

For 2D components, enter a default value for the Out-of-plane thickness d (SI unit: m).
The default value of 1 is typically not representative for a thin dielectric medium, for
example. Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to
the equation used for 3D components. See also Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane).

MANUAL TERMINAL SWEEP SETTINGS

Enter a Reference impedance Zref (SI unit: ). The default is 50 .

Select the Use manual terminal sweep check box to switch on the sweep and invoke a
parametric sweep over the terminals. Enter a Sweep parameter name to assign a specific
name to the variable that controls the terminal number solved for during the sweep.
The Sweep parameter name must also be declared as a model parameter. The default is
PortName.

The generated lumped parameters are in the form of capacitance matrix elements. The
terminal settings must consistently be of either fixed voltage or fixed charge type.

The lumped parameters are subject to Touchstone file export. Enter a file path or Browse
for a file. Select a Parameter format (value pairs) for the Touchstone export —
Magnitude and angle (MA) (the default), Magnitude in dB and angle (DB), or Real and
imaginary parts (RI). Select an option from the If file exists list — Overwrite or Create
new. Create new is useful when the model is solved multiple times with different
settings. Select a Parameter to export: Z (the default), Y, or S.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 73

 From the Home toolbar add a Parameters node and enter the chosen name and assign
to it a temporary Expression of unity into the Parameters table. You can also right-click
Global Definitions to add the node.

Only a temporary expression needs to be entered at this stage. During the

analysis process, the solver assigns a proper value to this parameter. The
generated lumped parameters are in the form of capacitance matrix
elements. The terminal settings must consistently be of either fixed
voltage or fixed charge type.

For most applications it is simpler to sweep over terminals using the

Stationary Source Sweep study step. See Stationary Source Sweep in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual and (for more details)
Stationary Source Sweep in the AC/DC Module User’s Guide.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable is the Electric potential V. You can change its name, which
changes both the field name and the variable name. If the new name coincides with the
name of another electric potential field in the model, the physics interfaces shares
degrees of freedom. The new name must not coincide with the name of a field of
another type or with a component name belonging to some other field.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Electric potential dependent variable — Linear, Quadratic
(the default), Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic. For more information about the Discretization
section, see Settings for the Discretization Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

74 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

 • Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electrostatics
Interface
• Theory for the Electrostatics Interface

Electric Sensor: Application Library path COMSOL_Multiphysics/

Electromagnetics/electric_sensor

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the

Electrostatics Interface
The Electrostatics interface has these domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes
available.

ABOUT THE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The relevant physics interface condition at interfaces between different media is

n2   D1 – D2  = s

In the absence of surface charges, this condition is fulfilled by the natural boundary
condition

n     0 V – P  1 –   0 V – P  2  = – n   D 1 – D 2  = 0

AVAILABLE NODES
These nodes, listed in alphabetical order, are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access
the context menu (all users). Also see Table 3-1 for a list of interior and exterior
boundary conditions, including edge, point, and pair availability.

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 75

 • Change Cross Section • Initial Values
• Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane) • Line Charge
• Charge Conservation • Line Charge (on Axis)
1,2
• Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric • Line Charge (Out-of-Plane)
2,3
• Charge Conservation, Ferroelectric • Periodic Condition
• Conduction Loss (Time-Harmonic) • Point Charge
• Dispersion • Point Charge (on Axis)
• Dielectric Shielding • Space Charge Density
• Distributed Capacitance • Surface Charge Density
• Electric Displacement Field • Symmetry Plane (for Electric Field)
• Electric Potential • Terminal
• Electrostatic Point Dipole • Thin Low Permittivity Gap
• External Surface Charge Accumulation • Zero Charge (the default boundary
• Floating Potential condition)

• Force Calculation
• Ground
1
This feature is available with the Piezoelectricity multiphysics interface.
2
Requires either the Acoustics Module, MEMS Module, or Structural Mechanics
Module.
3
This feature is available with the Ferroelectroelasticity multiphysics interface.

Table 3-1 lists the interior and exterior boundary conditions available with this physics
interface. It also includes edge, point, and pair availability.
TABLE 3-1: INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (INCLUDING EDGE, POINT, AND PAIR
AVAILABILITY) FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE.

NODE INTERIOR EXTERIOR ALSO AVAILABLE FOR

Change Cross Section x x pairs

Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane) x x pairs
Dielectric Shielding x x pairs
Distributed Capacitance x pairs
Electric Displacement Field x x pairs
Electric Potential x x edges, points, and pairs

76 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

TABLE 3-1: INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (INCLUDING EDGE, POINT, AND PAIR
AVAILABILITY) FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE.

NODE INTERIOR EXTERIOR ALSO AVAILABLE FOR

External Surface Charge x pairs

Accumulation
Floating Potential x x pairs
Ground x x edges, points, and pairs
Periodic Condition x not applicable
Surface Charge Density x x pairs
Symmetry Plane x not applicable
Terminal x x domains
Thin Low Permittivity Gap x not applicable
Zero Charge (the default) x x pairs

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the model that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only. There are also Line Charge (on Axis) and Point Charge (on
Axis) available.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Charge Conservation
The Charge Conservation node adds the equations for charge conservation according to
Gauss’ law for the electric displacement field. It provides an interface for defining the
constitutive relation and its associated properties such as the relative permittivity.

MATERIAL TYPE
The Material type setting decides how materials behave and how material properties are
interpreted when the mesh is deformed. Select Solid for materials whose properties
change as functions of material strain, material orientation, and other variables
evaluated in a material reference configuration (material frame). Select Nonsolid for

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 77

 materials whose properties are defined only as functions of the current local state at
each point in the spatial frame, and for which no unique material reference
configuration can be defined. Select From material to pick up the corresponding setting
from the domain material on each domain.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION D-E

Select a Dielectric model to describe the macroscopic properties of the medium
(relating the electric displacement D with the electric field E) and the applicable
material properties, such as the relative permittivity. Select:

• Relative permittivity (the default) to use the constitutive relation D0rE. Then
the default is to take the Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) values From material.
For User defined, select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter values or
expressions in the field or matrix. The default is 1.
• Polarization to use the constitutive relation D0E  P. Then enter the components
based on space dimension for the Polarization vector P (SI unit: C/m2). The
defaults are 0 C/m2.
• Remanent electric displacement to use constitutive relation D0rE  Dr, where Dr
is the remanent displacement (the displacement when no electric field is present).
Then the default is to take the Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) values From
material. For User defined, select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter
values or expressions in the field or matrix. Then enter the components based on
space dimension for the Remanent electric displacement Dr (SI unit: C/m2). The
defaults are 0 C/m2.
• Dispersion to use the constitutive relation D  0E  PE rS, where the
polarization vector is calculated from the electric field using the dielectric dispersion
model. This option is available when the Material type is set to Solid. You enter the
Relative permittivity rS (dimensionless) values From material. For User defined,
select Isotropic, Diagonal, or Symmetric and enter values or expressions in the field or
matrix. This value of electric permittivity will be used in stationary study, for which
the polarization vector is calculated as P  0rS  E.

Once this option is selected, a subnode Dispersion will become available

under the Charge Conservation node. At that subnode, you can select the
dispersion model, enter the corresponding parameters, and choose how
the relative permittivity input on the parent node will be interpreted in
Eigenfrequency, Frequency Domain, and Time Dependent studies.

78 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

Conduction Loss (Time-Harmonic)

This feature requires either the Acoustics Module, or MEMS Module, or

Structural Mechanics Module. See the individual documentation for
information.

The Conduction Loss (Time-Harmonic) subnode to Charge Conservation allows you to

model possible conductive losses in a dielectric material. The effect is only active in an
Eigenfrequency or Frequency Domain study.

CONDUCTION CURRENT
By default, the Electrical conductivity  for the media is defined From material. You can
also select User defined or Linearized resistivity.

• For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full depending on the
characteristics of the electrical conductivity, and then enter values or expressions for
the Electrical conductivity  in the field or matrix.
• For Linearized resistivity the default Reference temperature Tref, and Resistivity
temperature coefficient , and Reference resistivity 0 are taken From material, which
means that the values are taken from the domain (or boundary) material. T is the
current temperature, which can be a value that is specified as a model input or the
temperature from a heat transfer interface. The definition of the temperature field
appears in the Model Inputs section.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Electrostatics>Charge Conservation>Conduction Loss (Time-Harmonic)

Ribbon
Physics tab with Charge Conservation node selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Conduction Loss (Time-Harmonic)

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the electric potential V that can serve
as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear
solver.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 79

 INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).
The default value is 0 V.

Space Charge Density

The Space Charge Density node adds a space charge density , which appears on the
right-hand side of the equation that the physics interface defines.

SPACE CHARGE DENSITY

Enter a value or expression for the Space charge density v(SI unit: C/m3). The default
is 0 C/m3.

Force Calculation
Use the Force Calculation node to define globally available force and torque variables
for the selected domains.

FORCE CALCULATION
Enter a Force name, which is then appended to global variables. The method used to
compute forces and torques is integration of the Maxwell’s stress tensor over the
exterior surfaces of the set of domains. This feature also gives access to the normal
component of the Maxwell stress tensor on the external surfaces. The computed force
is made available as a global vector variable with name
<name>.Force<component>_<force name>, where <name> is the Name of the physics
interface.

Enter a direction vector for the Torque axis rax and coordinates for the Torque rotation
point r0. A torque calculation about a given point (Torque rotation point) is made and
defined as a global vector variable, <name>.T<component>_<force name>. The
resulting torque component parallel to the given Torque axis is given as a global scalar
variable, typically <name>.Tax_<force name>.

In frequency domain studies, the cycle-averaged force and torque variables are also
defined, with names <name>.Forceav<component>_<force name>,

80 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

<name>.Tav<component>_<force name> and <name>.Taxav_<force name>. The
variables described are still defined and represent the instantaneous force and torque.

• In 2D axisymmetry, the radial component of the total force is set to

zero, as this is an intrinsic property of the used symmetry.
• In small-signal analysis studies, no cycle-average variables are defined.
Use the additional plot settings for the Harmonic Perturbation on the
instantaneous variables to compute the quantities of interest. See
Harmonic Perturbation, Prestressed Analysis, and Small-Signal
Analysis in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

For more information on calculation of forces and torques, see

Electrostatics.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

The Compute both instantaneous and cycle-averaged variables in the frequency domain
check box is selected by default. This check box controls which variables are defined
by the Force Calculation feature in frequency-domain studies. When selected (the
default setting in new models), the variables are defined as described above. This check
box selected by default for backward compatibility. If the check box is cleared, only the
cycle-averaged variables are computed, replicating the behavior of the Force
Calculation feature in version 4.3 and earlier. The check box is cleared in existing Force
Calculation features when opening models created in version 4.3 and earlier.

Zero Charge
The Zero Charge node adds the condition that there is zero charge on the boundary so
that n D  0. This boundary condition is also applicable at symmetry boundaries
where the potential is known to be symmetric with respect to the boundary. This is the
default boundary condition at exterior boundaries. At interior boundaries, it means
that no displacement field can penetrate the boundary and that the electric potential is
discontinuous across the boundary.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 81

 Ground
The Ground node implements ground (zero potential) as the boundary condition
V = 0.

Ground means that there is a zero potential on the boundary. This boundary condition
is also applicable at symmetry boundaries where the potential is known to be
antisymmetric with respect to the boundary.

For some physics interfaces, also select additional Ground nodes from the Edges (3D
components) or Points (2D and 3D components) submenus. For 2D axisymmetric
components, it can be applied on the Symmetry axis.

BOUNDARY, EDGE, OR POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on edges or points in 3D or on

points in 2D usually yields a current outflow that is mesh dependent.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Electric Potential
The Electric Potential node provides an electric potential V0 as the boundary condition
V = V0.

Because the electric potential is being solved for in the physics interface, the value of
the potential is typically defined at some part of the geometry. For some physics
interfaces, also select additional Electric Potential nodes from the Edges (3D
components) or Points (2D and 3D components) submenus. For 2D axisymmetric
components, it can be applied on the symmetry axis.

BOUNDARY, EDGE, OR POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on edges or points in 3D or on

points in 2D usually yields a current outflow that is mesh dependent.

82 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Enter the value or expression for the Electric potential V0 (SI unit: V). The default is
0 V.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Surface Charge Density

The Surface Charge Density node provides the following surface-charge boundary
condition for exterior boundaries (left) and interior boundaries (right):

–n  D = s , n   D1 – D2  = s

Specify the surface charge density s at an outer boundary or at an interior boundary

between two nonconducting media.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

click Harmonic Perturbation in the Physics toolbar. For more information, see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

SURFACE CHARGE DENSITY

Enter the value or expression for the Surface charge density s (SI unit: C/m2).

External Surface Charge Accumulation

The External Surface Charge Accumulation node implements the boundary condition

–n  D = s

where s is the solution of the following distributed ODE on the boundary:

d s
= n  Ji + n  Je
dt

where n·Ji is the normal component of the total ion current density on the wall and
n·Je is the normal component of the total electron current density on the wall, which
are feature inputs.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 83

 MATERIAL TYPE
The Material type setting decides how materials behave and how material properties are
interpreted when the mesh is deformed. Select Solid for materials whose properties
change as functions of material strain, material orientation, and other variables
evaluated in a material reference configuration (material frame). Select Nonsolid for
materials whose properties are defined only as functions of the current local state at
each point in the spatial frame, and for which no unique material reference
configuration can be defined. Select From material to pick up the corresponding setting
from the domain material on each domain.

EXTERNAL SURFACE CHARGE ACCUMULATION

Enter values or expressions for the Normal ion current density n·Ji (SI unit: A/m2)
sand the Normal electron current density n·Je (SI unit: A/m2).

Symmetry Plane (for Electric Field)

The Symmetry Plane node adds a boundary condition that represents symmetry or
antisymmetry in the electric field, depending on which option is chosen.

SYMMETRY TYPE
Choose between Symmetry and Antisymmetry for the electric field. If Symmetry is
chosen, the boundary condition is

nE = 0

which states that the normal component of the electric field is zero. If Antisymmetry is
chosen, the boundary condition becomes

nE = 0

which states that the tangential component of the electric field is zero.

Electric Displacement Field

The Electric Displacement Field node adds the following electric-displacement
boundary condition:

n  D = n  D0

It specifies the normal component of the electric displacement field at a boundary.

84 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT FIELD
Enter the coordinates of the Boundary electric displacement field D0 (SI unit: C/m2).

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition node defines periodicity or antiperiodicity between two
boundaries. If required, activate periodic conditions on more than two boundaries, in
which case the Periodic Condition tries to identify two separate surfaces that can each
consist of several connected boundaries. For more complex geometries, it might be
necessary to use the Destination Selection section, which you activate by right-clicking
the Periodic Condition node and select Manual Destination Selection. With that section,
the boundaries which constitute the source and destination surfaces can be manually
specified.

When this feature is used in conjunction with a Sector Symmetry feature

on connected boundaries, wherever the sector symmetry boundaries
connect with the periodic boundaries, the same periodic condition feature
cannot be used on both sides. At least two periodic condition features are
required for the model to compute correctly.

BOUNDARY SELECTION

The software usually automatically identifies the boundaries as either source boundaries or
destination boundaries, as indicated in the selection list. This works fine for cases like opposing
parallel boundaries. In other cases, right-click Periodic Condition and select Manual Destination
Selection to control the destination. By default it contains the selection that COMSOL
Multiphysics identifies.

When using nonconforming meshes on the source and destination of a periodic

boundary pair, for numerical stability, a finer mesh should be applied on the
destination side. Use conforming meshes if possible.

DESTINATION SELECTION
This section is available for specifying the destination boundaries, if needed, when the
Manual Destination Selection option is selected in the context menu for the Periodic
Condition node. You can only select destination boundaries from the union of all source
and destination boundaries.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 85

 PERIODIC CONDITION
Select a Type of periodicity — Continuity (the default), Antiperiodicity, or Floquet
periodicity. Select:

• Continuity to make the potential periodic (equal on the source and destination).
• Antiperiodicity to make it antiperiodic.
• Floquet periodicity (only available with products supporting piezoelectric modeling).
Specify the components of the k-vector for Floquet periodicity kF (SI unit: rad/m).

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and Destination.

ORIENTATION OF DESTINATION
This section appears if the setting for Transform to intermediate map in the Orientation
of Source section is changed from the default value, Automatic, and Advanced Physics
Options is selected in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Destination section, see Orientation of Source and Destination.

Thin Low Permittivity Gap

Use the Thin Low Permittivity Gap node

0 r
n  D 1 = ----------  V 1 – V 2 
d
0 r
n  D 2 = ----------  V 2 – V 1 
d

to model a thin gap of a material with a small permittivity compared to the adjacent
domains. The layer has the thickness d and the relative permittivity r. The indices 1
and 2 refer to the two sides of the boundary.

86 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

THIN LOW PERMITTIVITY GAP
The default is to take the Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) values From material.
For User defined, enter a different value or expression. Enter a Thickness d (SI unit: m).
The default is 5 mm.

Dielectric Shielding
The Dielectric Shielding node adds dielectric shielding as a boundary condition. It
describes a thin layer with thickness ds and a bulk relative permittivity r that shields
the electric field:

n  D = –  t   0  rs d s tV

Use this boundary condition when approximating a thin domain with a boundary to
reduce the number of mesh elements.

MATERIAL TYPE
The Material type setting decides how materials behave and how material properties are
interpreted when the mesh is deformed. Select Solid for materials whose properties
change as functions of material strain, material orientation and other variables
evaluated in a material reference configuration (material frame). Select Nonsolid for
materials whose properties are defined only as functions of the current local state at
each point in the spatial frame, and for which no unique material reference
configuration can be defined. Select From material to pick up the corresponding setting
from the domain material on each domain.

ELECTRIC SHIELDING
The default is to take the Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) values From material.
It takes it from the adjacent domains if not explicitly defined. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter values or expressions in the field or
matrix. Enter a Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m) of the shielding. The default is 1 m.

Terminal
The Terminal node provides a boundary or domain condition for connection to
external circuits, to transmission lines, or with a specified voltage or charge. By
specifying zero charge, a floating potential condition is obtained.

An operation called Split by Connectivity ( ) is available by right-clicking the parent

node. The operation is useful when there are several terminal domains or boundaries

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 87

 that are not geometrically connected. Clicking the operation node will automatically
generate several Terminal nodes where each selection is geometrically connected.

The Terminal node also enables the computation of the lumped parameters of the
system, such as capacitance.

TERMINAL
Specify the terminal properties. Enter a unique Terminal name that will be used to
identify the global variables (such as the terminal voltage or current) that are defined
by the terminal. The Terminal name can contain alphanumeric characters, but it should
be numeric when performing terminal sweeps.

Select a Terminal type — Charge (the default), Voltage, Circuit, Terminated (power), or
Terminated (voltage). Select:

• Charge to prescribe the total charge deposited on the terminal boundaries. Enter the
total charge Q0. The default is 0 C, which corresponds to a uncharged floating
electrode.
• Voltage to specify a fixed electric potential at the terminal. Enter an electric potential
V0. The default is 1 V.
• Circuit to specify a terminal connected to an Electrical Circuit interface that models
an external circuit. The Terminal node provides a current-voltage characteristic to
the circuit.
• Terminated (power) to connect the terminal to an impedance that might represent a
load or a transmission line. When Terminated (power) is selected, the scattering
parameters (S-parameters) are computed. The Terminated (power) setting can only
be used in frequency-domain studies.
- Enter a Terminal power P0 to specify the input power at this terminal from the
transmission line. This excitation can be toggled using a port sweep.
- Select an option from the Characteristic impedance from list to define the value of
the impedance — Physics interface or User defined. For Physics interface, the
Reference impedance Zref defined in the Settings window for the physics under
Sweep Settings is used. For User defined, enter a specific impedance Zref for this
terminal. The default is 50 .

• Terminated (voltage) to connect the terminal to an impedance that might represent

a load or a transmission line. The Terminated (voltage) option is essentially the same
2
as Terminated (power), with the power defined as: P 0 = 0.5  V 0  Z ref .

88 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

When Terminal type is selected as Charge or Voltage, a contribution can be added as
Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or clicking Harmonic
Perturbation in the Physics toolbar. For more information see Harmonic Perturbation
— Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

Initial values
The initial values subsection is used to provide initial values for the internal state
variables in the Terminal. These settings can be useful to provide an initial guess to the
nonlinear solver or the initial value in a time-dependent study.

The Initial value for voltage is available for all Terminal types except Voltage. Enter an
Initial value for voltage Vinit.

The Initial value for charge is available for the Circuit excitation. It specifies the initial
charge on the terminal when the circuit is connected. Enter an Initial value for charge
Qinit.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Floating Potential
The Floating Potential node is used when modeling a metallic electrode at floating
potential. It applies a constant voltage V0 on the boundary (for domain features, this
is the boundary enclosing the selected domain), such that the total normal electric
displacement field D equals a specific charge Q0:

V = V0

  D  n  dS = Q0 ,


where  represents the boundary and n refers to the surface normal. The constant
boundary voltage implies the tangential electric field equals zero; the electric field will
be perpendicular to the boundary:

–t V = Et = 0
n  E = 0.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 89

 In case of Q0 = 0 (the default case), the boundary will behave as an unconnected,
neutrally charged, good conductor under electrostatic conditions (a floating
equipotential). Although locally the displacement field may vary, the total electric
displacement field entering or leaving the boundary equals zero.

If the floating potential touches a point, boundary, or domain feature that is not
floating (a Terminal or Ground feature), the floating potential will acquire that feature's
potential. If the floating potential is set to a certain charge, or connected to a circuit,
it behaves like a terminal.

FLOATING POTENTIAL
The Floating potential identifier text area shows the unique identifier for the floating
potential feature. It is used to identify the global variables created by the node, such as
the voltage. The Floating potential group check box in the Settings window for Floating
Potential controls how potentials are assigned to boundary segments in the feature’s
boundary selection. If this check box is not selected, a single potential is applied to all
boundaries in the selection. If the check box is selected, each group of contiguous
boundaries in the selection is given a unique potential. This simplifies the setup of
models with many floating electrodes. The values of the potential at each group of
boundaries are then made available in postprocessing, collected in a vector variable.

The following options are not available if the Floating potential group check box is
selected. Select a specification for the Electric charge — choose User defined to specify
a total Charge Q0 deposited on the surface. Select Circuit to connect the floating
potential to an Electrical Circuit.

Initial Values
The initial values subsection is used to provide initial values for the internal state
variables in the Floating potential. These settings can be useful to provide an initial
guess to the nonlinear solver or the initial value in a time-dependent study.

Enter an Initial value for voltage Vinit.

The Initial value for charge is available for the Circuit excitation. It specifies the initial
charge on the floating potential when the circuit is connected. Enter an Initial value for
charge Qinit.

90 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Settings and Properties Windows for Feature Nodes in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

Distributed Capacitance
The Distributed Capacitance node adds a distributed capacitance boundary condition
according to the following equations for exterior boundaries:

V ref – V
– n  D =  0  r --------------------
ds

Use this boundary condition to model a thin sheet or film of a dielectric material. The
sheet has the relative permittivity r and the surface thickness ds, and it is connected
to the reference potential Vref.

DISTRIBUTED CAPACITANCE
Enter the values or expressions for Relative permittivity r (dimensionless), Surface
thickness ds (SI unit: m), and Reference potential Vref. The default value for the surface
thickness is 103 m (1 mm) and 0 V for the reference potential.

Line Charge
For 3D components, use the Line Charge node to specify line charges along the edges
of a geometry. Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the
parent node or clicking Harmonic Perturbation in the Physics toolbar. For more
information see Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

EDGE SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on edges usually yields a current

outflow that is mesh dependent.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 91

 LINE CHARGE
Enter a value or expression to apply a Line charge QL (SI unit: C/m). This source
represents electric charge per unit length and the default is 0 C/m.

Line Charge (on Axis) and Line Charge (Out-of-Plane)

Line Charge (on Axis)

For 2D axisymmetric components, use the Line Charge (on Axis) node to specify line
charges along the symmetry axis.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

click Harmonic Perturbation in the Physics toolbar. For more information see Harmonic
Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

LINE CHARGE (ON AXIS)

Enter a value or expression to apply a Line charge QL (SI unit: C/m). This source
represents electric charge per unit length and the default is 0 C/m.

Line Charge and Line Charge (Out-of-Plane)

Line Charge (Out-of-Plane)

For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, points are selected and this is the same as
a line out-of-plane.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

clicking Harmonic Perturbation in the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Use the Line Charge (Out-of-Plane) node to specify line charges along the points of a
geometry for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components.

92 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on points usually yields a current

outflow that is mesh dependent.

LINE CHARGE (OUT-OF-PLANE)

Enter a value or expression to apply a Line charge QL (SI unit: C/m). This source
represents electric charge per unit length and the default is 0 C/m.

Line Charge and Line Charge (on Axis)

Point Charge
The Point Charge node adds a point source to 3D components. The point charge
represents an electric displacement field flowing out of the point.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

clicking Harmonic Perturbation in the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on points usually yields a current

outflow that is mesh dependent.

POINT CHARGE
Enter a value or expression to apply a Point charge QP (SI unit: C) to points. This
source represents an electric displacement field flowing out of the point. The default is
0 C.

Point Charge (on Axis) and Line Charge (Out-of-Plane)

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 93

 Point Charge (on Axis)
The Point Charge (on Axis) node adds a point source to 2D axisymmetric components.
The point charge represents an electric displacement field flowing out of the point.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

clicking Harmonic Perturbation in the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on points usually yields a current

outflow that is mesh dependent.

POINT CHARGE (ON AXIS)

Enter a value or expression to apply a Point charge QP (SI unit: C) to points on an axis.
This source represents an electric displacement field flowing out of the point. The
default is 0 C.

Point Charge and Line Charge (Out-of-Plane)

Change Cross Section

This node is available with 1D components. This setting overrides the global
Cross-Section Area setting made in any physics interface that uses this feature. For 2D
components, see Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane).

Use the Change Cross Section node to set the cross-section area for specific geometric
entities.

CHANGE CROSS SECTION

Enter a value or expression for the Cross-section area A. The default value of one unit
area is typically not representative for the actual domain. Instead, it describes a unit
area that makes the 1D equation identical to the equation used for 3D components.

94 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane)
This node is available for 2D components. This setting overrides the global Thickness
setting made in any physics interface that uses this node. For 1D components, see
Change Cross Section.

Use the Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane) node to set the out-of-plane thickness for
specific geometric entities.

CHANGE THICKNESS (OUT-OF-PLANE)

Enter a value or expression for the Out-of-plane thickness d (SI unit: m). The default
value is, in most cases, 1 unit length, which is typically not representative for a thin
domain. Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to
the equation used for 3D components.

Charge Conservation, Ferroelectric

This feature is available with the Ferroelectroelasticity multiphysics

interface which requires either the Acoustics Module, MEMS Module, or
Structural Mechanics Module. See Ferroelectroelasticity (in the
Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide) for more information.

The Charge Conservation, Ferroelectric node is normally used together with a

Electrostriction multiphysics coupling node and Solid Mechanics interface. The node is
added by default to the Electrostatics interface when adding a Ferroelectroelasticity
interface. It is also available from the context menu (right-click the Electrostatics
interface parent node) or from the Physics toolbar.

Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric

This feature is available with the Piezoelectricity interface, which requires

either the Acoustics Module, or MEMS Module, or Structural Mechanics
Module. See the individual documentation for information.

The Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric node is normally used together with a

Piezoelectric Effect multiphysics coupling node and a corresponding Piezoelectric
Material node in the Solid Mechanics interface. The node is added by default to the

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 95

 Electrostatics interface when adding a Piezoelectricity interface. It is also available from
the context menu (right-click the Electrostatics interface parent node) or from the
Physics toolbar.

When the Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric node is added to the

electrostatics interface in the absence of an active Piezoelectric Effect
multiphysics coupling node, the material behaves similarly to a Charge
Conservation node, with electric properties corresponding to the relative
permittivity entered (see below). The piezoelectric effect is not included
in the corresponding equation system.

ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT
If the node is used together with an active Piezoelectric Effect multiphysics coupling
node, then these settings are locked. Note that if they are unlocked, then the material
behaves like a dielectric and not a piezoelectric. In this case, the default is to take the
Relative permittivity rS (dimensionless) values From material. For User defined, select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter values or expressions in the field or
matrix.

Dispersion
The Dispersion subnode to Charge Conservation and Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric
allows you to model possible dielectric losses in the material. The effect can be
accounted for in Eigenfrequency, Frequency Domain and Time Dependent study.

Under the Material model, you can select either Debye (default) or Multipole Debye
dispersion option.

For a single pole Debye dispersion choice, you can enter the Relaxation time and Relative
permittivity contribution. In the Thermal Effects tab, you can select the Shift function
type, which will be used to compute the effective relaxation time accounting for the
temperature effects.

For the Multipole Debye dispersion, you can select two options to enter the Relaxation
Data.

• Relaxation time and Relative permittivity change choice will provide an input table
with dynamically changed size, where you can enter any number of Relaxation time
and the corresponding Relative permittivity contribution values. In the Thermal

96 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

 Effects tab, you can select the Shift function type, which will be used to compute the
effective relaxation times accounting for the temperature effects.
• Constant Loss Tangent option. In this case, you enter the Loss Tangent (fc) together
with the Center frequency fc. You also specify the model Bandwidth (decades) that
defines a frequency interval centered at fc, in which the loss tangent will be
approximately constant and equal to (fc). You can also select the Accuracy for the
approximation to be either Normal (default) or High. The software will automatically
deduce the necessary number of Debye poles together with the values of the
corresponding relaxation times and relative permittivity contributions, which will be
used in computations to maintain the requested bandwidth and accuracy.

Debye Dispersion

In Eigenfrequency study and Time Dependent study, each pole will

require one extra vector degree of freedom (domain variable) to represent
the corresponding contribution to the polarization. Thus, using many
poles in the relaxation data input table, or setting the Accuracy to High
accuracy in case of Constant Loss Tangent, can lead to significant
computation costs for larger models.

For all cases, you can specify how the relative permittivity input, rS, on the parent
node should be interpreted by selecting the Static response (the default value is High
frequency limit). This setting will have effect in Eigenfrequency, Frequency Domain,
and Time Dependent study types.

THERMAL EFFECTS
Dispersion properties depend on the temperature. For many materials, a change in the
temperature can be transformed directly into a change in the time scale. Thus, the
relaxation time is modified to aTTm, where aT(T) is a shift function.

Select a Shift function — None, Vogel-Fulcher, Arrhenius, Williams-Landel-Ferry,

Tool-Narayanaswamy-Moynihan, or User defined.

• When the default, None, is kept, the shift function aTT is set to unity and the
relaxation time is not modified.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 97

 • For Vogel-Fulcher enter values or expressions for these properties:
- Reference temperature T0. The default is 230 K.
- Activation energy Q. The default is 8000 J/mol.

• For Arrhenius enter values or expressions for these properties:

- Reference temperature T0. The default is 293.15 K.
- Activation energy Q.

• For Williams-Landel-Ferry enter values or expressions for these properties:

- Reference temperature TWLF The default is 293.15 K.
- WLF constant 1 C1WLF. The default is 17.44.
- WLF constant 2 C2WLF. The default is 51.6 K.

• For Tool-Narayanaswamy-Moynihan enter values or expressions for these properties:

- Reference temperature T0. The default is 293.15 K.
- Activation energy Q.
- Activation energy fraction  (0<<1).
- Structural relaxation times 0.
- Fictive temperature weights w.
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the shift function aT.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select
Discretization from the Show More Options dialog box. Select the element order from
the list box for the auxiliary electric field vector variables en.

You can change the solution algorithm by using the check box Use local time
integration (checked by default). When unchecked, the solution of the equations for
the auxiliary dependent variables in Time Dependent study will be governed by the
time stepper algorithm used in the solver.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Electrostatics>Charge Conservation>Dispersion
Electrostatics>Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric>Dispersion

98 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

Ribbon
Physics tab with either Charge Conservation or Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric node
selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Dispersion

Electrostatic Point Dipole

Add an Electrostatic Point Dipole node to 3D and 2D components. Add a contribution
as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or click Harmonic
Perturbation in the Physics toolbar. For more information see Harmonic Perturbation
— Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

The Electrostatic Point Dipole represents the limiting case of zero separation distance
between two equally strong point sources of opposing signs while maintaining the
product between separation distance and source strength at a fixed value (p). The
dipole moment is a vector entity with positive direction from the negative charge to
the positive one.

ELECTROSTATIC POINT DIPOLE

Select a Dipole specification — Magnitude and direction (the default) or Electric dipole
moment.

• For Magnitude and direction enter coordinates for the Electric dipole moment
direction np (dimensionless) and the Electric dipole moment, magnitude p.
• For Electric dipole moment enter coordinates for the Electric dipole moment p.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 99

 T he E le c tr o s t at i c s, Bou n d ary
Elements Interface
The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements (esbe) interface ( ), found under the AC/
DC>Electric Fields and Currents branch when adding a physics interface, is used for
computing the potential distribution in dielectrics under conditions where the electric
potential distribution on the boundaries is explicitly prescribed. The formulation is
based on the boundary element method and the interface is available in 2D and 3D.

The physics interface solves Laplace’s equation for the electric potential using the scalar
electric potential as the dependent variable

–     0  r V  = 0 .

For a discussion about the boundary element method, see Theory for the
Boundary Elements PDE in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Charge Conservation, Zero Charge (on exterior boundaries and in 3D also on
interior edges) and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, electric potential and surface charge density conditions. You
can also right-click Electrostatics, Boundary Elements to select physics features from the
context menu.

If both The Electrostatics Interface and The Electrostatics, Boundary

Elements Interface are available, the Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling node is available from the Multiphysics menu in the Physics
toolbar or by right-clicking the Multiphysics Couplings node in Model
Builder.

The Electrostatics Interface and The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements

Interface can also be coupled by using the same name for the dependent
variable for both interfaces. Then Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling is not needed. How to set the name for the dependent variable
is described in the Dependent Variables section.

100 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Mesh node’s Settings window (if the
Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). There, in the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the check box in the Use column on the same table row for enabling (the default) or
disabling contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

Information from the physics will be used to automatically set up an appropriate mesh
sequence.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the

Physics-Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to
define the physics-controlled mesh.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, select any of the options — Manual, All domains, All voids, or All
domains and voids (the default). The geometric entity list displays the selected domain
entity numbers. Edit the list of selected domain entity numbers using the selection
toolbar buttons to the right of the list or by selecting the geometric entities in the
Graphics window. Entity numbers for voids can be entered by clicking the Paste ( )
button in the selection toolbar and supplying the entity numbers in the dialog box.
The entity number for the infinite void is 0, and finite voids have negative entity
numbers.

Selections can also be entered using the Selection List window, available from the
Windows menu in the Home toolbar.

For more information about making selections, see Working with

Geometric Entities in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

PHYSICS SYMBOLS
Select the Enable physics symbols check box to display symmetry planes (in 3D) and
lines (in 2D) in the Graphics window, as specified in the Symmetry settings.

THICKNESS (2D COMPONENTS)

For 2D components, enter a default value for the Out-of-plane thickness d (SI unit: m).
The default value of 1 is typically not representative for a thin dielectric medium.

THE ELECTROSTATICS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 101

 Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to the
equation used for 3D components.

MANUAL TERMINAL SWEEP SETTINGS

Select the Use manual terminal sweep check box to invoke a parametric sweep over
terminals. Enter a Sweep parameter name to assign a specific name to the variable that
controls the terminal number solved for during the sweep. The Sweep parameter name
must also be declared as a model parameter. The default is PortName.

For most applications it is simpler to sweep over terminals using the

Stationary Source Sweep study step. See Stationary Source Sweep in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual and (for more details)
Stationary Source Sweep in the Modeling with the AC/DC Module
chapter of this manual.

To correctly calculate the terminal charge and the corresponding

capacitances, if voltage Terminal is used on boundaries between The
Electrostatics Interface and The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements
Interface, let the dependent variable for The Electrostatics, Boundary
Elements Interface be the same as the dependent variable for The
Electrostatics Interface and disable Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling. How to set the name for the dependent variable is described in
the Dependent Variables section. Since the Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling is disabled, add manually a Fully Coupled node to the
Stationary Solver below the Solution node in the Solver Configurations.

SYMMETRY

For 3D components, from the Condition for the x = x0 plane, Condition for
the y = y0 plane, and Condition for the z = z0 plane lists, choose Off (the
default), Symmetric, or Antisymmetric. Then enter the value for the plane
location x0, y0, or z0 (SI unit: m) as required.

102 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

 For 2D components, from the Condition for the x = x0 plane and Condition
for the y = y0 plane lists, choose Off (the default), Symmetric, or
Antisymmetric. Then enter the value for the plane location x0 or z0 (SI
unit: m) as required.

FAR-FIELD APPROXIMATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

For more information about the Far Field Approximation settings, see
Far-Field Approximation Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

INFINITY CONDITION

For 3D components, select the Infinity condition — Total charge (the

default) or Asymptotic value at infinity. Specify the Total charge Qtot
(SI unit: C; the default value is 0 C) or Electric potential at infinity V (SI
unit: V; the default value is 0 V). If there is an antisymmetric symmetry in
the potential field, it acts as an added infinite ground plane with a fixed
value of the electric potential. The value at infinity is fixed to 0 by the
presence of the infinite ground plane, so for this case there is a fixed Zero
potential at infinity condition.

For 2D components, select the Infinity condition — Total charge (the

default) or Value at reference distance. Specify the Total charge Qtot
(SI unit: C; the default value is 0 C) or Electric potential at reference
distance Vref (SI unit: V; the default value is 0 V). If there is an
antisymmetric symmetry in the potential field, it acts as an added ground
line with a fixed value of the electric potential. The value at a reference
distance is fixed to 0 by the presence of the ground line, so for this case
there is a fixed Zero potential at reference distance condition.

THE ELECTROSTATICS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 103

 QUADRATURE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

For more information about the Quadrature settings, see Quadrature in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

DISCRETIZATION
From the Electric potential/Surface charge density list, choose from predefined options
for the boundary element discretization order for the electric potential variable and the
surface charge density variable, respectively. The predefined options represent the
suitable combinations of element orders such as Quadratic/Linear (the default).

For 3D components, the Line charge variable will have the same
discretization order as the Electric potential variable.

The settings under Value types when using splitting of complex variables are important
for sensitivity and optimization computations. See the description of the built-in
operators fsens and fsensimag.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Electric potential V. The name can be
changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model.

Domain, Boundary, and Edge Nodes for the Electrostatics, Boundary

Elements Interface
The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface has these domain, boundary, and
edge nodes available from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics context menu
(Mac or Linux users), or by right-clicking the physics interface in Model Builder to
access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

104 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

AVAILABLE NODES
These nodes and subnodes are described in this section:

• Initial Values • Ground

• Charge Conservation • Surface Charge Density
• Electric Potential • Terminal
• Floating Potential • Zero Charge
• Force Calculation

The Zero Charge node is the default boundary and edge condition available for this
physics interface and described for the Electrostatics interface.

Initial Values
Initial Values adds an initial value for the electric potential that can serve as an initial
condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver. Add
more Initial Values nodes from the Physics toolbar, Global menu.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).

Charge Conservation
The Charge Conservation node adds the equations for charge conservation according to
Gauss’ law for the electric displacement field. It provides an interface for defining the
constitutive relation defined by the relative permittivity.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION D-E

Enter the Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) to describe the macroscopic
properties of the medium. The default is to take the Relative permittivity values From
material. For User defined, enter a value or expression in the field.

Notice that the boundary element method is based on the availability of

an analytic Green’s function for the domain. Thus, the Relative
permittivity must evaluate to a constant value for each Charge Conservation
node.

THE ELECTROSTATICS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 105

 Electric Potential
The Electric Potential node provides an electric potential V0 as the boundary condition
V = V0.

For more information about the Electric Potential condition, see Electric
Potential in the documentation for the Electrostatics interface.

For 3D components, enter the Edge radius (SI unit: m) for the virtual tube
surrounding the edge. The default value is 0.1 m. It is generally assumed
that the edge radius is small in comparison to other geometrical measures
of the model, such as the edge length and the distances between different
edges in the geometry.

Floating Potential
The Floating Potential node is used when modeling a metallic electrode at floating
potential.

For more information about the Floating Potential condition, see

Floating Potential in the documentation for the Electrostatics interface.

For 3D components, enter the Edge radius (SI unit: m) for the virtual tube
surrounding the edge. The default value is 0.1 m. It is generally assumed
that the edge radius is small in comparison to other geometrical measures
of the model, such as the edge length and the distances between different
edges in the geometry.

Ground
The Ground node implements ground (zero potential) as the boundary condition
V = 0.

For more information about the Ground condition, see Ground in the
documentation for the Electrostatics interface.

106 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

 For 3D components, enter the Edge radius (SI unit: m) for the virtual tube
surrounding the edge. The default value is 0.1 m. It is generally assumed
that the edge radius is small in comparison to other geometrical measures
of the model, such as the edge length and the distances between different
edges in the geometry.

Surface Charge Density

The Surface Charge Density node provides the following surface-charge boundary
condition for exterior boundaries (left) and interior boundaries (right):

–n  D = s , n   D1 – D2  = s

Specify the surface charge density s at an outer boundary or at an interior boundary

between two nonconducting media.

For more information about the Surface Charge Density condition, see
Surface Charge Density in the documentation for the Electrostatics
interface.

For 3D components, enter the Edge radius (SI unit: m) for the virtual tube
surrounding the edge. The default value is 0.1 m. It is generally assumed
that the edge radius is small in comparison to other geometrical measures
of the model, such as the edge length and the distances between different
edges in the geometry. Enable Compensate for tube volume to allow for a
potential gradient across the cross section of the virtual tube. This can be
useful for establishing a zero surface charge density condition on the
virtual tube periphery.

Terminal
The Terminal node provides a boundary or domain condition for connection to
external circuits, to transmission lines, or with a specified voltage or charge.

For more information about the Terminal condition, see Terminal in the
documentation for the Electrostatics interface.

THE ELECTROSTATICS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 107

 For 3D components, enter the Edge radius (SI unit: m) for the virtual tube
surrounding the edge. The default value is 0.1 m. It is generally assumed
that the edge radius is small in comparison to other geometrical measures
of the model, such as the edge length and the distances between different
edges in the geometry.

To correctly calculate the terminal charge and the corresponding

capacitances, if voltage Terminal is used on boundaries between The
Electrostatics Interface and The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements
Interface, let the dependent variable for The Electrostatics, Boundary
Elements Interface be the same as the dependent variable for The
Electrostatics Interface and disable Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling. How to set the name for the dependent variable is described in
the Dependent Variables section. Since the Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling is disabled, add manually a Fully Coupled node to the
Stationary Solver below the Solution node in the Solver Configurations.

Zero Charge
The Zero Charge node adds the condition that there is zero charge on the boundary so
that n D  0. This is the default boundary condition on exterior boundaries and on
edges embedded within a Charge Conservation feature.

Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling

The Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling multiphysics node assures continuity of the
electric potential across boundaries between The Electrostatics Interface and The
Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface. The Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling node is available from the Multiphysics menu in the Physics toolbar or by
right-clicking the Multiphysics Couplings node in Model Builder, if both The

108 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

Electrostatics Interface and The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface are
available.

The Electrostatics Interface and The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements

Interface can also be coupled by using the same name for the dependent
variable for both interfaces. Then Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling
is not needed. How to set the name for the dependent variable is
described in the Dependent Variables section.

When using The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface with

iterative solvers, Right Preconditioning is preferred. Thus, it is advised to
check that Right Preconditioning is used when combining the Electric
Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling with The Electrostatics, Boundary
Elements Interface and other physics interfaces. How to define Right
Preconditioning is described in Iterative in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select Manual or All boundaries from the Selection list. Make additional edits to the list
of boundary entity numbers using the Selection toolbar buttons. When All boundaries
is selected from the Selection list, the boundaries exterior to the Electrostatics interface
that intersect the exterior boundaries to the Electrostatics, Boundary Elements
interface are available in the boundary entity number list.

COUPLED INTERFACES
• Select Electrostatics, Boundary Elements as Primary interface and Electrostatics as
Secondary interface.

THE ELECTROSTATICS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 109

 The Electric Currents Interface
The Electric Currents (ec) interface ( ), under the AC/DC>Electric Fields and Currents
branch when adding a physics interface, is used to compute electric field, current, and
potential distributions in conducting media under conditions where inductive effects
are negligible; that is, when the skin depth is much larger than the studied device.

Depending on the licensed products, stationary, frequency-domain, small-signal

analysis, and time-domain modeling are supported in all space dimensions. In the time
and frequency domains, capacitive effects are also accounted for.

The physics interface solves a current conservation equation based on Ohm’s law using
the scalar electric potential as the dependent variable. The interface is typically used to
model good conductors for which Ohm’s law applies. It is not suitable for modeling
poor conductors like air and insulators.

Current Conservation is the main node, which adds the equation for the electric
potential and provides a Settings window for defining the electrical conductivity as well
as the constitutive relation for the electric displacement field and its associated material
properties, such as the relative permittivity.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Current Conservation, Electric Insulation (the default boundary condition),
and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions and current sources. You can also right-click Electric
Currents to select physics features from the context menu.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Mesh node’s Settings window (if the
Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). There, in the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the check box in the Use column on the same table row for enabling (the default) or
disabling contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

110 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

Information from the physics, such as the presence of an infinite elements domain or
periodic condition, will be used to automatically set up an appropriate meshing
sequence.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the

Physics-Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to
define the physics-controlled mesh.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ec.

CROSS-SECTION AREA (1D)

Enter a default value for the Cross-section area A (SI unit: m2). The default value of
1 m2 is typically not representative for a small domain. Instead it describes a unit area
that makes the 1D equation identical to the equation used for 3D components. See
also Change Cross Section (described for the Electrostatics interface).

THICKNESS (2D)
Enter a default value for the Out-of-plane thickness d (SI unit: m) (see Equation 3-9).
The default value of 1 m is typically not representative for a thin dielectric medium, for
example. Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to
the equation used for 3D components. See also Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane)
(described for the Electrostatics interface).

MANUAL TERMINAL SWEEP SETTINGS

Enter a Reference impedance Zref (SI unit: ). The default is 50 .

Select the Use manual terminal sweep check box to switch on the sweep and invoke a
parametric sweep over the terminals. Enter a Sweep parameter name to assign a specific
name to the variable that controls the terminal number solved for during the sweep.
The default is PortName. The generated lumped parameters are in the form of

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 111

 capacitance matrix elements. The terminal settings must consistently be of either fixed
voltage or fixed charge type.

The lumped parameters are subject to Touchstone file export. Enter a file path or Browse
for a file. Select a Parameter format (value pairs) for the Touchstone export —
Magnitude and angle (MA) (the default), Magnitude in dB and angle (DB), or Real and
imaginary parts (RI). Select an option from the If file exists list — Overwrite or Create
new. Create new is useful when the model is solved multiple times with different
settings. Select a Parameter to export — Z (the default), Y, or S.

For most applications it is simpler to sweep over terminals using the

Stationary Source Sweep study step. See Stationary Source Sweep in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual and (for more details)
Stationary Source Sweep in the AC/DC Module User’s Guide.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable is the Electric potential V. You can change its name, which
changes both the field name and the variable name. If the new name coincides with the
name of another electric potential field in the model, the physics interfaces share
degrees of freedom. The new name must not coincide with the name of a field of
another type or with a component name belonging to some other field.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Electric potential dependent variable — Linear, Quadratic
(the default), Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic. For more information about the Discretization
section, see Settings for the Discretization Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electric
Currents Interface
• Theory for the Electric Currents Interface

Pacemaker Electrode: Application Library path COMSOL_Multiphysics/

Electromagnetics/pacemaker_electrode

112 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electric
Currents Interface
The Electric Currents interface has these domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair
nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users) or Physics context
menu (Mac or Linux users). You can also right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

ABOUT THE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The exterior and interior boundary conditions listed in Table 3-1 are available. The
relevant physics interface condition at interfaces between different media and interior
boundaries is continuity; that is,

n2   J1 – J2  = 0

which is the natural boundary condition.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 113

 AVAILABLE NODES
These nodes are available for this physics interface, listed in alphabetical order. Also see
Table 3-1 for a list of interior and exterior boundary conditions, including edge, point,
and pair availability.

• Boundary Current Source • Floating Potential

• Contact Impedance • Initial Values
• Current Conservation • Line Current Source
• Current Source • Line Current Source (on Axis)
• Dispersion • Normal Current Density
• Distributed Impedance • Current Conservation,
• Electric Insulation Piezoresistive1

• Electric Point Dipole • Point Current Source

• Electric Point Dipole (on Axis) • Sector Symmetry

• Electric Shielding • Symmetry Plane (for Electric Field)

• External Current Density • Terminal

1
This feature is available with the Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents multiphysics
interface, which requires the MEMS Module.

These nodes are described for the Electrostatics interface:

• Change Cross Section • Force Calculation

• Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane) • Ground
• Electric Potential • Periodic Condition

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

114 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

 For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial
symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the model that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only.

Table 3-1 lists the interior and exterior boundary conditions available with this physics
interface. It also includes edge, point, and pair availability.
TABLE 3-2: INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (INCLUDING EDGE, POINT, AND PAIR
AVAILABILITY) FOR THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE.

NODE INTERIOR EXTERIOR ALSO AVAILABLE FOR

Boundary Current Source x pairs

Contact Impedance x pairs
Distributed Impedance x x not applicable
Electric Insulation x x pairs
Electric Potential x x edges, points, and pairs
Electric Shielding x x pairs
Floating Potential x x pairs
Ground x x edges, points, and pairs
Normal Current Density x not applicable
Periodic Condition x not applicable
Symmetry Plane x not applicable
Terminal x x pairs, domains

Current Conservation
The Current Conservation node adds the continuity equation for the electrical potential
and provides an interface for defining the electric conductivity as well as the
constitutive relation and the relative permittivity for the displacement current.

MATERIAL TYPE
The Material type setting decides how materials behave and how material properties are
interpreted when the mesh is deformed. Select Solid for materials whose properties
change as functions of material strain, material orientation, and other variables
evaluated in a material reference configuration (material frame). Select Nonsolid for
materials whose properties are defined only as functions of the current local state at
each point in the spatial frame, and for which no unique material reference

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 115

 configuration can be defined. Select From material to pick up the corresponding setting
from the domain material on each domain.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION JC-E

By default, the Electrical conductivity (SI unit: S/m) for the media is defined From
material. Or select User defined or Linearized resistivity.

User Defined
For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full depending on the
characteristics of the electrical conductivity, and then enter values or expressions for the
electrical conductivity in the field or matrix. The default is 0 S/m. If type of
temperature dependence is used other than a linear temperature relation, enter any
expression for the conductivity as a function of temperature.

Linearized Resistivity
Select Linearized resistivity for a temperature-dependent conductivity (this occurs in,
for example, Joule heating, and is also called resistive heating). The equation
describing the conductivity:

1
 = --------------------------------------------------
-
 0  1 +   T – T ref  

where 0 is the resistivity at the reference temperature Tref, and  is the temperature
coefficient of resistance, which describes how the resistivity varies with temperature.

The default Reference resistivity 0 (SI unit: m), Reference temperature Tref
(SI unit: K), and Resistivity temperature coefficient  (SI unit: 1/K) are taken From
material, which means that the values are taken from the domain (or boundary)
material. T is the current temperature, which can be a value that is specified as a model
input or the temperature from a heat transfer interface. The definition of the
temperature field is in the Model Inputs section.

To specify other values for any of these properties, select User defined from the list and
then enter a value or expression for each. The default values are:

• 1 m for the Reference resistivity

• 273.15 K for the Reference temperature, and
• 0 1/K for the Resistivity temperature coefficient

116 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION D-E
Select a Dielectric model to describe the macroscopic properties of the medium
(relating the electric displacement D with the electric field E) and the applicable
material properties, such as the relative permittivity. For a description of the
constitutive relations Relative permittivity, Polarization, and Remanent electric
displacement, see Constitutive Relation D-E as described for the Charge Conservation
node for the Electrostatics interface. The constitutive relations specific to Electric
Currents are:

• Dielectric losses: uses the constitutive relation D  0'  j"E. Specify that the
Relative permittivity (real part) ' (dimensionless) and the Relative permittivity
(imaginary part) " (dimensionless) must be taken From material or be User defined.
For User defined, select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter values or
expressions in the field or matrix. The default is 1. Note that the material parameters
Relative permittivity (real part) ' and the Relative permittivity (imaginary part) "
form the complex relative permittivity r  ' – j''. The time-harmonic Sign
Convention requires a lossy material to have a positive material parameter ''.
• Loss tangent, loss angle: uses the constitutive relation D  0'  jtanE. Specify
the Relative permittivity (real part) ' (dimensionless) and Loss angle  (SI unit: rad).
• Loss tangent, dissipation factor: uses the constitutive relation D  0'  jtanE.
Specify the Relative permittivity (real part) ' (dimensionless) and the Dissipation
factor tan (dimensionless).

• Dispersion to use the constitutive relation D  0E  PE rS, where the
polarization vector is calculated from the electric field using the dielectric dispersion
model. This option is available only when the Material type is set to Solid. You enter
the Relative permittivity rS (dimensionless) values From material. For User defined,
select Isotropic, Diagonal, or Symmetric and enter values or expressions in the field or
matrix. This value of electric permittivity will be used in stationary study, for which
the polarization vector is calculated as P  0rS  E.

Once this option is selected, a subnode Dispersion will become available

under the Current Conservation node. At that subnode, you can select the
dispersion model, enter the corresponding parameters, and choose how
the relative permittivity input on the parent node will be interpreted in
Eigenfrequency, Frequency Domain, and Time Dependent studies.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 117

 Dispersion
The Dispersion subnode to Current Conservation allows you to model possible dielectric
losses in the material. The effect can be accounted for in Eigenfrequency, Frequency
Domain and Time Dependent study.

Under the Material model, you can select either Debye (default) or Multipole Debye
dispersion option.

For a single pole Debye dispersion choice, you can enter the Relaxation time and Relative
permittivity contribution. In the Thermal Effects tab, you can select the Shift function
type, which will be used to compute the effective relaxation time accounting for the
temperature effects.

For the Multipole Debye dispersion, you can select two options to enter the Relaxation
Data.

• Relaxation time and Relative permittivity change choice will provide an input table
with dynamically changed size, where you can enter any number of Relaxation time
and the corresponding Relative permittivity contribution values. In the Thermal
Effects tab, you can select the Shift function type, which will be used to compute the
effective relaxation times accounting for the temperature effects.
• Constant Loss Tangent option. In this case, you enter the Loss Tangent (fc) together
with the Center frequency fc. You also specify the model Bandwidth (decades) that
defines a frequency interval centered at fc, in which the loss tangent will be
approximately constant and equal to (fc). You can also select the Accuracy for the
approximation to be either Normal (default) or High. The software will automatically
deduce the necessary number of Debye poles together with the values of the
corresponding relaxation times and relative permittivity contributions, which will be
used in computations to maintain the requested bandwidth and accuracy.

Debye Dispersion

118 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

 In Eigenfrequency study and Time Dependent study, each pole will
require one extra vector degree of freedom (domain variable) to represent
the corresponding contribution to the polarization. Thus, using many
poles in the relaxation data input table, or setting the Accuracy to High
accuracy in case of Constant Loss Tangent, can lead to significant
computation costs for larger models.

For all cases, you can specify how the relative permittivity input, rS, on the parent
node should be interpreted by selecting the Static response (the default value is High
frequency limit). This setting will have effect in Eigenfrequency, Frequency Domain,
and Time Dependent study types.

THERMAL EFFECTS
Dispersion properties depend on the temperature. For many materials, a change in the
temperature can be transformed directly into a change in the time scale. Thus, the
relaxation time is modified to aTTm, where aT(T) is a shift function.

Select a Shift function — None, Vogel-Fulcher, Arrhenius, Williams-Landel-Ferry,

Tool-Narayanaswamy-Moynihan, or User defined.

• When the default, None, is kept, the shift function aTT is set to unity and the
relaxation time is not modified.
• For Vogel-Fulcher enter values or expressions for these properties:
- Reference temperature T0. The default is 230 K.
- Activation energy Q. The default is 8000 J/mol.

• For Arrhenius enter values or expressions for these properties:

- Reference temperature T0. The default is 293.15 K.
- Activation energy Q.

• For Williams-Landel-Ferry enter values or expressions for these properties:

- Reference temperature TWLF The default is 293.15 K.
- WLF constant 1 C1WLF. The default is 17.44.
- WLF constant 2 C2WLF. The default is 51.6 K.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 119

 • For Tool-Narayanaswamy-Moynihan enter values or expressions for these properties:
- Reference temperature T0. The default is 293.15 K.
- Activation energy Q.
- Activation energy fraction  (0    1).
- Structural relaxation times 0.
- Fictive temperature weights w.
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the shift function aT.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select
Discretization from the Show More Options dialog box. Select the element order from
the list box for the auxiliary electric field vector variables en.

You can change the solution algorithm by using the check box Use local time
integration (checked by default). When unchecked, the solution of the equations for
the auxiliary dependent variables in Time Dependent study will be governed by the
time stepper algorithm used in the solver.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Electric Currents>Current Conservation>Dispersion

Ribbon
Physics tab with Current Conservation node selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Dispersion

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the electric potential that can serve as
an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
If more than one set of initial values is required, from the Physics toolbar, add other
nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and current sources. Add
more Initial Values nodes from the Physics toolbar.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).
The default value is 0 V.

120 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

External Current Density
The External Current Density node adds an externally generated current density Je,
which appears in Ohm’s law

J = E + J e

and in the equation that the physics interface defines.

The external current density does not contribute to the losses (due to Joule heating),
since there is no electric field associated with it. To include the contribution to the
losses from the external current density, select the Add contribution of the external
current density to the losses check box. Then select an option from the External losses
list — From domain conductivity (the default) or User defined. If From domain
conductivity is selected, the heat source is computed using the conductivity specified in
the material model feature (such as Current Conservation) that is applied in the domain.
For User defined, enter a value for Qe (SI unit: W/m3) to specify a user-defined heat
source.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

clicking Harmonic Perturbation in the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

EXTERNAL CURRENT DENSITY

Based on space dimension, enter the coordinates (x, y, and z for 3D components, for
example) of the External current density Je (SI unit: A/m2). The defaults are 0 A/m2.

Current Source
The Current Source node adds a distributed current source Qj in the equation that the
physics interface defines. Use this node with caution as it can violate the current
conservation law that is inherent in Maxwell–Ampère’s law.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

clicking Harmonic Perturbation in the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 121

 CURRENT SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Current source Qj (SI unit: A/m3). The default is
0 A/m3.

Electric Insulation
The Electric Insulation node, which is the default boundary condition, adds electric
insulation as the boundary condition:

nJ = 0

This boundary condition means that no electric current flows into the boundary. At
interior boundaries, it means that no current can flow through the boundary and that
the electric potential is discontinuous across the boundary. It is also applicable at
symmetric boundaries where the potential is known to be symmetric with respect to
the boundary.

Electric insulation as the default boundary condition is not applicable to interior

boundaries. To add electric insulation to an interior boundary, add an Electric
Insulation node in addition to the one that represents the default boundary condition.

Floating Potential
The Floating Potential node is used when modeling a metallic electrode at floating
potential. It applies a constant voltage V0 on the boundary (for domain features, this
is the boundary enclosing the selected domain), such that the total normal electric
current density J equals a specific current I0:

V = V0

  – n  J  dS = I 0 ,


where  represents the boundary and n refers to the surface normal. The constant
boundary voltage implies the tangential electric field equals zero; the electric field will
be perpendicular to the boundary:

–t V = Et = 0
n  E = 0.

In case of I0 = 0 (the default case), the boundary will behave as an unconnected perfect
conductor (a floating equipotential). This is a good approximation when the

122 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

conductivity of the electrode is many orders of magnitude larger than that of the
surrounding medium. Although locally the current density may vary, the total current
entering or leaving the boundary equals zero.

If the floating potential touches a point, boundary, or domain feature that is not
floating (a Terminal or Ground feature), the floating potential will acquire that feature's
potential. If the floating potential is set to a certain current, or connected to a circuit,
it behaves like a terminal.

The Harmonic Perturbation subnode (it is of the exclusive type) is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or in the Physics toolbar, click the Attributes
menu and select Harmonic Perturbation. For more information see Harmonic
Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

FLOATING POTENTIAL
The Floating potential identifier text area shows the unique identifier for the floating
potential feature. It is used to identify the global variables created by the node, such as
the voltage. The Floating potential group check box in the Settings window for Floating
Potential controls how potentials are assigned to boundary segments in the feature’s
boundary selection. If this check box is not selected, a single potential is applied to all
boundaries in the selection. If the check box is selected, each group of contiguous
boundaries in the selection is given a unique potential. This simplifies the setup of
models with many floating electrodes. The values of the potential at each group of
boundaries are then made available in postprocessing, collected in a vector variable.

The following options are not available if the Floating potential group check box is
selected. Select a specification for the Floating potential current — choose User defined
(the default) to specify a total Current I0 (SI unit: A) that flows from the electrode. The
default is 0 A, corresponding to an unconnected electrode. Select Circuit to connect
the floating potential to an Electrical Circuit interface.

Initial values
The initial values subsection is used to provide initial values for the internal state
variables in the Floating Potential. These settings can be useful to provide an initial
guess to the nonlinear solver or the initial value in a time-dependent study when the
initial values of the other dependent variables (such as the electric potential) are
computed from a separate physics or study. In most cases, the default values are
appropriate.

Enter an Initial value for voltage Vinit (SI unit: V). The default is 0 V.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 123

 CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Settings and Properties Windows for Feature Nodes in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

Boundary Current Source

The Boundary Current Source node adds a current source Qj on the boundary.

n   J1 – J2  = Qj

It is applicable to interior boundaries that represent either a source or a sink of current.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or
click Harmonic Perturbation in the Physics toolbar. For more information see Harmonic
Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

BOUNDARY CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression for the Boundary current source Qj (SI unit: A/m2). The
default is 0 A/m2.

Normal Current Density

The Normal Current Density node is applicable to exterior boundaries that represent
either a source or a sink of current. It provides a condition for specifying the normal
current density as an inward or outward current flow:

–n  J = Jn

Or alternatively, as a current density J0:

n  J = n  J0

The normal current density is positive when the current flows inward in the domain.
Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or
clicking Harmonic Perturbation in the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

124 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

NORMAL CURRENT DENSITY
Select a Type — Inward current density (the default) or Current density.

• For Inward current density enter a value or expression for the Normal current density
Jn (SI unit: A/m2). Use a positive value for an inward current flow or a negative
value for an outward current flow. The default is 0 A/m2.
• For Current density enter values or expressions for the components of the Current
density J0 (SI unit: A/m2). The defaults are 0 A/m2.

Distributed Impedance
The Distributed Impedance node adds a distributed impedance boundary condition to
a model.

The Harmonic Perturbation subnode (it is of the exclusive type) is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or in the Physics toolbar, click the Attributes
menu and select Harmonic Perturbation. For more information see Harmonic
Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

Use this boundary condition to model a thin sheet of a resistive material connected to
a reference potential Vref.

The layer impedance can be specified either with the bulk material conductivity s, the
relative permittivity r and layer thickness ds, or directly with the surface resistance s
and capacitance Cs. Assuming DC currents, the equation is:

s
n   J 1 – J 2  = -----  V – V ref 
ds
1
n   J 1 – J 2  = -----  V – V ref 
s

For the Frequency Domain and Time Dependent study types, this boundary condition
is slightly more sophisticated and accounts also for capacitive coupling. The equations
are:

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 125

   + j 0  r 
n   J 1 – J 2  = --------------------------------  V – V ref 
ds

n   J 1 – J 2  =  ----
1 
 r + jC s  V – V ref 
s


n   J 1 – J 2  = -------    V – V ref  +  0  r  V – V ref 
1
dL t

n   J 1 – J 2  =  -----  V – V ref  + C s  V – V ref 
1
 s t 

DISTRIBUTED IMPEDANCE
Enter the reference potential Vref (SI unit: V). The default is 0 V.

Select a potentially complex-valued Layer specification — Thin layer (the default) or

Surface impedance.

• For Thin layer, enter values or expressions for the:

- Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default is 5·103 m (5 mm).
- Electrical conductivity  (SI unit: S/m) and Relative permittivity r
(dimensionless). The defaults take values From material. For User defined, enter
different values or expressions. The default electrical conductivity is 1·102 S/m
and the default relative permittivity is 1.
• For Surface impedance, enter values or expressions for the Surface resistance s
(SI unit: ·m2) and the Surface capacitance Cs (SI unit: Fm2). The default surface
impedance is 1·108 ·m2 and the default surface capacitance is 0 Fm2.

126 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

Terminal
The Terminal node provides a boundary or domain condition for connection to
external circuits, to transmission lines, or with a specified voltage or current. By
specifying zero current, a floating potential condition is obtained.

In most cases, it is not recommended to include the interior of good

conductors in the simulation. When using the Terminal on the domain
level, the interior unknowns for the electric potential are replaced by a
single constant, thus avoiding numerical problems arising from a very
high material contrast. If one instead uses the Terminal on the boundary
level, it is recommended to exclude the interior of the associated
conductor from the domain selection for the main Electric Currents
node.

The Terminal node also enables the computation of the lumped parameter of the
system, such as the impedance.

The Harmonic Perturbation subnode (it is of the exclusive type) is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or in the Physics toolbar, click the Attributes
menu and select Harmonic Perturbation. The Harmonic Perturbation subnode only has
effect if Current or Voltage are selected as terminal type. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

An operation named as Split by Connectivity ( ) is available by right-clicking the

parent node. The operation is useful when there are several terminal domains or
boundaries that are not geometrically connected. Clicking the operation node will
automatically generate several Terminal nodes where each selection is geometrically
connected.

TERMINAL
Specify the terminal’s properties. The Terminal name identifies the terminal and the
variables it creates. The name should be numeric for sweeps to work properly.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 127

 Select a Terminal type — Current (the default), Voltage, Circuit, Power, Terminated
(power), and Terminated (voltage). Select:

The Circuit and Power types cannot be used together with a terminal
sweep.

• Current to specify a total current flowing from the terminal. Enter the current I0 (SI
unit: A). The default is 0 A for an open circuit.
• Voltage to specify a fixed electric potential at the terminal. Enter the value of the
electric potential V0 (SI unit: V). The default is 1 V.
• Circuit to specify a terminal connected to an Electrical Circuit interface that models
an external circuit.
• Power to specify a fixed electrical power for the terminal. The power is computed as
the product of the terminal current and voltage and, in the frequency domain, is the
cycle-averaged power. When Power is selected:
- Enter a Terminal power P0 (SI unit: W) to specify the input power at this terminal.
The default is 1 W.
• Terminated (power) to connect the terminal to an impedance that might represent a
load or a transmission line. When Terminated (power) is selected, the scattering
parameters (S-parameters) are computed.
- Enter a Terminal power P0 (SI unit: W) to specify the input power at this terminal
from the transmission line. This excitation can be toggled using a terminal sweep.
The default is 1 W.
- Select an option from the Characteristic impedance from list to define the value of
the impedance — Physics interface (the default) or User defined. For Physics
interface the Reference impedance Zref defined in the Settings window for the

128 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

 physics interface under Sweep Settings is used. For User defined enter a specific
impedance Zref (SI unit: ) for this terminal. The default is 50 .
• Terminated (voltage) to connect the terminal to an impedance that might represent
a load or a transmission line. The Terminated (voltage) option is essentially the same
2
as Terminated (power), with the power defined as: P 0 = 0.5  V 0  Z ref .

Using Power excitation causes the equation system to become nonlinear.

COMSOL Multiphysics automatically adjusts the solver settings when
Power is selected.

Be aware that, in general, the values of the voltage and the current might
not uniquely be determined by this constraint and may depend on the
initial value provided for the current and voltage variables. Particularly in
the frequency domain, the absolute phase of the quantities can be
arbitrary. This indeterminacy can have an impact on the solution process.
See Compile Equations in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual for a possible solution to this problem.

Initial Values
The initial values subsection is used to provide initial values for the internal state
variables in the Terminal. These settings can be useful to provide an initial guess to the
nonlinear solver or the initial value in a time-dependent study when the initial values
of the other dependent variables (such as the electric potential) are computed from a
separate physics or study. In most cases, the default values are appropriate.

The Initial value for voltage is available for all Terminal types except Voltage. Enter an
Initial value for voltage Vinit (SI unit: V). The default is 0 V.

The Initial value for current is available for Power only. In this case, it provides an initial
guess for the nonlinear solver, and should not be set to zero. The initial value provided
may affect the solution. Enter an Initial value for current Iinit (SI unit: A). The default
is 1 mA.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 129

 Electric Shielding
The Electric Shielding node provides an electric shielding boundary condition. Use this
node to model a thin layer of a highly conductive medium that shields the electric field.
The sheet has the electrical conductivity s and the surface thickness d.

The condition is represented by the following equation for interior boundaries and
(setting J2  0) exterior boundaries assuming DC currents

n   J 1 – J 2  = –  t  d   s tV 

For the frequency domain and Time Dependent study types, also displacement
currents are accounted for via the bulk relative permittivity of the sheet; rs and the
conservation laws change to:

n   J 1 – J 2  = –  t  d    s + j 0  rs  tV 


n   J 1 – J 2  = –  t  d   s tV +  0  rs tV
t

Use this boundary condition when approximating a thin domain with a boundary to
reduce the number of mesh elements. The Electric Field and Conduction Current sections
are the same as for Current Conservation.

THICKNESS
Enter a value or expression for the Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default is
1 cm.

Contact Impedance
Use the Contact Impedance node on interior boundaries to model a thin layer of
resistive material. It can also be added as a pair using a Pair Contact Impedance node.
The feature allows specifying the contact impedance either by entering the properties
of the material together with the layer thickness, or by entering the impedance
properties of the thin layer directly.

The feature, in stationary studies, applies the following conditions that relate the
normal electric current density with the jump in the electric potential:

130 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

 
n  J 1 = ------  V 1 – V 2 
ds

n  J 2 = ------  V 2 – V 1 
ds
1
n  J 1 = -----  V 1 – V 2 
s
1
n  J 2 = -----  V 2 – V 1 
s

The first two equations refer to a layer impedance specified using the bulk material
conductivity s and the layer thickness ds, while the last two equations refer to the case
in which the surface resistance s is specified. The indices 1 and 2 refer to the two sides
of the boundary. These parameters work the same as with Distributed Impedance.

For the frequency domain and Time Dependent study types, this boundary condition
is slightly more sophisticated and accounts also for capacitive coupling. The bulk
material relative permittivity r or the layer capacitance Cs can be specified.

The equations used in Frequency Domain studies are:

  + j 0  r 
n  J 1 = --------------------------------  V 1 – V 2 
ds
  + j 0  r 
n  J 2 = --------------------------------  V 2 – V 1 
ds

n  J 1 =  ----
1- + jC   V – V 
 s 1 2
s

n  J 2 =  ----
1 
  - + jC s  V 2 – V 1 
s

In Time Dependent studies:


n  J 1 = -----    V 1 – V 2  +  0  r  V 1 – V 2 
1
ds t

n  J 2 = -----    V 2 – V 1  +  0  r   V 2 – V 1 
1
ds  t 

n  J 1 =  -----  V 1 – V 2  + C s   V 1 – V 2 
1
 s t 


n  J 2 =  -----  V 2 – V 1  + C s  V 2 – V 1 
1
 s t 

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 131

 CONTACT IMPEDANCE
Select a potentially complex-valued Layer specification — Thin layer (the default) or
Surface impedance.

• For Thin layer, enter values or expressions for the:

- Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default is 5·103 m (5 mm).
- Electrical conductivity  (SI unit: S/m) and Relative permittivity r
(dimensionless). The defaults take values From material. For User defined, enter
different values or expressions. The default electrical conductivity is 1·102 S/m
and the default relative permittivity is 1.
• For Surface impedance, enter values or expressions for the Surface resistance s (SI
unit: ·m2) and the Surface capacitance Cs (SI unit: Fm2). The default surface
impedance is 1·108 ·m2 and the default surface capacitance is 0 Fm2.

Thin-Film Resistance: Application Library path COMSOL_Multiphysics/

Electromagnetics/thin_film_resistance

Sector Symmetry
Select Sector Symmetry at interfaces between rotating objects where sector symmetry
is used. It is only available for pairs. A default subnode is added. Right-click to select
additional features from the Fallback Features submenu. In 2D, this feature assumes
rotation around the origin.

This feature is always used in conjunction with a Periodic Condition on

adjacent radial sector boundaries. Note that the same periodic condition
feature cannot be used on both sides of where the sector symmetry
boundaries connect with the periodic boundaries. At least two periodic
condition features are required for the model to compute correctly.

PAIR SELECTION
When using nonconforming meshes on the source and destination of a pair, for
numerical stability, a finer mesh should be applied on the destination side for any pair
with a condition that imposes a coupling or a constraint across the pair. The sector
symmetry feature falls into this category.

132 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

SECTOR SETTINGS
Enter the Number of sectors (<50) nsect. The default is 2.

Select a Type of periodicity — Continuity (the default) or Antiperiodicity.

Based on space dimension, enter values or expressions in the table for the Axis of
rotation arot.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The constraint setting can be set
to Pointwise constraints (default), or Weak constraints. Additionally, the Nitsche
constraints option is available for the scalar potential in the Electric Currents, Magnetic
Field, No Currents, and Rotating Machinery, Magnetic physics interfaces. The
displacement current term is excluded from the Nitsche constraints in the Electric
Currents interface and is therefore valid in the quasistationary approximation.

The Nitsche constraints option assumes the quasistatic approximation and

is applicable only for pairs adjacent to domains with small or no
displacement currents or induced eddy currents normal to the pair
boundary. In addition, nonlinear material models in the neighboring
domains are not supported.

Line Current Source

The Line Current Source node adds a line source to edges in 3D components and to
points in 2D and 2D axisymmetric components. The line source represents electric
current per unit length.

EDGE OR POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on edges or points usually yields a

current outflow that is mesh dependent.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 133

 LINE CURRENT SOURCE
Enter a value or expression to apply a Line current source Qj (SI unit: A/m). This
source represents electric current per unit length. The default is 0 A/m.

Line Current Source (on Axis) for 2D axisymmetric components.

Line Current Source (on Axis)

The Line Current Source (on Axis) node adds a line source to boundaries in 2D
axisymmetric components. The line source represents electric current per unit length.

LINE CURRENT SOURCE (ON AXIS)

Enter a value or expression to apply a Line current source Qj (SI unit: A/m) to
boundaries. This source represents electric current per unit length.

Line Current Source

Point Current Source

The Point Current Source node adds a point source and represents an electric current
flowing out of the point. Add point sources to 3D components from the Points menu.
Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or
clicking Harmonic Perturbation in the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on points usually yields a current

outflow that is mesh dependent.

134 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

POINT CURRENT SOURCE
Enter a value or expression to apply a Point current source Qj (SI unit: A) to points.
This source represents an electric current flowing out of the point.

• Line Current Source for 2D components

• Point Current Source (on Axis) for 2D axisymmetric components

Point Current Source (on Axis)

The Point Current Source (on Axis) node adds a point source and represents an electric
current flowing out of the point in 2D axisymmetric components.

POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on points usually yields a current

outflow that is mesh dependent.

POINT CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression to apply a Point current source Qj (SI unit: A) to points.
This source represents an electric current flowing out of the point.

• Point Current Source for 3D components

• Line Current Source for 2D components

Electric Point Dipole

The Electric Point Dipole node, available for 2D and 3D components, represents the
limiting case of zero separation distance between two equally strong point current
sources and current sinks of opposing signs while maintaining the product between
separation distance and source strength at a fixed value (P). The positive direction is
from the current sink to the current source.

DIPOLE SPECIFICATION
Select a Dipole specification — Magnitude and direction (the default) or Dipole moment.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 135

 DIPOLE PARAMETERS
Under Dipole Specification:

• For Magnitude and direction enter coordinates for the Electric current dipole moment
direction np and the Electric current dipole moment, magnitude p (SI unit: A·m).
• For Dipole moment enter the components of the Electric current dipole moment p (SI
unit: A·m).

Electric Point Dipole (on Axis)

Electric Point Dipole (on Axis)

The Electric Point Dipole (on Axis), available for 2D axisymmetric components,
represents the limiting case of zero separation distance between two equally strong
point current sources and current sinks of opposing signs while maintaining the
product between separation distance and source strength at a fixed value (P). The
positive direction is from the current sink to the current source.

ELECTRIC POINT DIPOLE (ON AXIS)

Enter the Electric current dipole moment in z direction pz (SI unit: A·m).

Electric Point Dipole

Current Conservation, Piezoresistive

The Current Conservation, Piezoresistive node is normally used together with a
Piezoresistivity multiphysics coupling node. The node is added by default to the Electric
Currents interface when adding a Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents predefined
multiphysics coupling interface. It is also available from the context menu (right-click
the Electric Currents interface parent node) or from the Physics toolbar.

More information can be found in The Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents Interface

section of the MEMS Module User’s Guide.

136 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION JC-E
Select a Constitutive model — Piezoresistance form or Elastoresistance form. For each of
the following, the default uses values From material. For User defined enter other values
in the matrix or field.

• Specify an Electrical conductivity, zero stress (SI unit: S/m). This typically comes
from the material added under the Materials node.
• For Piezoresistance form, select a Piezoresistance coupling matrix l (SI unit: m/
Pa).
For a Elastoresistance form, select an Elastoresistance coupling matrix Ml
(SI unit: m).

When the Current Conservation, Piezoresistive node is added to the Electric

Currents interface in the absence of an active Piezoresistivity multiphysics
coupling node, the material behaves similarly to a Current Conservation
node with the electrical conductivity corresponding to the entered value
of electrical conductivity at zero stress. The piezoresistive effect will be
not included in the corresponding equation system.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 137

 The Electrical Circuit Interface
The Electrical Circuit (cir) interface ( ), found under the AC/DC branch ( ) when
adding a physics interface, is used to model currents and voltages in circuits including
voltage and current sources, resistors, capacitors, inductors, and semiconductor
devices. Models created with the Electrical Circuit interface can include connections
to distributed field models. The physics interface supports stationary,
frequency-domain and time-domain modeling and solves Kirchhoff’s conservation
laws for the voltages, currents, and charges associated with the circuit elements.

When this physics interface is added, it adds a default Ground Node feature and
associates that with node zero in the electrical circuit.

Circuit nodes are nodes in the electrical circuit (electrical nodes) and
should not be confused with nodes in the Model Builder tree of the
COMSOL Multiphysics software. Circuit node names are not restricted
to numerical values but can contain alphanumeric characters.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is cir.

RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL TO PN JUNCTIONS

For numerical stability, a large resistance is added automatically in parallel to the pn
junctions in diodes and BJT devices. Enter a default value for the Resistance in parallel
to pn junctions Rj (SI unit: ). The default value is 1·1012 

CREATE UNIQUE NODES FOR NEW DEVICES

When this setting is selected (the default), newly added devices will be assigned unused
node names. The devices will be disconnected from the rest of the circuit and the
nodes should be updated to reflect the actual circuit connections. When this setting is

138 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

deselected, new devices will be connected to the lowest-numbered nodes starting from
0.

• Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface

• Connecting to Electrical Circuits

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT TOOLBAR

The following nodes are available from the Electrical Circuit ribbon toolbar (Windows
users), Electrical Circuit context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the
context menu (all users):

For step-by-step instructions and general documentation

descriptions, this is the Electrical Circuit toolbar.

• Ground Node • Subcircuit Definition

• Voltmeter • Subcircuit Instance
• Ampère Meter • Mutual Inductance
• Resistor • Transformer
• Capacitor • NPN BJT and PNP BJT2
• Inductor • n-Channel MOSFET and
• Voltage Source p-Channel MOSFET2

• Current Source • External I vs. U3

• Diode • External U vs. I3

• Switch • External I-Terminal3

• Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source1 • SPICE Circuit Import

• Voltage-Controlled Current Source1 • SPICE Circuit Export

• Current-Controlled Voltage Source1

• Current-Controlled Current Source1
1
Selected from the Dependent Sources submenu when you right-click main node.
2 Selected from the Transistors submenu when you right-click main node.
3
Selected from the External Couplings submenu when you right-click main node.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 139

 Ground Node
The Ground Node ( ) feature adds a ground node with the default node number zero
to the electrical circuit. This is the default node in the Electrical Circuit interface. More
ground nodes can be added but those must have unique node numbers and are by
default given higher node numbers.

GROUND CONNECTION
Set the Node name for the ground node in the circuit. The convention is to use 0 (zero)
for the ground node. If adding more ground nodes, each must have a unique node
name (number).

Voltmeter
The Voltmeter ( ) feature connects a voltmeter (voltage measurement device)
between two nodes in the electrical circuit. A voltmeter behaves electrically as an open
circuit. The voltmeter node adds a Probe sampling the voltage across it.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the resistor.

Ampère Meter
The Ammeter ( ) feature connects an ammeter (current measurement device)
between two nodes in the electrical circuit. An ammeter behaves electrically as a short
circuit. The ammeter node adds a Probe sampling the current through it.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the resistor.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Resistance of the resistor.

Resistor
The Resistor ( ) feature connects a resistor between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the resistor.

140 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Resistance of the resistor.

Capacitor
The Capacitor ( ) feature connects a capacitor between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the capacitor.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Capacitance of the capacitor.

Inductor
The Inductor ( ) feature connects an inductor between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the inductor.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Inductance of the inductor.

Voltage Source
The Voltage Source ( ) feature connects a voltage source between two nodes in the
electrical circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the voltage source. The first node
represents the positive reference terminal.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 141

 DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Source type that should be adapted to the selected study type. It can be
General source, AC-source, or a time-dependent Sine source or Pulse source. Depending
on the choice of source, also specify the following parameters:

• For a General source, the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V). General sources are active
in Stationary, Time-Dependent and Frequency Domain studies.
• For an AC-source: the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V) and the Phase  (default
value: 0 rad). AC-sources are active in Frequency Domain studies only.
• For a sine source: the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V), the Offset Voff (default value:
0 V), the Frequency (default value: 1 kHz), and the Phase  (default value: 0 rad).
The sine sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.
• For a pulse source: the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V), the Offset Voff (default value:
0 V), the Delay td (default value: 0s), the Rise time tr and Fall time tf (default values:
0 s), the Pulse width pw (default value: 1 s), and the Period Tper (default value: 2 s).
The pulse sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.

All values are peak values rather than RMS.

For the AC source, the frequency is a global input set by the solver. AC
sources should be used in Frequency-domain studies only. Do not use the
Sine source unless the model is time dependent.

Current Source
The Current Source ( ) feature connects a current source between two nodes in the
electrical circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the current source. The first node
represents the positive reference terminal from where the current flows through the
source to the second node.

142 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Source type that should be adapted to the selected study type. It can be
General source, AC-source, or a time-dependent Sine source or Pulse source. Depending
on the choice of source, also specify the following parameters:

• For a General source, the Current isrc (default value: 1 A). General sources are active
in Stationary, Time-Dependent and Frequency Domain studies.
• For an AC-source: the Current isrc (default value: 1 A) and the Phase  (default
value: 0 rad). AC-sources are active in Frequency Domain studies only.
• For a sine source: the Current isrc (default value: 1 A), the Offset ioff (default value:
0 A), the Frequency (default value: 1 kHz), and the Phase  (default value: 0 rad).
The sine sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.
• For a pulse source: the Current isrc (default value: 1 A), the Offset ioff (default value:
0 A), the Delay td (default value: 0 s), the Rise time tr and Fall time tf (default values:
0 s), the Pulse width pw (default value: 1 s), and the Period Tper (default value: 2 s).
The pulse sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.

All values are peak values rather than RMS.

For the AC source, the frequency is a global input set by the solver. AC
sources should be used in frequency-domain studies only. Do not use the
Sine source unless the model is time dependent.

Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source

The Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source ( ) feature connects a voltage-controlled
voltage source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. A second pair of nodes
define the input control voltage.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names: the first pair for the connection nodes for the voltage source
and the second pair defining the input control voltage. The first node in a pair
represents the positive reference terminal.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 143

 DEVICE PARAMETERS
There are two options to define the relationship between the control voltage and
resulting voltage. The Use gain method defines the resulting voltage to be the control
voltage multiplied by the gain. The Custom expression method can define the
relationship with an arbitrary expression.

Voltage-Controlled Current Source

The Voltage-Controlled Current Source ( ) feature connects a voltage-controlled
current source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. A second pair of nodes
define the input control voltage.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names: the first pair for the connection nodes for the current source
and the second pair defining the input control voltage. The first node in a pair
represents the positive voltage reference terminal or the one from where the current
flows through the source to the second node.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
There are two options to define the relationship between the control voltage and
resulting current. The Use gain method defines the resulting current to be the control
voltage multiplied by the gain (SI units: S). The Custom expression method can define
the relationship with an arbitrary expression.

Current-Controlled Voltage Source

The Current-Controlled Voltage Source ( ) feature connects a current-controlled
voltage source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The input control current
is the one flowing through a two-pin device.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set two Node names for the connection nodes for the voltage source. The first node in
a pair represents the positive reference terminal.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
There are two options to define the relationship between the control current and
resulting voltage. The Use gain method defines the resulting voltage to be the control
current multiplied by the gain (SI units: ). The Custom expression method can define
the relationship with an arbitrary expression.

144 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

Current-Controlled Current Source
The Current-Controlled Current Source ( ) feature connects a current-controlled
current source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The input control current
is the one flowing through a named device that must be a two-pin device.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify two Node names for the connection nodes for the current source. The first node
in a pair represents the positive reference terminal from where the current flows
through the source to the second node.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
There are two options to define the relationship between the control current and
resulting current. The Use gain method defines the resulting current to be the control
current multiplied by the gain. The Custom expression method can define the
relationship with an arbitrary expression.

Switch
The Switch ( ) feature is used to connect or disconnect the conducting path in a
circuit under specific conditions.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify two Node names for the connection nodes for the current source. The first node
in a pair represents the positive reference terminal from where the current flows
through the source to the second node.

SWITCH CONDITIONS
There are three types of conditions, Voltage controlled, Current controlled, and Custom
expressions. For each type of condition there are two conditions, one for turn on and
one for turn off. The on condition is true if the On condition expression is larger than
zero, while the off condition is true if the Off condition is less than zero.

The Initial state list has three options, Use on condition, Use off condition, and Boolean
expression. The two former options mean that the switch will have an initial state
matching to the on or off condition. The third option makes the switch's initial state
match a custom Boolean expression. Separating on, off, and initial states makes the
switch more flexible and can support Schmitt-trigger style switches and various latches.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 145

 For the Voltage controlled switch, it is necessary to specify two nodes that defines the
voltage sens.v that the switch state depends on. The conditions must be written as a
function of this variable. Similarly, for the Current controlled switch it is necessary to
specify a two-pin device that defines the current sens.i that the switch state depends
on.

SWITCH PARAMETERS
When the switch is in the on state it has a nonzero resistance specified by the On
resistance expression. For the off state no current flows through the switch (infinite
resistance). There is also a transition time for the switch to turn on and off set by the
Switching time expression. The switch triggers an implicit event that updates a discrete
state variable (with suffix _state).

Subcircuit Definition
The Subcircuit Definition ( ) feature is used to define subcircuits, which can be
inserted as devices into the main circuit using Subcircuit Instance nodes. Create the
subcircuit by adding subnodes to the Subcircuit Definition node, either by using the
Physics toolbar, or by right-clicking the Subcircuit Definition.

SUBCIRCUIT PINS
Define the Pin names at which the subcircuit connects to the main circuit or to other
subcircuits when referenced by a Subcircuit Instance node. The Pin names refer to
circuit nodes in the subcircuit. The order in which the Pin names are defined is the
order in which they are referenced by a Subcircuit Instance node. The devices
constituting the subcircuit should be connected only to the subcircuit’s pins and to
themselves.

INPUT PARAMETERS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. Specify input parameters to a subcircuit that can be changed from a
subcircuit instance. These input parameters can be used in all expression-style edit
fields that affect the parameters of a device, for example, resistance, capacitance, and
current gain. In this way, a subcircuit can represent a parameterized custom device
model.

146 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

Subcircuit Instance
The Subcircuit Instance ( ) feature represents an instance of a subcircuits defined by
a Subcircuit Definition feature.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Select the Name of subcircuit link from the list of defined subcircuits in the circuit model
and the circuit Node names at which the subcircuit instance connects to the main circuit
or to another subcircuit if used therein.

INPUT PARAMETERS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. Specify input parameters to a subcircuit that can be changed from a
subcircuit instance. These input parameters can be used in all expression-style edit
fields that affect the parameters of a device, for example, resistance, capacitance, and
current gain. In this way, a subcircuit can represent a parameterized custom device
model.

NPN BJT and PNP BJT

The NPN BJT ( ) and the PNP BJT ( ) device models are large-signal models for
bipolar junction transistors (BJT). It is an advanced device model and no thorough
description and motivation of the many input parameters are attempted here. Many
device manufacturers provide model input parameters for this BJT model. For any
particular make of BJT, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of
information.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify three Node names for the connection nodes for the BJT device. These represent
the collector, base, and emitter nodes for the NPN transistor, and the emitter, base, and
collector nodes for the PNP transistor.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 147

 MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
BJT, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

The interested reader is referred to Ref. 1 for more details on

semiconductor modeling within circuits.

For an explanation of the Model Parameters see Bipolar Transistors.

n-Channel MOSFET and p-Channel MOSFET

The n-Channel MOSFET ( ) and the p-Channel MOSFET ( ) device models are
large-signal models for, respectively, an n-Channel MOS field-effect transistor
(MOSFET) and p-Channel MOSFET. These are advanced device models and no
thorough description and motivation of the many input parameters are attempted
here. Many device manufacturers provide model parameters for the MOSFET models.
For any particular make of MOSFET, the device manufacturer should be the primary
source of information.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names for the connection nodes for the n-Channel MOSFET or
p-Channel MOSFET device. These represent the drain, gate, source, and bulk nodes,
respectively.

MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
MOSFET, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

The interested reader is referred to Ref. 1 for more details on

semiconductor modeling within circuits.

For an explanation of the Model Parameters see MOSFET Transistors.

Mutual Inductance
The Mutual Inductance allows specifying a coupling between two existing Inductor
features in the circuit. The mutual inductance of the coupling is

148 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

 M = k L1 L2

where k is the coupling factor and L1 and L2 are the inductances of the inductors.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter values or expressions for the:

• Coupling factor k (dimensionless). The value must be between 0 and 1, and the
default is 0.98.
• First inductance L1 (SI unit: H) and Second inductance L2 (SI unit: H). These must
be set to two different Inductor features in the circuit.

Transformer
The Transformer feature represents either a combination of two Inductor and a Mutual
Inductance features, or an ideal transformer.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Enter or edit the table in the Node names column for the primary and secondary node
connections.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Choose a Transformer model — Specify inductors (the default) or Ideal transformer.

For Specify inductors enter values or expressions for the:

• Coupling factor k (dimensionless). The default is 0.98.

• First inductance L1 (SI unit: H). The default is 1 mH.
• Second inductance L2 (SI unit: H). The default is 1 mH.

For Ideal transformer enter values or expressions for the Winding ratio N1/N2
(dimensionless). The default is 10.

Diode
The Diode device model ( ) is a large-signal model for a diode. It is an advanced
device model and no thorough description and motivation of the many input
parameters are attempted here. The interested reader is referred to Ref. 1 for more
details on semiconductor modeling within circuits. Many device manufacturers

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 149

 provide model parameters for this diode model. For any particular make of diode, the
device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify two Node names for the positive and negative nodes for the Diode device.

MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
diode, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

For an explanation of the Model Parameters see Diode.

External I vs. U
The External I vs. U ( ) feature connects an arbitrary voltage measurement (for
example, a circuit terminal or circuit port boundary or a coil domain from another
physics interface) as a voltage source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The
resulting circuit current from the first node to the second node is typically coupled
back as a prescribed current source in the context of the voltage measurement.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the voltage source. The first
node represents the positive reference terminal.

EXTERNAL DEVICE
Enter the source of the Voltage. If circuit or current excited terminals or circuit ports
are defined on boundaries or domains or a multiturn coil domains is defined in other
physics interfaces, these display as options in the Voltage list. Also select the User defined
option and enter your own voltage variable, for example, using a suitable coupling
operator. For inductive or electromagnetic wave propagation models, the voltage
measurement must be performed as an integral of the electric field because the electric

150 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

potential only does not capture induced EMF. Also the integration must be performed
over a distance that is short compared to the local wavelength.

Except when coupling to a circuit terminal, circuit port, or coil, the

current flow variable must be manually coupled back in the electrical
circuit to the context of the voltage measurement. This applies also when
coupling to a current excited terminal. The name of this current variable
follows the convention cirn.IvsUm_i, where cirn is the tag of the
Electrical Circuit interface node and IvsUm is the tag of the External I vs.
U node. The tags are typically displayed within curly brackets {} in the
Model Builder.

Nonlocal Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

External U vs. I
The External U vs. I ( ) feature connects an arbitrary current measurement (for
example, a coil domain from another physics interface) as a current source between
two nodes in the electrical circuit. The resulting circuit voltage between the first node
and the second node is typically coupled back as a prescribed voltage source in the
context of the current measurement.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the current source. The
current flows from the first node to the second node.

EXTERNAL DEVICE
Enter the source of the Current. Voltage excited terminals or lumped ports defined on
boundaries in other physics interfaces are natural candidates but do not appear as
options in the Voltage list because those do not have an accurate built-in current

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 151

 measurement variable. A User defined option must be selected and a current variable
entered, for example, using a suitable coupling operator.

The voltage variable must be manually coupled back in the electrical

circuit to the context of the current measurement. This applies also when
coupling to a voltage excited terminal or lumped port. The name of this
voltage variable follows the convention cirn.UvsIm_v, where cirn is the
tag of the Electrical Circuit interface node and UvsIm is the tag of the
External U vs. I node. The tags are typically displayed within curly
brackets {} in the Model Builder.

Nonlocal Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

External I-Terminal
The External I-Terminal ( ) feature connects an arbitrary voltage-to-ground
measurement (for example, a circuit terminal from another physics interface) as a
voltage-to-ground assignment to a node in the electrical circuit. The resulting circuit
current from the node is typically coupled back as a prescribed current source in the
context of the voltage measurement. This node does not apply when coupling to
inductive or electromagnetic wave propagation models because then voltage must be
defined as a line integral between two points rather than a single point measurement
of electric potential. For such couplings, use the External I vs. U node instead.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the Node name for the connecting node for the voltage assignment.

EXTERNAL TERMINAL
Enter the source of the Voltage. If circuit- or current-excited terminals are defined on
boundaries in other physics interfaces, these display as options in the Voltage list. Also

152 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

select the User defined option and enter a voltage variable, for example, using a suitable
coupling operator.

• Except when coupling to a circuit terminal, the current flow variable

must be manually coupled back in the electrical circuit to the context
of the voltage measurement. This applies also when coupling to a
current excited terminal. The name of this current variable follows the
convention cirn.termIm_i, where cirn is the tag of the Electrical
Circuit interface node and termIm is the tag of the External I-Terminal
node. The tags are typically displayed within curly brackets {} in the
Model Builder.
• When connecting the finite element model between two circuit nodes
that both are not grounded, the External I-Terminal node cannot be
used. In this case, use External I vs. U or External U vs. I instead.

Nonlocal Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual.

SPICE Circuit Import

Right-click the Electrical Circuit ( ) feature node to import an existing SPICE netlist
(select Import Spice Netlist). A window opens — enter a file location or browse your
directories to find one. The default file extension for a SPICE netlist is .cir. The
SPICE circuit import translates the imported netlist into Electrical Circuit interface
nodes so these define the subset of SPICE features that can be imported.

See SPICE Import and Export about the supported SPICE commands.

SPICE Circuit Export

Right-click the Electrical Circuit ( ) feature node to export the current circuit to the
SPICE netlist file format (select Export Spice Netlist ). A window opens — enter a

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 153

 file location or browse your directories to find one. The default file extension for a
SPICE netlist is .cir. The compatible circuit nodes are exported as SPICE devices

See for more details on the supported SPICE commands.

154 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

T he o r y f o r th e E l ec t rost at i cs
Interface
The Electrostatics Interface is available for 3D, 2D in-plane, and 2D axisymmetric
components. Applications with electrostatic equations include high-voltage apparatus,
electronic devices, and capacitors. The term “statics” is not to be interpreted literally
— it is the observation time, or time scale at which the applied excitation changes, that
is short compared to the charge relaxation time; also, the electromagnetic wavelength
and skin depth are very large compared to the size of the domain of interest.

If you do not know whether to use the Electric Currents or the Electrostatics interface,
which both solve for the scalar electric potential V, consider using an explicit charge
transport model. See Charge Relaxation Theory.

• Debye Dispersion

Charge Relaxation Theory

COMSOL Multiphysics includes physics interfaces for the modeling of static electric
fields and currents. Deciding what specific physics interface and study type to select for
a particular modeling situation requires a basic understanding of the charge dynamics
in conductors.

The different physics interfaces involving only the scalar electric potential can be
interpreted in terms of the charge relaxation process. The fundamental equations
involved are Ohm’s law for the conduction current density

J c = E

the equation of continuity

-----
- +   J = 0
t c

and Gauss’ law

   E  = 

By combining these, one can deduce the following differential equation for the space
charge density in a homogeneous medium

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 155

 -----
- + 
---  = 0
t 

This equation has the solution

–t  
  t  = 0 e

where

 = ---


is called the charge relaxation time. For a good conductor like copper,  is of the order
of 1019 s, whereas for a good insulator like silica glass, it is of the order of 103 s. For
a pure insulator, it becomes infinite.

When modeling real-world devices, there is not only the intrinsic time scale of the
charge relaxation time but also an external time scale t at which a device is energized
or the observation time. It is the relation between the external time scale and the
charge relaxation time that determines what physics interface and study type to use.
The results are summarized in Table 3-3 below,
TABLE 3-3: SUITABLE PHYSICS INTERFACE AND STUDY TYPE FOR DIFFERENT TIME-SCALE REGIMES.

CASE PHYSICS INTERFACE STUDY TYPE

>>t Electrostatics Stationary

<<t Electric Currents Stationary
~ t Electric Currents Time Dependent or Frequency Domain

FIRST CASE:  >> T

If the external time scale is short compared to the charge relaxation time, the charges
do not have time to redistribute to any significant degree. Thus the charge distribution
can be considered as a given model input. The best approach is to solve the
Electrostatics formulation using the electric potential V.

By combining the definition of the potential with Gauss’ law, you can derive the
classical Poisson’s equation. Under static conditions, the electric potential V is defined
by the equivalence E  V. Using this together with the constitutive relation D0E
P between D and E, you can rewrite Gauss’ law as a variant of Poisson’s equation

–     0 V – P  = 

156 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

This equation is used in the Electrostatics interface. It is worth noting that Gauss’ law
does not require the charge distribution to be static. Thus, provided dynamics are slow
enough that induced electric fields can be neglected and hence a scalar electric
potential is justified, the formulation can be used also in the Time Dependent study
type. That typically involves either prescribing the charge dynamics or coupling a
separate formulation for this.

Such separate charge transport formulations can be found in the Plasma

Module, the Semiconductor Module, and the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module.

SECOND CASE:  <<T

If the external time scale is long compared to the charge relaxation time, the stationary
solution to the equation of continuity has been reached. In a stationary coordinate
system, a slightly more general form of Ohm’s law than above states that

J c = E + J e

where Je is an externally generated current density. The static form of the equation of
continuity then reads

  J c = –     V – J e  = 0

To handle current sources, the equation can be generalized to

–     V – J e  = Q j

This equation is used in the static study type for the Electric Currents interface.

GENERAL CASE: CHARGE DYNAMICS

If the charge relaxation time is comparable to the external time scale, the Time
Dependent or Frequency Domain study types for the Electric Currents interface must
be used.

Combining the time-harmonic equation of continuity

  Jc =    E + J e  = –j

with the equation ( D) yields the following equation for the frequency domain
study type:

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 157

 –      + j 0 V –  J e + jP   = 0

For the Time Dependent study type, use the transient equation of continuity

  J c =    E + J e  = – 
t

and the resulting equation becomes

–      0 V + P  –    V – J e  = 0
t

These dynamic formulations are valid as long as induced electric fields can be ignored
and hence the electric field is essentially curl free. This condition is fulfilled provided
that skin effect and wave propagation effects can be ignored. The skin depth must be
much larger than the geometrical dimensions of the modeled device and so must the
wavelength. Note also that these formulations can be used to model dielectric regions
of capacitive/resistive devices even though the interior of electrodes sometimes does
not meet the large skin depth condition. In that case, the electrodes must only be
represented as boundary conditions (fixed or floating potential). The interior, metallic
domains are not included in the analysis. Obviously, this is only a valid approach for
devices where metallic electrodes do not entirely bypass (short circuit) the capacitive/
resistive layers. If metallic electrodes short circuit the capacitive/resistive layers, the
time evolution of the current is determined by inductive and resistive effects with very
little influence from the capacitive layers. Then the Magnetic Fields interface is the
appropriate modeling tool.

Electrostatics Equations
Under static conditions, the electric potential, V, is defined by the relationship:

E = – V

Combining this equation with the constitutive relationship D  0E  P between the
electric displacement D and the electric field E, it is possible to represent Gauss’ law
as the following equation:

–     0 V – P  = 

In this equation, the physical constant, 0 (SI unit: F/m) is the permittivity of vacuum,
P (SI unit: C/m2) is the electric polarization vector, and  (SI unit: C/m3) is a space
charge density. This equation describes the electrostatic field in dielectric materials.

158 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

For in-plane 2D modeling, the Electrostatics interface assumes a symmetry where the
electric potential varies only in the x and y directions and is constant in the z direction.
This implies that the electric field, E, is tangential to the xy-plane. With this symmetry,
the same equation is solved as in the 3D case. The physics interface solves the following
equation where d is the thickness in the z direction:

–   d   0 V – P  = 

The axisymmetric version of the physics interface considers the situation where the
fields and geometry are axially symmetric. In this case, the electric potential is constant
in the  direction, which implies that the electric field is tangential to the rz-plane.

The Electrostatics Interface in Time Dependent or Frequency Domain

Studies
The Electrostatics Interface can also be solved in a dynamic study (Time Dependent
or Frequency Domain). The equation system solved, however, is typically always the
one presented in the previous section for the stationary case, in which no transient
electromagnetic effects are taken into account. The difference is that the sources of the
problem (charge densities, electric potential) are assumed to be time-varying (in a
Time Dependent study) or time-harmonic (in a Frequency Domain study).

Users that have a license supporting the piezoelectric material model can
also include conduction losses in the frequency domain.

The support for dynamic studies simplifies the coupling of the Electrostatics interface
with other physics interfaces. Using the physics interface in a dynamic study is a valid
approximation only if the time-scale (or the frequency) of the study is so slow that
transient electromagnetic effects can be neglected; for example, in acoustic or
structural problems.

Most of the features in the Electrostatics interface have the same behavior in all study
types, with the important exception of the Terminal node.

The Electrostatics interface also supports the small-signal analysis study sequence,
which can be used when a time-harmonic perturbation is superposed on a static bias
charge or voltage.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 159

 Debye Dispersion
Ampere’s law is written as

H = J (3-1)

The total current is given by

D J
J = Ji + + p (3-2)
t

where

J i = E

is the induction current,

D = 0  E

is the electric displacement in the high frequency limit (in the sense that the excitation
duration is smaller than the shortest charge relaxation time).

The charge relaxation is modeled using the polarization current (Ref. 1)

Jp =  Jm
m=1

where each term obeys an equation of the following form:

J m E
m + J m =  0  m (3-3)
t t

where m is the relaxation time, and m is the relative permittivity contribution. Note
that both quantities can be taken as diagonal matrices to cover the anisotropic case.

Introduce new variables, auxiliary electric field from

e m
J m =  0  m
t

Equation 3-3 can be integrated once with respect to time assuming zero initial fields

e m
m + em = E (3-4)
t

160 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

The polarization current can be expressed the as either

Jp =    0  m e m (3-5)
t
m=1

or


–1
Jp = 0  m  m  E – e m 
m=1

By applying the divergence operator, Equation 3-1 yields the current conservation
equation:

J = 0

Assume that the electric conductivity is small, so that the induction current can be
neglected. Using Equation 3-5, the current conservation equation can be written as

N
 
E 
   0  +   0  m e m = 0
 t t 
 m=1 

which can be integrated once with respect to time assuming zero initial fields to give
the charge conservation equation

N
 
   0  E +  0  m e m = 0 (3-6)
 
 m=1 

Equation 3-6 can be solved using the scalar electric potential V as a dependent variable
determine the electric field as E  V, and it needs to be solved together with N
vector Equation 3-4 for N vector dependent variables em. In time domain, these
auxiliary field variables can be treated as the local state variables, and each of N
corresponding ODE equations can be integrated locally.

FREQUENCY DOMAIN
In frequency domain, Equation 3-5 for the auxiliary variables can be solved
analytically, so that Equation 3-6 gives

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 161

 N
 
  0  m  I + j m  E = 0

–1
  0  E +
 
 m=1 

where  is the angular frequency. By separating the real and imaginary parts, the
equation can be further rewritten as

    0  ' – j'' E  = 0

where

N
2 –1
' =   +   m  I +   m  
m=1

and

N
2 –1
'' =   m  m  I +   m  
m=1

Each term in the sum in the above equations represents a pole on the complex w plane.
Thus, the model is referred to as Multipole Debye Dispersion model. To determine
the number of poles needed to approximate the lossy material behavior can be a
difficult task. One possible approach is presented in Constant Loss Tangent section.

EIGENFREQUENCY STUDY
Direct use of the complex frequency-dependent permittivity would lead to a nonlinear
eigenvalue problem, for which the solution would depend on the eigenvalue
linearization point (transform point frequency, specified on the solver). The solution
would be accurate only for the eigenfrequency that is close to the transform point
frequency. Thus, the eigenfrequencies would need to be computed one by one using
iterative updates of the transform point frequency value.

Instead, one can solve N algebraic equations for the auxiliary variables em

j m e m + e m = E (3-7)

together with Equation 3-7. Even though this approach requires extra degrees of
freedom, it will produce frequency independent contributions to the damping and
stiffness matrices. The corresponding linear damped eigenvalue problem can be solved

162 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

using the default solver in a single run for any specified number of eigenfrequencies
which will be computed exactly.

In practice, an Eigenfrequency analysis makes sense only when the

Electrostatics interface is used together with some other physics that
defines a proper mass matrix. For example, a multiphysics model that
involves a Solid Mechanics (or other structural interfaces available in the
Structural Mechanics Module). Another possibilities is a coupling
between the Electrostatic Interface and electric circuits.

CONSTANT LOSS TANGENT

In frequency domain, the loss tangent is defined as

 = tan  = ''  ' (3-8)

and it is often used to characterize lossy materials based on experimental data.

In Ref. 2, a special parameterization was suggested for the multipole Debye model
based on the original result derived in Ref. 3 for equivalent electric circuits. It allows
to fit the model parameters for Multipole Debye Model so that the loss tangent is
nearly constant at a certain frequency range.

The input parameters are the loss tangent (fc) together with the center frequency fc,
at which is has been measured, and the model bandwidth nd that defines a frequency
interval (in decades) centered at fc, in which the loss tangent will be approximately
constant and equal to (fc).

The relaxation times are computed as m  1m, where the corresponding frequencies
are equidistantly spaced in the logarithmic space as

 N + 1 – 2m   2
 m =  c 10

where N is the number of Debye poles, and c  2fc.

The corresponding relative permittivity contribution is given by

m–1
 m =    k – 1 k

where k > 1 is the spacing parameter. Note that the relative electric permittivity in the
N
low and high frequency limits are related simply as  r  f  0  =   k .

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 163

 COMSOL Multiphysics software will automatically deduce the necessary number of
poles N together with the values of the relaxation times tm and relative permittivity
contributions m, which will be used in computations to maintain the requested
bandwidth and accuracy.

The accuracy can be selected as normal to give

  f  =   f c   6%

for

–nd  2 nd  2
10  f  f c  10
2  
which requires N = n d + 3 poles, and the spacing parameter k = 10 with the
loss angle d computed from (fc).

Alternatively, the accuracy can be selected as high to get

  f  =   f c   2%

in the same interval, which will require N = 3n d  2 + 5 poles, and the spacing
4  3
parameter k = 10 .

Thus computed parameters will be used automatically in a Time Dependent study

using Equation 3-4, and in an Eigenfrequency study using Equation 3-8.

In Eigenfrequency study and Time Dependent study, each pole will

require one extra vector degree of freedom (domain variable) to represent
the corresponding contribution to the polarization. Thus, using many
poles in the relaxation data, or choosing high accuracy n case of a constant
loss tangent, can lead to significant computation costs for larger models.

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
For many dielectric materials such as polymers, the charge relaxation properties have a
strong dependence on the temperature. A common assumption is that a change in the
temperature can be transformed directly into a change in the time scale. The reduced
time is defined as

t
dt'
tr =  ------------------------
T  T  t'  
0

164 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

where T(T) is a temperature-dependent shift function.

The implication is that the problem can be solved using the original material data,
provided that the time is transformed into the reduced time. Think of the shift
function T(T) as a multiplier to the relaxation time in Equation 3-4 and
Equation 3-8.

Vogel-Fulcher Shift
The shift function is given by

Q
log   T  = -------------------------
-
R  T – T0 

here, a base-e logarithm is used, Q is the activation energy (SI unit: J/mol), and R is
the universal gas constant. Temperature T0 is the temperature at which the relaxation
time would becomes infinite.

Arrhenius Shift
The shift function is assumed to follow an Arrhenius law

log   T  = ----  ---

Q 1 1 -
- – --------
R T T ref

here, a base-e logarithm is used, Q is the activation energy (SI unit: J/mol), and R is
the universal gas constant.

Williams–Landel–Ferry Shift
One commonly used shift function is defined by the WLF (Williams–Landel–Ferry)
equation:

– C 1  T – T ref 
log   T  = -------------------------------------
-
C 2 +  T – T ref 

where a base-10 logarithm is used. This shift is only valid over a certain temperature
range, typically around the glass transition temperature.

The first step to compute the shift function T(T) consists of building a master curve
based on experimental data. To do this, the curves of the dielectric properties versus
time or frequency are measured at a reference temperature Tref. Then, the same
properties are measured at different temperatures.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 165

 The shift value of each curve, with respect to the master curve obtained at the
temperature Tref, defines the shift factor T(T). The constants C1 and C2 are material
dependent and are calculated after plotting log(T) versus T  Tref.

The shift factor at the reference temperature equals T(Tref) = 1, so that

Tref is the temperature at which the master curve is given. If the
temperature T drops below Tref  C2, the WLF equation is no longer
valid.

Since the master curve is measured at an arbitrary reference temperature Tref, the shift
factor T(T) can be derived with respect to any temperature, and it is commonly taken
as the shift with respect to the glass transition temperature.

Tool–Narayanaswamy–Moynihan Shift
Charge relaxation in glass can be modeled using the so-called Tool–Narayanaswamy–
Moynihan shift factor which is given as

Q  1–
log   T  = ----  --- 1 -
- + ------------ – --------
RT Tf T ref

here, a base-e logarithm is used, Q is the activation energy (SI unit: J/mol), R is the
universal gas constant, T is the current temperature, Tref is a reference temperature, 
is a dimensionless activation energy fraction, and Tf is the so-called fictive temperature.
The fictive temperature is given as the weighted average of partial fictive temperatures.

Tf =  wi Tfi with  wi = 1
i i

Here, wi are the weights and Tfi are the partial fictive temperatures. The partial fictive
temperatures are determined from a system of coupled ordinary differential equations
(ODEs) which follow Tool’s equation

d T – T fi
T = -----------------
d t fi  T 
0i

here, 0i is a relaxation time parameter.

166 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

REFERENCES FOR DEBYE DISPERSION
1. N.S. Stoykov, T.A. Kuiken, M.M. Lowery, and A. Taflove, “Finite-element
time-domain algorithms for modeling linear Debye and Lorentz dielectric dispersions
at low frequencies,” IEEE Trans. Biomed., vol. 50, no. 9, pp. 1100–1107, 2003.

2. A.E. Engin, I. Ndip, K. Lang, and J. Aguirre, “Closed-Form Multipole Debye

Model for Time-Domain Modeling of Lossy Dielectrics,” IEEE Trans. Electromagn.
Compat., vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 966–968, 2019.

3. R. Morrison, “RC constant-argument driving-point admittances,” IRE Trans.

Circuit Theory, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 310–317, 1959.

4. J.A. Diego, J. Sellares, A. Aragoneses, M. Mudarra, J.C. Canadas, and J. Belana,

“TSDC study of the glass transition: correlation with calorimetric data,” J. Phys. D:
Appl. Phys., vol. 40, pp. 138–1145, 2007.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 167

 Theory for the Electric Currents
Interface
The Electric Currents Interface solves a current conservation problem for the scalar
electric potential V and is available for 3D, 2D in-plane, and 2D axisymmetric
components. Electrolysis, conductors, and the computation of resistances of
grounding plates are examples that involve conductive media with electrical
conductivities and electric currents. If you are uncertain of whether to use the Electric
Currents or the Electrostatics interface, which both solve for the scalar electric
potential V, refer to the section on Charge Relaxation Theory.

The Electric Currents Interface assumes that there is only one type of charge carrier.
When there are multiple charge carriers, it is often necessary to solve the transport
equation for each charge carrier as well as the Poisson’s equation with Electrostatics
interface.

In this section:

• Electric Currents Equations in Steady State

• Dynamic Electric Currents Equations

Electric Currents Equations in Steady State

When handling stationary electric currents in conductive media you must consider the
stationary equation of continuity. In a stationary coordinate system, the point form of
Ohm’s law states that:

J = E + J e

where  is the electrical conductivity (SI unit: S/m), and Je is an externally generated
current density (SI unit: A/m2). The static form of the equation of continuity then
states:

  J = –     V – J e  = 0

To handle current sources, you can generalize the equation to:

–     V – J e  = Q j

168 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

In planar 2D the Electric Currents interface assumes that the model has a symmetry
where the electric potential varies only in the x and y directions and is constant in the
z direction. This implies that the electric field, E, is tangential to the xy-plane. The
Electric Currents interface then solves the following equation, where d is the thickness
in the z direction:

–   d   V – J e  = dQ j (3-9)

In 2D axisymmetry, the Electric Currents interface considers the situation where the
fields and geometry are axially symmetric. In this case, the electric potential is constant
in the  direction, which implies that the electric field is tangential to the rz-plane.

Dynamic Electric Currents Equations

In the Frequency Domain and Time Dependent study types dynamic formulations
accounting for both conduction currents and displacement currents are used.

Combining the time-harmonic equation of continuity

   E + J e  + j = 0

with the equation

D = 

and generalized to handle current sources yields the following equation:

–      + j 0 V –  J e + jP   = Q j

For the transient case, using the transient equation of continuity

   E + J e  +  = 0
t

and generalized to handle current sources the resulting equation becomes:

–      0 V – P  –    V – J e  = Q j (3-10)
t

In planar 2D the dynamic formulations also involves the thickness d in the z direction:

–   d    + j 0 V –  J e + jP   = dQ j

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 169

 
–   d (  0 V – P  –   d  V – J e ) = dQ j
t

170 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

Theory for the Electrical Circuit
Interface
The Electrical Circuit Interface theory is discussed in this section:

• Electric Circuit Modeling and the Semiconductor Device Models

• Bipolar Transistors
• MOSFET Transistors
• Diode
• Reference for the Electrical Circuit Interface

Connecting to Electrical Circuits

Electric Circuit Modeling and the Semiconductor Device Models

Electrical circuit modeling capabilities are useful when simulating all sorts of electrical
and electromechanical devices ranging from heaters and motors to advanced plasma
reactors in the semiconductor industry. There are two fundamental ways that an
electrical circuit model relates to a physical field model.

• The field model is used to get a better, more accurate description of a single device
in the electrical circuit model.
• The electrical circuit is used to drive or terminate the device in the field model in
such a way that it makes more sense to simulate both as a tightly coupled system.

The Electrical Circuit interface makes it possible to add nodes representing circuit
elements directly to the Model Builder tree in a COMSOL Multiphysics model. The
circuit variables can then be connected to a physical device model to perform
co-simulations of circuits and multiphysics. The model acts as a device connected to
the circuit so that its behavior is analyzed in larger systems.

The fundamental equations solved by the Electrical Circuit interface are Kirchhoff’s
circuit laws, which in turn can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations. The supported
study types are Stationary, Frequency Domain, and Time Dependent.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 171

 There are three more advanced large-signal semiconductor device features available in
the Electrical Circuit interface. The equivalent circuits and the equations defining their
nonideal circuit elements are described in this section. For a more complete treatise on
semiconductor device modeling, see Ref. 1.

Bipolar Transistors
Figure 3-1 illustrates the equivalent circuit for the npn bipolar junction transistor.

Figure 3-1: A circuit for the bipolar transistor.

The pnp transistor model is similar in all regards to the npn transistor, with the
difference that the polarities of the currents and voltages involved are reversed. The
following equations are used to compute the relations between currents and voltages
in the circuit.

172 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

 R B – R BM
v rb = ----  R BM – --------------------------
1
A f  ib
bq

v be v bc
  -------------- --------------

 NF VT NR VT
–1 
= -----------------------------------------------  1 + 1 + 4I S  ----------------------- + ------------------------ 
1 e – 1 e
f bq
v bc v be    I A I KR A  
2  1 – ---------- - – ---------- -   KF 
 V V 
AF AR
v be v be
 I S  -------------
N V
-
  --------------
N V 
i be = A  -------  e F T – 1 + I SE  e E T – 1 
 BF    
v bc v bc
 I S  --------------
N V   --------------
N V 
i bc = A  --------  e R T – 1 + I SC  e C T – 1 
 BR    
v be v bc
 I S  -------------
N V
- --------------
N V 
i ce = A  -------  e F T + e C T 
 f bq  
k B T NOM
V T = -----------------------
-
q

There are also two capacitances that use the same formula as the junction capacitance
of the diode model. In the parameter names below, replace x with C for the
base-collector capacitance and E for the base-emitter capacitance.

 v bx  – MJx
 1 – ---------
 -
 V Jx v bx  F C V Jx
C jbx 
= AC Jx  
v bx  v bx  F C V Jx
  1 – F  – 1 – M Jx  1 – F  1 + M  + M ---------
-
 C  C Jx Jx V Jx

The model parameters are listed in the table below.

TABLE 3-1: BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

BF 100 Ideal forward current gain

BR 1 Ideal reverse current gain
CJC 0 F/m2 Base-collector zero-bias depletion capacitance
CJE 0 F/m2 Base-emitter zero-bias depletion capacitance
FC 0.5 Breakdown current
2
IKF Inf (A/m ) Corner for forward high-current roll-off
IKR Inf (A/m2) Corner for reverse high-current roll-off

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 173

 TABLE 3-1: BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

IS 10-15 A/m2 Saturation current

2
ISC 0 A/m Base-collector leakage saturation current
2
ISE 0 A/m Base-emitter leakage saturation current
MJC 1/3 Base-collector grading coefficient
MJE 1/3 Base-emitter grading coefficient
NC 2 Base-collector ideality factor
NE 1.4 Base-emitter ideality factor
NF 1 Forward ideality factor
NR 1 Reverse ideality factor
2
RB 0 m Base resistance
2
RBM 0 m Minimum base resistance
2
RC 0 m Collector resistance
RE 0 m2 Emitter resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VAF Inf (V) Forward Early voltage
VAR Inf (V) Reverse Early voltage
VJC 0.71 V Base-collector built-in potential
VJE 0.71 V Base-emitter built-in potential

174 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

MOSFET Transistors
Figure 3-2 illustrates an equivalent circuit for the n-channel MOSFET transistor. The
p-channel MOSFET transistor is treated similarly, but the polarities of the involved
voltages are reversed.

Figure 3-2: A circuit for the MOSFET transistor.

The following equations are used to compute the relations between currents and
voltages in the circuit.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 175

  KP
 W  1 + v ds v ds  2v th – v ds  v ds  v th
- -------
 ----
L 2

i ds =  W KP 2
 ----- -------  1 + v ds v th v ds  v th
 L 2
 0 v ds  v th  0

v th = v gs –  V TO +    – v bs –   
v bd
 -----------
NV
-

i bd = I S  e T – 1
 
v bs
 -----------
NV
-

i bs = I S  e T – 1
 
k B T NOM
V T = -----------------------
-
q

There are also several capacitances between the terminals

C gd = C gd0 W
C gs = C gs0 W
–MJ
 1 – v bd
--------
-
  PB  v bx  F C P B
C jbd = C BD  
v bx v bx  F C P B
  1 – F  – 1 – MJ  1 – F  1 + M  + M -------
-
 C  C J JP 
B

The model parameters are as follows:

TABLE 3-2: MOSFET TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

CBD 0 F/m Bulk-drain zero-bias capacitance

CGDO 0 F/m Gate-drain overlap capacitance
CGSO 0 F/m Gate-source overlap capacitance
FC 0.5 Capacitance factor
IS 1e-13 A Bulk junction saturation current
KP 2e-5 A/V2 Transconductance parameter
L 50e-6 m Gate length
MJ 0.5 Bulk junction grading coefficient

176 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

TABLE 3-2: MOSFET TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

N 1 Bulk junction ideality factor

PB 0.75 V Bulk junction potential
RB 0 Bulk resistance
RD 0 Drain resistance
RDS Inf () Drain-source resistance
RG 0 Gate resistance
RS 0 Source resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VTO 0V Zero-bias threshold voltage
W 50e-6 m Gate width
0.5
(GAMMA) 1V Bulk threshold parameter
 (PHI) 0.5 V Surface potential
 (LAMBDA) 0 1/V Channel-length modulation

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 177

 Diode
Figure 3-3 illustrates equivalent circuit for the diode.

Figure 3-3: A circuit for the diode.

The following equations are used to compute the relations between currents and
voltages in the circuit.

178 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

 i d = i dhl + i drec + i db + i c
vd
 -----------
NV
-
 1
i dhl = I S  e T – 1 ---------------------------------------------------
  vd
I S  -----------
NV T
-

1 + ---------  e – 1
I KF  
vd
 --------------
N V 
i drec = I SR  e R T – 1
 
vd + BV
– ------------------
N BV V T
i db = I BV e

 vd  –M
  1 – ------
- vd  FC VJ
  V J
C j = C J0  
 – 1 – M vd
  1 – FC  1 – F C  1 + M  + M ------- v d  F C V J
  V J


k B T NOM
V T = -----------------------
-
q

where the following model parameters are required.

TABLE 3-3: DIODE TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

BV Inf (V) Reverse breakdown voltage

CJ0 0F Zero-bias junction capacitance
FC 0.5 Forward-bias capacitance coefficient
IBV 1e-09 A Current at breakdown voltage
IKF Inf (A) Corner for high-current roll-off
IS 1e-13 A Saturation current
M 0.5 Grading coefficient
N 1 Ideality factor
NBV 1 Breakdown ideality factor
NR 2 Recombination ideality factor
RS 0 Series resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VJ 1.0 V Junction potential

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 179

 Reference for the Electrical Circuit Interface
1. P. Antognetti and G. Massobrio, Semiconductor Device Modeling with Spice, 2nd
ed., McGraw Hill, 1993.

180 | CHAPTER 3: AC/DC INTERFACES

 4

Fluid Flow Interfaces

This chapter describes the physics interfaces found under the Fluid Flow
branch ( ).

The documentation of fluid structure interaction is found in the Structural

Mechanics Module documentation, and the documentation for thin-film flow in
the CFD Module documentation.

The list below details the documentation for the MEMS Module physics interfaces
on the Fluid Flow branch:

• The Thin-Film Flow Interfaces (in the CFD Module User’s Guide)
• Theory for the Thin-Film Flow Interfaces (in the CFD Module User’s Guide)
• The Fluid–Solid Interaction Interface (in the Structural Mechanics Module
User’s Guide)
• The Solid–Thin-Film Damping Interface (in the Structural Mechanics Module
User’s Guide)
• The Piezoelectricity Interface, Solid (in the Structural Mechanics Module
User’s Guide)

See The Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual for other Fluid Flow interface and feature node settings.

181
182 | CHAPTER 4: FLUID FLOW INTERFACES
 5

Structural Mechanics Interfaces

The MEMS module includes many of the features found in the Solid Mechanics
interface in the Structural Mechanics Module.

The documentation of shared features is found in the Structural Mechanics Module

documentation. Where indicated in the list below, links to the Structural
Mechanics Module User’s Guide are included.

The list below details the documentation for the MEMS Module physics interfaces
on the structural mechanics, acoustics, and fluid flow branches in the Add Physics
dialog:

• The Electromechanics Interface

• Theory for the Electromechanics Interface
• The Electromechanics, Boundary Elements Interface
• The Pyroelectricity Interface
• The Thermoelasticity Interface
• Theory for the Thermoelasticity Interface
• The Solid Mechanics Interface (in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s
Guide)

| 183
 • The Elastic Waves, Time Explicit Interface (in the Elastic Waves Interfaces chapter
of the Acoustics Module User’s Guide)
• The Thermal Stress, Solid Interface (in the Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings
chapter of the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide)
• The Piezoelectricity Interface, Solid (in the Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings
chapter of the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide)
• The Electrostriction Interface (in the Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings chapter
of the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide)
• The Ferroelectroelasticity Interface (in the Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings
chapter of the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide)
• The Fluid–Solid Interaction Interface (in the Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings
chapter of the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide)
• The Fluid–Solid Interaction, Fixed Geometry Interface (in the Multiphysics
Interfaces and Couplings chapter of the Structural Mechanics Module User’s
Guide)
• The Fluid–Solid Interaction, Conjugate Heat Transfer Interface (in the
Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings chapter of the Structural Mechanics
Module User’s Guide)
• Hygroscopic Swelling Coupling (in the Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings
chapter of the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide)

184 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

The Electromechanics Interface
The Electromechanics interface ( ), found under the Electromagnetics-Structure
Interaction ( ) branch within the Structural Mechanics branch ( ) or the
Electromagnetics and Mechanics ( ) branch within the AC/DC branch ( ) when
adding a physics interface, combines Solid Mechanics and Electrostatics with a moving
mesh functionality to model the deformation of electrostatically actuated structures.
The Electromechanics interface is available for 3D, planar 2D, and axisymmetric 2D
geometries.

When this multiphysics interface is added using the Model Wizard, a Solid Mechanics
interface and an Electrostatics interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition, the
Multiphysics Couplings node is added, which automatically includes the multiphysics
coupling feature Electromechanical Forces.

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics (up to version 5.3), a

specific physics interface called Electromechanics was added to the Model
Builder. Now, a predefined multiphysics coupling approach is used,
improving the flexibility and design options for your modeling. For
specific details, see The Multiphysics Branch and Multiphysics Modeling
Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

The full functionality of the Solid Mechanics and Electrostatics interfaces is accessible
under the corresponding interfaces at the domain, boundary line, or point level in the
geometry. The participating Electrostatics interface by default adds the Charge
Conservation node with its selection set to all domains, and the material type set to
Solid. This node serves to represent solid dielectric material domains. Any number of
Charge Conservation nodes can be also added manually to the interface and configured
to represent either solid or nonsolid (for example, air or free space) materials.

THE ELECTROMECHANICS INTERFACE | 185

 Electromechanical Forces
Use an Electromechanical Forces ( ) coupling to model electromechanical
interaction between deformable solids and electric fields, particularly in case when the
deformations of the structure can significantly affect the electric field distribution.

The presence of such multiphysics node in the model will enforce the
Include geometric nonlinearity option on all applicable study nodes.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is eme1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
The domain selection is locked, so that all applicable domains are selected
automatically. Such domains represent an intersection of the applicable domains under
the corresponding Electrostatics and Solid Mechanics interfaces selected in the coupling
feature.

In Electrostatics interface, the following two domains are applicable:

• Charge Conservation, if its material type input is set to Solid. Use this domain feature
for solid dielectric materials.
• Charge Conservation, Ferroelectric
• Terminal. You can use the domain terminal feature to represent conductive solid
materials such as, for example, doped silicon.

In Solid Mechanics interface, the following domain material feature are applicable:

• Linear Elastic Material

186 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

• Nonlinear Elastic Material (with the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module)
• Hyperelastic Material (with the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module).

For nonsolid dielectric domains, remove them from the Solid Mechanics
interface selection but keep them selected in the Electrostatics interface
selection.

ELECTROMAGNETIC STRESS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Here, you can select the Electromagnetic Stress Tensor to be used in the coupling. The
following options are available:

• Minkowsky (default)
• Einstein-Laub
• Chu

See About different stress forms chapter for more details.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics interfaces involved in this Electromechanical Forces
coupling. The Solid mechanics and Electrostatics lists include all applicable physics
interfaces.

The default values depend on how the node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(macOS and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when the physics interface is chosen in the Model Wizard
or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the coupling from a physics
interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for example Solid

THE ELECTROMECHANICS INTERFACE | 187

 Mechanics is deleted, then the Solid mechanics list defaults to None as there is nothing
to couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the lists. This is applicable to all multiphysics
coupling nodes that would normally default to the once present physics
interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Deforming Domain
When an Electromechanics multiphysics interface is added using the Model Wizard, a
Deforming Domain and a Symmetry nodes are added automatically in Model Builder
under the Definitions node. These nodes serve to represent domains and boundaries
where the mesh can deform. By default, both nodes have empty selection. Under the
Deforming Domain, you can select those domain that represent nonsolid dielectric
materials such as air, fluid, and free space. However, this is only needed if the
boundaries of such domains experience significant changes due to the deformation or
rotation of the adjacent solid domains. Otherwise, the moving mesh computations
could just introduce unnecessary overhead and nonlinearity in the model (see
Deformed Mesh Fundamentals). Domains selected in the Solid Mechanics interface
are not applicable.

Under the Deforming Domain, you can also choose the Mesh smoothing type, by default
set to Hyperelastic. More information of the smoothing type can be found in the
Deforming Domain chapter in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

By default, the mesh is fixed at all external boundaries of the geometry. Use the
Symmetry node to select the external boundaries, where the mesh can slide along the
boundary. You can also add other types of boundary conditions for the mesh motion,
for details see Moving Mesh Features in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

188 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

Theory for the Electromechanics
Interface
The Electromechanics Interface theory is described in this section:

• Overview of Forces in Continuum Mechanics

• The Electromagnetic Stress Tensor
• References for the Electromechanics Interface

Overview of Forces in Continuum Mechanics

The deformation of linear elastic materials subject to external loads is described by
Cauchy’s equation:

2
d u
 2
=    + fv
dt

where  is the density, u denotes the structural displacement vector, is the stress
tensor, and fv is an external volume force (such as gravity).

In the stationary case, there is no acceleration, and the equation representing the force
balance is

0 =    + fv

The stress tensor must be continuous across a stationary boundary between two
materials. This corresponds to the equation

  2 –  1 n = 0 (5-1)

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMECHANICS INTERFACE | 189

 where 1 and 2 represent the stress tensor in Materials 1 and 2, respectively, and n1
is the normal vector pointing out from the domain containing Material 1.

Material 2
Material 1

For more information on the mechanical stress tensor for elastic materials,
see the documentation for the physics interfaces. For example, Structural
Mechanics Interfaces.

The Electromagnetic Stress Tensor

Within a vacuum or other medium, forces between charged bodies can be computed
on the assumption that a fictitious state of stress exists within the field. Historically the
consistency of this approach led 19th-century physicists to postulate the existence of
the ether, a ubiquitous medium through which electromagnetic forces propagate.
While these ideas have been superseded by the development of special relativity, the
use of an electromagnetic stress tensor (also known as the Maxwell stress tensor)
remains an accurate and convenient technique to compute electromagnetic forces.

Maxwell stresses exists in all dielectric materials, including air and even free space.
However, the force magnitude is rather small, and it usually can cause significant
deformations only at small dimension.

The electromagnetic stress tensor in a vacuum (in the absence of magnetic fields) is
given by (Ref. 1):

1
 EM, V =  0 E  E – ---   0 E  E I (5-2)
2

Where E is the electric field, I is the identity tensor, 0is the permittivity of free space,
and

 E  E  ij = E i E j

Within an isotropic linear dielectric under small deformations, the electric

displacement vector is related to the electric field as (Ref. 2):

190 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

 D =  0 E +  0 E

where the electric susceptibility  can be a function of the mechanical strain in the
material

 =  0  I – 2T + tr  T I 

where the small strain tensor is given by

1 T
T = ---  u + u 
2

The corresponding electromagnetic tress tensor takes the following form:

1
 EM =  0  r E  E – ---  0  r  E  E I (5-3)
2

where the relative permittivity of the material with the absence of deformation is
introduced as  r = 1 +  0 . It can be written equivalently as

1
 EM =  EM, V +  0  0 E  E – ---  E  E I
2

where the two terms represent, respectively, the contributions from: the underlying
free space and the material polarization.

The Electromechanical Forces coupling feature applies the material and

underlying free space contributions to the stress as a body load. In weak
form: –  EM :test  T  .

LARGE DEFORMATIONS
For finite deformations, the expressions for the electromagnetic stress and material
polarization can be derived using the following thermodynamic potential called
electric enthalpy:

1 –1
H eme = W s  C  – ---   0  r JC :  E m  E m 
2

where the subscript m indicates that the vector components must be taken on the
material frame, and the right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor is

T
C = F F

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMECHANICS INTERFACE | 191

 with F = u + I , and J = det  F  . The mechanical energy function W s  C 
depends on the solid model used.

The total second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is given by

H eme
S = 2
C

and the electric displacement can be calculated as

H eme
Dm = –
 Em

The electromagnetic stress tensor can be used to compute the forces acting on a
dielectric body. From Equation 5-1 the balance of forces at the surface of a dielectric
body (material 1) in vacuum or air (material 2) implies:

  2 –  1 n = 0

where the total stress tensors in media 1 and 2 are, respectively:

 1 =  EM +  mech
 2 =  EM V – p 2 I

where m is a mechanical component of the total stress and the ambient pressure p2 in
to surrounding air or other medium (if present). Using Equation 5-2:

 1 n = – p 2 n –  ---  0 E  E n +  0  n  E E
1
2

where the electric field E is computed in material 2.

The Electromechanical Forces coupling feature applies the above defined

traction as a boundary load on the boundaries which are external for the
coupling feature selection but internal for the corresponding
Electrostatics interface.

COMSOL Multiphysics does not explicitly include the ambient pressure

definition on the Electromechanical Forces coupling feature. However, it
is possible to add an additional surface force to the corresponding Solid
Mechanics interface if the pressure is known or computed by another
physics interface.

192 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

ABOUT DIFFERENT STRESS FORMS
There exists a long-lasting controversy in scientific literature about the definition of
electromagnetic forces acting on solids. An extensive review can be found in Ref. 3.
Many classic textbooks (for example, Ref. 1 and Ref. 2) operate with the so-called
Minkowski stress tensor that is usually written as:

1
 EM = D  E – ---  D  E I
2

The corresponding electromagnetic body force can be written as

1
f =    EM =  e E – ---  E  E : 
2

which sometimes is referred to as the Korteweg-Helmholtz force. For homogeneous

materials without deformation, one has   0. Hence, in the absence of free charges
(e  0), the body force becomes zero. Thus, the whole electromechanical load on the
solid is due to the Maxwell stress jumps at the boundaries between domains with
different material properties.

There are two most often used alternatives. The first one is called Einstein–Laub stress
tensor:

1
 EM = D  E – ---   0 E  E I
2

This form is widely accepted in modern electroelasticity and material science, see
Ref. 4. The corresponding body force can be written as:

f =    EM =  e E +  P   E

which is also called Kelvin force. Note that it is nonzero as soon as there are electric
field variation and polarization within the material:

P =  0 E

The other alternative is Chu stress tensor:

1
 EM =  0 E  E – ---   0 E  E I (5-4)
2

and the corresponding electromagnetic body force is given by

f =    EM =  e E –    P E

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMECHANICS INTERFACE | 193

 Note that in contrast to the above equation, the expression for the stress tensor itself
(Equation 5-4) seems to ignore the material polarization properties. However, if the
frame difference is important because of the deformations, one has

–1
D m =  0 JC E m +  0  m E m (5-5)

The electric enthalpy can be written as

1
H eme = W s  C  – --- D m  E m
2

Then,

H eme
Dm = –
 Em

and the electromechanical second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is given by

H eme –1 –T
S EM = 2 = JF  EM F (5-6)
C

where EM is given by Equation 5-4, which shows the consistency of the theory. The
key assumption behind the derivation of Equation 5-6 is that the material components
of the electric susceptibilitym are independent of deformations.

COMSOL Multiphysics provides a choice of the electromagnetic stress

model, which is available in the Electromechanical Forces coupling
feature. Any of the above presented three options can be selected; the
default choice is the Minkowski stress tensor.

References for the Electromechanics Interface

1. J.A. Stratton, Electromagnetic Theory, Cambridge, MA, 1941.

2. L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz, Electrodynamics of Continuous Media, Pergamon

Press, pp. 69–73, 1960.

3. D.J. Griffiths, “Resource Letter EM-1: Electromagnetic Momentum,” Am. J.

Phys., vol. 80, pp. 7–18, 2012.

4. L. Dorfmann, R.W. Ogden, Mechanics and Electrodynamics of Electroelastic and

Magnetoelastic Interactions, Springer, 2014.

194 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

The Electromechanics, Boundary
Elements Interface
The Electromechanics, Boundary Elements interface ( ), found under the
Electromagnetics-Structure Interaction ( ) branch within the Structural Mechanics
branch ( ) or the Electromagnetics and Mechanics ( ) branch within the AC/DC
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, combines Solid Mechanics and
Electrostatics, Boundary Elements to model the deformation of electrostatically
actuated structures. The Electromechanics, Boundary Elements interface is available for
3D and planar 2D geometries.

When this multiphysics interface is added using the Model Wizard, a Solid Mechanics
interface and an Electrostatics, Boundary Elements interface are added to the Model
Builder. In addition, the Multiphysics Couplings node is added, which automatically
includes the multiphysics coupling feature Electromechanical Interface.

Electromechanical Interface
Use an Electromechanical Interface ( ) boundary multiphysics coupling to model
electromechanical interaction between deformable solid domains and nonsolid voids,
where the electric field is computed using the boundary element method. The
backward coupling to Electrostatics is due to the deformations of the boundaries.

The presence of such multiphysics node in the model will enforce the
Include geometric nonlinearity option on all applicable study nodes.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is eme1.

THE ELECTROMECHANICS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 195

 BOUNDARY SELECTION
Applicable boundaries are those that are both external boundaries to the domains
selected under the Solid Mechanics interface and boundaries to the domains selected
under the Electrostatics, Boundary Elements interface. In particular, all boundaries
external to Solid Mechanics selection are applicable if the selection of the Electrostatics,
Boundary Elements contains Infinite void.

For nonsolid dielectric domains, remove them from the Solid Mechanics
interface selection but keep them selected in the Electrostatics, Boundary
Elements interface selection.

The coupling is a boundary load on a structure caused by the Maxwell Stress at the
selected boundaries. The backward coupling to Electrostatics is due to the change of
the spatial position of the boundaries caused by the deformation of the structure.

Only electrically linear and isotropic materials can be modeled using

Electrostatics, Boundary Elements. For more details, see The
Electromechanics, Boundary Elements Interface chapter of the AC/DC
Module User’s Guide.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics interfaces involved in this Electromechanical Forces
coupling. The Solid mechanics and Electrostatics, Boundary Elements lists include all
applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how the node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when the physics interface is chosen in the Model Wizard
or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the coupling from a physics
interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for example Solid

196 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

Mechanics is deleted, then the Solid mechanics list defaults to None as there is nothing
to couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the lists. This is applicable to all multiphysics
coupling nodes that would normally default to the once present physics
interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE ELECTROMECHANICS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 197

 The Pyroelectricity Interface
The Pyroelectricity interface ( ) combines Electrostatics and Heat Transfer in Solids
interfaces together with the constitutive relationships required to model
pyroelectricity. Both the direct pyroelectric and inverse electrocaloric effects can be
modeled. This interface requires the MEMS Module license.

The Piezoelectricity interface is available for 3D, planar 2D, and axisymmetric 2D
geometries.

When this multiphysics interface is added using the Model Wizard, an Electrostatics
interface and a Heat Transfer in Solids interface are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics Couplings node is added, which automatically includes a

multiphysics coupling node Pyroelectricity.

The full functionality of the Electrostatics interfaces is accessible at the domain,

boundary line, or point level in the geometry. The participating Electrostatics interface
by default adds the Charge Conservation node with its selection set to all domains, and
the material type set to Solid. This node serves to represent solid dielectric material
domains. Any number of Charge Conservation nodes can be also added manually to the
interface and configured to represent either solid or nonsolid (for example, air or free
space) materials.

The Heat Transfer in Solids will use its default domain feature, Solid, where you enter
the thermal properties of the material. All heat transfer functionality for modeling is
also accessible to include surrounding solid or nonsolid domains. To model heat
transfer by convection in nonsolid domains, you can add a Fluid domain feature.

You enter the pyroelectric coupling data on the Pyroelectricity multiphysics coupling
node.

• The Electrostatics Interface

• The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface

198 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

Pyroelectricity
Use the Pyroelectricity multiphysics node ( ) to simulate pyroelectric and
electrocaloric effects coupling the variations of temperature and electric polarization in
solid dielectrics.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is pye1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the Pyroelectricity multiphysics coupling.
The Electrostatics and Heat Transfer drop-down menu lists include all applicable physics
interfaces.

The default values depend on how the Electrostriction node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(macOS and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a Pyroelectricity multiphysics interface has been
selected in the Model Wizard or Add Physics window, then the participating
Electrostatics and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Pyroelectricity node from a
physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for

THE PYROELECTRICITY INTERFACE | 199

 example Electrostatics is deleted, then the list defaults to None as there is nothing to
couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the lists. This is applicable to all multiphysics
coupling nodes that would normally default to the once present interface.
See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

DOMAIN SELECTION
The domain selection is set by default to all domains, so that all applicable domains are
selected automatically. Such domains represent an intersection of the applicable
domains under the corresponding Electrostatics and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces
selected in the coupling feature.

In Electrostatics interface, the following two domains are applicable:

• Charge Conservation, if its material type input is set to Solid. Use this domain feature
for solid dielectric materials, for which a linear dependency can be assumed for the
electric polarization with respect to the applied electric field.
• Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric. Use this domain feature for solid linear
piezoelectric materials.

• Charge Conservation, Ferroelectric. Use this domain feature for solid ferroelectric or
nonlinear piezoelectric materials.

In Heat Transfer in Solids interface, the applicable domains are:

• Solid. Use this domain feature for solid pyroelectric and dielectric materials.

To model solid nonpyroelectric domain, remove such domains from the coupling
feature selection.

COUPLING TYPE
From the list, choose one of these coupling types:

• Pyroelectric effect to include only the change in the material polarization caused by
temperature variations.

200 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

 P e =  T – T ref p ET

• Electrocaloric effect, also known as inverse pyroelectric effect, to include only the
heat source due to the polarization variation in time.


Q p = – T -----  p ET  E 
t

• Fully coupled (default) to include both the direct and inverse pyroelectric effects.

COUPLING SETTINGS
You enter the Total pyroelectric coefficient pET which is a vector (SI unit: C/m2/K)
specified in the selected coordinate system. The default is to take the values From
material.

You also can enter the Reference temperature Tref with the default value of 293.15 K.

The total pyroelectric coefficient pET is a coupling coefficient measure at constant

stress (unclamped) conditions. When this coupling feature is used as part of The
Piezoelectricity and Pyroelectricity Interface, the following relation between different
pyroelectric coefficients holds:

p ET = p ES + e ES 

where pES is the primary pyroelectric coefficient measured at constant strain

(clamped), and the second term is usually called the secondary pyroelectric coefficient
with  being the thermal expansion vector and eES being the piezoelectric coupling
matrix. The software does all needed conversions automatically.

REFERENCES FOR PYROELECTRICITY

1. Newnham R.E., Properties of Materials. Anisotropy, Symmetry, Structure.
Oxford University Press, New York, 2005.

THE PYROELECTRICITY INTERFACE | 201

 The Piezoelectricity and
Pyroelectricity Interface
The Piezoelectricity and Pyroelectricity interface ( ) combines Solid Mechanics,
Electrostatics, and Heat Transfer in Solids together with the constitutive relationships
required to model piezoelectric applications, in which the temperature variation and
electric charge are coupled. It requires the MEMS Module license.

The Piezoelectricity and Pyroelectricity interface is available for 3D, planar 2D, and
axisymmetric 2D geometries.

When this multiphysics interface is added using the Model Wizard, a Solid Mechanics
interface, an Electrostatics interface, and a Heat Transfer in Solids interface are added to
the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics Couplings node is added, which automatically includes

three multiphysics coupling nodes: Piezoelectricity, Pyroelectricity, and Thermal
Expansion.

The participating Solid Mechanics interface includes the default Piezoelectric Material
feature with its selection set to all domains. The Electrostatics interface has a default
Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric feature with similar settings. Such features can be also
added manually to their corresponding interfaces similar to any other material model
therein. The Piezoelectricity multiphysics coupling node can be active only on the
selection, where both features Piezoelectric Material and Charge Conservation,
Piezoelectric are active. You specify the piezoelectric coupling data together with both
the structural and electrical material data under the Piezoelectric Material node.

All solid mechanics and electrostatics functionality for modeling is also accessible to
include surrounding elastic solids or air domains. For example, add any solid
mechanics material for other solid domain, a dielectric model for air (via Charge
Conservation feature), or a combination. Note that in order to model a nonsolid
dielectric domain, you need to remove such domain from the domain selection for the
entire Solid Mechanics interface. This is because all material models under that
interface represent solid materials (with the Linear Elastic Material node being always
present and active in all those domains, where it is not explicitly overridden by any
other material model).

202 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

The Heat Transfer in Solids will use its default domain feature, Solid, where you enter
the thermal properties of the material. All heat transfer functionality for modeling is
also accessible to include surrounding elastic solids or air domains. To model heat
transfer by convection in nonsolid domains, you can add a Fluid feature. Remove all
domains selected under such feature from the entire Solid Mechanics interfaces
selection.

You enter the pyroelectric coupling data on the Pyroelectricity multiphysics coupling
node, and the thermal expansion data on the Thermal Expansion multiphysics
coupling node.

• The Solid Mechanics Interface

• The Electrostatics Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface

THE PIEZOELECTRICITY AND PYROELECTRICITY INTERFACE | 203

 The Thermoelasticity Interface
The Thermoelasticity multiphysics interface ( ) can be found under the Thermal–
Structure Interaction ( ) branch within the Structural Mechanics branch ( ) when
adding a physics interface using the Model Wizard or the Add Physics window. The
thermoelastic effect results in local cooling of material under tension and heating of
material that is compressed. Irreversible heat transfer occurs between the warm and
cool regions of the solid, producing mechanical losses, which can be important,
particularly for small structures.

When this multiphysics interface is added, the Model Builder tree structure is
populated with two physics interfaces (Solid Mechanics and Heat Transfer in Solids), and
the Thermal Expansion multiphysics coupling.

In the Settings window for the Solid Mechanics interface, the Structural Transient
Behavior is set to Include inertial terms by default. In the Settings window for Thermal
Expansion, under the section Heat Sources, the check box for Thermoelastic damping is
enabled by default.

On the Study Types for Thermoelasticity

Since this multiphysics interface is aimed at computing the thermoelastic damping of
MEMS structures under vibration, it only makes sense to analyze the model in the time
or frequency domain. Furthermore, for the frequency-domain study types, it is
necessary to first include a stationary study step in order to establish the baseline
temperature (the linearization point for the temperature field). Therefore, only the
following three study types are recommended for the Thermoelasticity multiphysics
interface: Time Dependent; Thermal Perturbation, Eigenfrequency; and Thermal
Perturbation, Frequency Domain.

On the Temperature Variable for Thermoelasticity

As mentioned above, for the frequency domain study types, there are two components
of the temperature variable: the baseline temperature and the harmonic temperature
(which varies around the baseline). To specify the baseline temperature at a boundary,
use the Temperature boundary condition. To specify the harmonic temperature at the

204 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

boundary, right-click the Temperature node and select the Harmonic Perturbation
subnode.

Thermoelastic Damping in a MEMS Resonator: Application Library

path MEMS_Module/Actuators/thermoelastic_damping_3d

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Solid Mechanics interface is intended for general structural analysis of 3D, 2D, or
axisymmetric bodies. In 2D, plane stress or plane strain assumptions can be used. The
Solid Mechanics interface is based on solving Navier’s equations, and results such as
displacements, stresses, and strains are computed.

The Heat Transfer in Solids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation. A Solid model is active by default on all
domains. All functionality for including other domain types, such as a fluid domain, is
also available. The temperature equation defined in solid domains corresponds to the
differential form of the Fourier’s law that may contain additional contributions like
heat sources.

On the Couplings
The coupling occurs on the domain level, where two physical effects occur:

• The temperature from the Heat Transfer interface acts as a thermal load for the Solid
Mechanics interface, causing thermal expansion.
• The tension and compression from the Solid Mechanics interface acts as a heat
source for the Heat Transfer interface, causing local cooling and heating.

These effects are implemented by the combination of the multiphysics coupling

mentioned above, and the use of the temperature from the default model inputs.

COUPLING FEATURES
When physics interfaces are added from the Model Wizard or using the Add Physics
window then the appropriate coupling feature is automatically added to the physics
interface. However, the physics interfaces can be added one at a time, followed by the
coupling features.

THE THERMOELASTICITY INTERFACE | 205

 For example, if single Solid Mechanics and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are added,
then COMSOL Multiphysics adds an empty Multiphysics node. You can then choose
the Thermal Expansion coupling feature.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics Couplings
menu.

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Coupling Feature
Thermal Expansion node is described in the section The Thermal Stress, Solid
Interface in the Structural Mechanics User’s Guide.

Thermoelastic Damping in a MEMS Resonator: Application Library

path MEMS_Module/Actuators/thermoelastic_damping_3d

206 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

Theory for the Thermoelasticity
Interface
The Thermoelasticity Interface theory is described in this section:

• Background Thermoelasticity Theory

• References for the Thermoelasticity Interface

Background Thermoelasticity Theory

When an elastic rod is stretched reversibly and adiabatically its temperature drops. The
drop in temperature compensates for the increase in entropy caused by the stress in the
rod (since the process is reversible the entropy remains constant). The equations of
thermoelasticity incorporate this phenomenon, together with the irreversible processes
that occur in a vibrating rod (which result in net entropy increases). When a structure
vibrates in a mode with both local compression and expansion there are always some
losses associated with the irreversible heat conduction between the expanding areas
that cool and the contracting areas that heat. These losses result in thermoelastic
damping, which can be important, particularly in small vibrating structures, such as
resonant MEMS devices.

References 1 to 5 in the section References for the Thermoelasticity

Interface provide useful background information.

The equations of thermoelasticity are derived from the first law of thermodynamics,
which can be stated as follows:

dU = dQ' + dW' (5-7)

where dU is the change in internal energy, dQ' is the heat flow into the system (the
prime indicates an inexact differential in this case) and dW' is the work done on the
system. For a small part of a solid (sufficiently small that the stresses and strains are
uniform), with an initial reference density, 0, the first law can be rewritten in the
following form (assuming that the differential changes occur between equilibrium
states):

THEORY FOR THE THERMOELASTICITY INTERFACE | 207

 1
du = T a ds + ------ : d (5-8)
0

where Ta is the absolute temperature, s is the entropy per unit mass,  is the elastic
part of the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress (in general a rank 2 tensor),  is the material
strain (also a tensor). In general the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, p, must be
split into elastic () and inelastic () parts such that:

p = +

The elastic part of the stress tensor, , does work :d during a change in the strain.
The inelastic part of the stress tensor, , generates heat at a rate :(d/d) when the
strain is changing and is identified with internal or material damping. These internal
damping mechanisms are associated with microscopic phenomena such as dislocation
movement.

From Equation 5-8 it is possible to make the following identifications for Ta and 

u u
Ta =    = 0  
  S    S

Next the entropy balance equation must be derived. Since thermoelasticity involves
irreversible processes, the assumption of equilibrium required to derive Equation 5-8
is no longer valid. Instead an assumption of “local” equilibrium is made. It is assumed
that although the system is not in equilibrium, there exists within small elements a state
of local equilibrium, for which the local entropy per unit mass, s, is the same function
of the internal energy, strain, and particle number as it was in equilibrium. This
assumption is commonly employed in the modeling of transport phenomena and is
justified only by the validity of conclusions derived from it and by results obtained from
specific microscopic models, for near-equilibrium situations. For a small volume
element in the material frame Equation 5-8 can then be written as:

1 1
 0 ds = -------  0 du – ------- : d
Ta Ta

The rate of change of entropy can then be written as:

ds 1 du 1 d
 0 ------ =  0 ------- ------- – ------- : ------ (5-9)
dt T a dt T a dt

From the first law (Equation 5-7) the rate of change of internal energy is given by:

208 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

 du
 0 ------- = dq
------- + dw
--------
dt dt dt

where w is the work done per unit volume and q is the heat accumulated per unit
volume. The heat accumulated can be written as the sum of the heat sources and the
divergence in the material frame heat flux:

dq d
------- = –    q  + Q + :
dt dt

where Q represents the heat source per unit volume and  is the inelastic part of the
stress tensor. The rate of doing work (per unit reference volume) by a linear elastic
material is given by the elastic part of the second Piola–Kirchhoff stress contracted with
the rate of material strain. Per unit volume the following equation is obtained:

dw d
-------- = : ------
dt dt

so Equation 5-9 reduces to:

ds 1 1 1 d
 0 ------ = – -------   q + ------- Q + ------- : (5-10)
dt Ta Ta Ta d t

The definition of the material thermal conductivity gives:

q = –  T a

where  is the thermal conductivity, defined in the material frame.

Therefore the equation is:

ds d
T a  0 ------ =     T a  + Q + : (5-11)
dt dt

It is now necessary to derive an expression for the rate of change of entropy with
respect to time. In order to do this an assumption of local equilibrium is used once
again. Using Equation 5-8 the equation is written:

d  u – T a s – ------ : = – sdT a – ------ : d

1 1
 0  0

which defines a new thermodynamic potential, the Gibbs free energy per unit mass,
given by:

THEORY FOR THE THERMOELASTICITY INTERFACE | 209

 1
g = u – T a s + ------ :
0

Changes in the Gibbs free energy per unit mass take the form:

1
dg = – sdT a – ------ :d
0

which leads to the relations:

g  g
s = –  = –0  
  T a     T a

By differentiating each of the above equations a second time, it is possible to derive the
following Maxwell relation:

2
 s  = -----
1-     g
(5-12)
   T a  0   T a  = –   T
a

It is now possible to derive an expression for the entropy of the solid. Assuming that
the elastic stress is an invertible function of the strain, we can write s=s(,Ta). Thus:

s s 
ds =   :d +  dT
   T a   T a  a

Using the Maxwell relation in Equation 5-12:

1   s 
ds = ------  :d +  dT
 0  T a   T a  a

Therefore:

1   d s  dT
------ = ------  : ------- + 
ds ----------a-
dt  0  T a  dt   T a  dt

By definition the heat capacity of the solid at constant stress is given by:

q s
cp =   = Ta  
  T    T 

Thus:

210 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

 1   ------
d c p dT a
------ = ------ 
ds : - + ------- ----------- (5-13)
dt  0  T a  dt T a dt

Substituting Equation 5-13 into Equation 5-11 gives the following equation for
thermoelasticity:

dT a   ------
 0 c p ----------- =     T a  + Q + : – T a 
d d
: - (5-14)
dt dt   T a  dt

An additional heat source term is present in Equation 5-14, compared to the standard
heat transfer equations in solids. This term couples the structural problem with the
heat transfer problem. In turn the heat transfer equation couples back into the
structural problem through the constitutive relationship.

In the particular case of a linear elastic material (in the absence of damping) the stress
and strain are related by Duhamel–Hooke’s law:

  –  i  = C:   –  i –   T a – T ref   (5-15)

where C is the elasticity tensor, i is the initial stress, i is the initial strain, and Tref is
the reference temperature at which the strain and stresses take the initial values.

This equation couples the heat transfer equation to the structural problem. Given a
temperature independent thermal expansivity, and no material damping,
Equation 5-14 takes the form:

dT a d
 0 c p ----------- =     T a  + Q – T a : -------
dt dt

This is the usual form of the equation for linear thermoelasticity. In the
COMSOL Multiphysics Material Library, a slightly unusual definition of
the thermal expansivity is used, so that  is not temperature independent.
COMSOL Multiphysics therefore implements a version of
Equation 5-14, which automatically includes these effects. In brief, an
expression for  is obtained by solving Equation 5-15 and the expression
is differentiated with respect to Ta while keeping  constant.

LINEARIZED EQUATIONS AND FREQUENCY DOMAIN FORMULATION

In the time domain it is convenient to linearize Equation 5-14, and this is necessary to
solve problems in the frequency domain.

THEORY FOR THE THERMOELASTICITY INTERFACE | 211

 The independent variables in the system are Ta and u (where u is the displacement
vector). Since the displacements drive the thermal equations it is natural to write the
displacement vector as consisting of small deviations from its equilibrium value such
that:

2
u = u 0 + au 1 + a u 2 + 

where a is a constant that is subsequently set to 1 and that is used to keep track of the
order of the term in the expansion.

The corresponding temperatures, stresses, and strains in the device are given by:

2
T a = T 0 + aT 1 + a T 2 + 

2
 =  0 + a 1 + a  2 + 

2
 =  0 + a 1 + a  2 + 

2
 = a1 1 + a 2 + 

where a is a constant that is subsequently set to 1. a can be used to track the order of
the deviation from T0.

Substituting these relations into Equation 5-14 and keeping terms up to the second
order gives:

dT 1 2 dT 2 2
a 0 c p ---------- + a  0 c p ---------- =     T 0  + a    T 1  + a     T 2  + Q 0
dt dt
d 1   ---------
d 1
– aT 0 
2
+ a 1 : : -
dt  T a  dt

  ---------
d 1   d
–a T1  : - – a T0 
2 2 2
: ----------
  T a  dt   T a  dt

2     ---------
d 1
–a T0 T1 : -
 
 T a  T a  dt

Note that the heat source term, Q, is assumed to be time independent (Q=Q0). The
final term in the above equation results from consideration of the Taylor expansion of
the strain at constant stress, which to first order can be represented by a Taylor series
of the form:

212 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

  0
  T a  =   T 0 + aT 1  =  0 +  ---------- aT 1 + 
T a

Consequently:

 -
 ---------  0   0
 T a =  ---------- + aT 1 ----------  ---------- + 
 T a  T a T a 

Note that for the particular case of a linear elastic material:

 0 –  i = C:   0 –  i –   T 0 – T ref  

2 2 2
a 1 + a  2 = C:  a 1 + a  2 – aT 1 – a T 2 

2 2 2
a 1 + a  2 = iC:  a 1 + a  2 – aT 1 – a T 2 

where the material damping has been introduced into the equation system by means
of an anisotropic loss factor, .

Grouping together terms of the same order in a gives the following equations:

–     T 0  = Q 0

dT 1   0  d 1
a 0 c p ---------- = a    T 1  – aT 0   : ----------
dt   T a  dt

2 dT 2 2 2 d 1 2   0  d 1
a  0 c p ---------- = a     T 2  + a  1 : – a T1   : ----------
dt dt   T a  dt

2    0  d 1 2   0  d 2
–a T0 T1   : ---------- – a T 0   : ----------
 T a   T a  dt   T a  dt

The linear equation can be written in the form:

dT   0  d
 0 c p -------- =     T  – T 0   : ------- (5-16)
dt   T a  dt

Where a=1 and the subscript has been dropped from the dependent variable T
(previously T1) and the stress deviation  (previously 1). Equation 5-16 is solved by
the Thermoelasticity interface. Writing the equation in the frequency domain gives:

THEORY FOR THE THERMOELASTICITY INTERFACE | 213

   0 
i 0 c p T =     T  – iT 0   :
  T a 

This is the frequency domain form of the equations solved by COMSOL Multiphysics.

Considering the quadratic terms in Equation 5-12, there are four second-order heat
source terms in the equation system:

d 1
Q visc =  1 :
dt

 0 d 1
Q TED1 = – T 1   : ----------
  T   dt

   0 ---------
d 1
Q TED2 = – T 0 T 1 : -
 T   T   dt

 0 d 2
Q TED3 = – T 0   : ----------
 T  dt

In the frequency domain, the first three terms involve the products of small harmonic
deviations with other similar terms (that is, terms that vary in time in a similar manner
to cos2 t. The trigonometric identity cos2 t=(1cos 2 t)/2 makes it explicit that
these terms have a time-independent heating effect in addition to the heating that
occurs at double the frequency of the driving signal). These second-order terms have
a small effect on the time-varying solution and lead to a second harmonic term in the
frequency domain. However, if the time average is nonzero, this can, over many
oscillatory periods, result in a change in the background temperature. In COMSOL
Multiphysics the (nonzero) time-averaged heat sources are available as variables, so
that the self-heating of the structure can be computed.

First note that the time average of the term QTED3 must be zero, since although the
second-order stress term 2 has a nonzero time average, its time derivative cannot. The
other terms in the expression for QTED3 are all time independent. Each of the
remaining terms can have a nonzero time average as these involve the multiplication
of two separate first-order terms (potentially with phase differences between them).
The following result for the multiplication of two general oscillatory complex
numbers, a1ei(t+1) and, a2ei(t+2) are useful:

214 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

  i it   i it 
Re  a 1 e 1 e Re  a 2 e 2 e 
   
1 i  t +  1  – i  t +  1  i  t +  2  – i  t +  2 
= a 1 a 2 ---  e +e e +e 
4
1 i –   –i  1 – 2  i  2t +  1 +  2  – i  2t +  1 +  2 
= a 1 a 2 ---  e 1 2 + e +e +e 
4

Taking the time average of the above expression gives:

 i it   i it  1 i –   –i  1 – 2 

 Re  a 1 e 1 e Re  a 2 e 2 e  = a 1 a 2 ---  e 1 2 + e 
    4

 i it   i it  1  i it – i  – i t 

 Re  a 1 e 1 e Re  a 2 e 2 e  = --- Re  a 1 e 1 e a 2 e 2 e 
    2  

The time average heat sources above can be written in the following form in the
frequency domain:

1
 Q visc = --- Re  :  i  
2

1   0 
 Q TED1 = – --- Re  T   :  i  
2  T   

1    0 
 Q TED2 = – --- Re  T 0 T   :  i  
2  T T  

The derivation of the last term <QTED2> strongly relies on the prerequisite that the
temperature dependence of the thermal expansion coefficient alpha is
thermodynamically consistent. Since this prerequisite is usually not satisfied due to
measurement or formulation errors, we have decided to remove the variable from the
physics interface.

COMSOL Multiphysics also defines a total heat source term (solid.Qh) of the form:

 Q h =  Q visc +  Q TED1

The realdot operator is used to evaluate these quantities in a manner that produces
the correct terms in the Jacobian for sensitivity analyses. To compute the slow time
dependence of the background temperature, the steady-state equation can be modified

THEORY FOR THE THERMOELASTICITY INTERFACE | 215

 to allow for the time dependence of the background temperature and solved together
with the frequency domain equations. In such a frequency-transient formulation, the
following equations are solved:

dT 0
0 cp =     T 0  +  Q h  + Q 0
dt


i 0 c p T =     T  – iT 0   :
  T 

With this formulation, the transient part of the problem can be solved on
a time scale that is much longer than the period of the oscillations.

Operators, Functions, and Constants and Studies and Solvers in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

References for the Thermoelasticity Interface

1. C.J. Adkins, Equilibrium Thermodynamics, Cambridge University Press, 1983.

2. W. Yourgrau, A. van der Merwe, and G. Raw, Treatise on Irreversible and

Statistical Thermodynamics: An Introduction to Nonclassical Thermodynamics,
Dover, 2002.

3. M. E. Gurtin, E. Fied, and L. Anand, The Mechanics and Thermodynamics of

Continua, Cambridge University Press, 2010.

4. V.A. Lubarda, “On Thermodynamic Potentials in Linear Thermoelasticity”,

International Journal of Solids and Structures, vol. 41, no. 26, pp. 7377–7398,
2004.

5. A. Duwel, R. N. Candler, T. W. Kenny, and M. Varghese, “Engineering MEMS

Resonators with Low Thermoelastic Damping”, Journal of Microelectromechanical
Systems, vol. 15, no. 6, 2006.

6. B. A. Auld, Acoustic Fields and Waves in Solids, Krieger Publishing Company,

1990.

216 | CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS INTERFACES

 6

Piezoresistivity Interfaces

This chapter describes the physics interfaces found under the Structural
Mechanics>Piezoresistivity subbranch ( ).

In this chapter:

• The Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents Interface

• The Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents Interface
• The Piezoresistivity, Shell Interface
• The Piezoresistivity, Layered Shell Interface
• Theory for the Piezoresistivity Interfaces

| 217
 T he P i e z o r e s i st i v i t y, D omai n Cu rren t s
Interface
The Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents predefined multiphysics coupling interface ( ),
found under the Structural Mechanics>Piezoresistivity branch ( ) when adding a
physics interface, combines the Solid Mechanics and Electric Currents interfaces to
simulate the piezoresistive effect. This multiphysics interface is appropriate for
situations when the thicknesses of the conducting and piezoresistive layers are resolved
by the mesh.

When this multiphysics interface is added using the Model Wizard, a Solid Mechanics
interface and an Electric Currents interface are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics Couplings node is added, which automatically includes the
multiphysics coupling feature Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents.

The participating Electric Currents interface by default adds the Current Conservation,
Piezoresistive node with its selection set to all domains. This node can also be added
manually to the interface similar to any other material model therein. All
piezoresistivity properties are entered in this node.

The Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents multiphysics coupling node can be active only on
the selection where both features Current Conservation, Piezoresistive and Linear Elastic
Material (or Hyperelastic Material) are active.

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics (up to version 5.2), a

specific physics interface called Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents was added
to the Model Builder. Now, a predefined multiphysics coupling approach
is used, improving the flexibility and design options for your modeling.
For specific details, see The Multiphysics Branch and Multiphysics
Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example
Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents, specific settings are included with the physics
interfaces and the coupling features.

218 | CHAPTER 6: PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if both Solid Mechanics and Electric Currents interfaces are added,
COMSOL Multiphysics adds an empty Multiphysics Couplings node. You can choose
the available coupling feature Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents, but the modified
settings are not included. In this example, the Current Conservation, Piezoresistive node
needs to be added manually.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics Couplings node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics
menu.

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Coordinate Systems
When setting up a model, the coordinate systems used for the participating physics
interfaces should be consistent. In particular, the selected item for the Coordinate
system menu under the Solid Mechanics>Linear Elastic Material>Coordinate System
Selection section should match the one for the Coordinate system menu under the
Electric Currents>Current Conservation, Piezoresistive>Coordinate System Selection
section.

Coupling Feature
The following multiphysics coupling feature node is described in this section:

• Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents

• Theory for the Piezoresistivity Interfaces

THE PIEZORESISTIVITY, DOMAIN CURRENTS INTERFACE | 219

 Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents
The Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents multiphysics coupling ( ) computes the
appropriate conductivity tensor according to the mechanical stress or strain from the
Linear Elastic Material node in the Solid Mechanics interface and the piezoresistivity
properties from the Current Conservation, Piezoresistive node in the Electric Currents
interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is pzrd1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
Only domains that have both Current Conservation, Piezoresistive selected in the Electric
Currents interface and Linear Elastic Material selected in the Solid Mechanics interface are
applicable.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents
multiphysics coupling. The Solid mechanics and Electric Currents, shell lists include all
applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how the Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents multiphysics
coupling interface is selected in the Model Wizard or Add Physics window, then the
participating Solid Mechanics and Electric Currents interfaces are selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Piezoresistivity, Domain
Currents node from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the

220 | CHAPTER 6: PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES

Model Builder, for example if Solid Mechanics is deleted, then the list defaults to None as
there is nothing to couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the lists. This is applicable to all multiphysics
coupling nodes that would normally default to the once present interface.
See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

THE PIEZORESISTIVITY, DOMAIN CURRENTS INTERFACE | 221

 T he P i e z o r e s i st i v i t y, Bou n d ary
Currents Interface
The Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents predefined multiphysics coupling interface
( ), found under the Structural Mechanics>Piezoresistivity branch ( ) when adding
a physics interface, combines the Solid Mechanics and Electric Currents in Shells
interfaces to simulate the piezoresistive effect. This multiphysics interface is
appropriate for situations in which the thickness of the piezoresistive layer is much less
than that of the structural layer.

When this multiphysics interface is added using the Model Wizard, a Solid Mechanics
interface and an Electric Currents in Shells interface are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics Couplings node is added, which automatically includes the
multiphysics coupling feature Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents.

The participating Electric Currents in Shells interface by default adds the Piezoresistive
Shell node with its selection set to all domains. This node can also be added manually
to the interface similar to any other material model therein. All piezoresistivity
properties are entered in this node.

The Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents multiphysics coupling node can be active only
on the selection where both features Piezoresistive Shell and Linear Elastic Material (or
Hyperelastic Material) are active.

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics (up to version 5.2), a

specific physics interface called Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents was
added to the Model Builder. Now, a predefined multiphysics coupling
approach is used, improving the flexibility and design options for your
modeling. For specific details, see The Multiphysics Branch and
Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example
Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents, specific settings are included with the physics
interfaces and the coupling features.

222 | CHAPTER 6: PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if both Solid Mechanics and Electric Currents in Shells interfaces are added,
COMSOL Multiphysics adds an empty Multiphysics Couplings node. You can choose
the available coupling feature Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents but the modified
settings are not included. In this example the Piezoresistive Shell node needs to be
added manually.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics Couplings node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics
menu.

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Coordinate Systems
When setting up a model, the coordinate systems used for the participating physics
interfaces should be consistent. In particular, the selected item for the Coordinate
system menu under the Solid Mechanics>Linear Elastic Material>Coordinate System
Selection section should match the one for the Coordinate system menu under the
Electric Currents in Shells>Piezoresistive Shell>Coordinate System Selection section.

Coupling Feature
The following multiphysics coupling feature node is described in this section:

• Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents

• Theory for the Piezoresistivity Interfaces

Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor Application Library path:

MEMS_Module/Sensors/piezoresistive_pressure_sensor

THE PIEZORESISTIVITY, BOUNDARY CURRENTS INTERFACE | 223

 Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents
The Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents multiphysics coupling node ( ) computes the
appropriate conductivity tensor according to the mechanical stress or strain from the
Linear Elastic Material node in the Solid Mechanics interface and the piezoresistivity
properties from the Piezoresistive Shell node in the Electric Currents in Shells interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is pzrb1.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Only boundaries that have both Piezoresistive Shell selected in the Electric Currents in
Shells interface and are adjacent to domains with Linear Elastic Material selected in the
Solid Mechanics interface are applicable.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents
multiphysics coupling. The Solid mechanics and Electric Currents, shell lists include all
applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how the Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents node is
created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents multiphysics
coupling interface is selected in the Model Wizard or Add Physics window, then the
participating Solid Mechanics and Electric Currents, Shell interfaces are selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Piezoresistivity, Boundary
Currents node from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the

224 | CHAPTER 6: PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES

Model Builder, for example if Solid Mechanics is deleted, then the list defaults to None as
there is nothing to couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the lists. This is applicable to all multiphysics
coupling nodes that would normally default to the once present interface.
See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

THE PIEZORESISTIVITY, BOUNDARY CURRENTS INTERFACE | 225

 T he P i e z o r e s i st i v i t y, Sh el l In t erfac e
This physics interface requires a Structural Mechanics Module license.
For theory and physics interface feature descriptions relating to the Shell
interface, see the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide.

The Piezoresistivity, Shell predefined multiphysics coupling interface ( ), found

under the Structural Mechanics>Piezoresistivity branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used when the structural layer is thin enough to be treated by the Shell
interface, but the conducting and piezoresistive layers are still much thinner than the
structural layers.

When this multiphysics interface is added using the Model Wizard, a Shell interface and
an Electric Currents, Shell interface are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics Couplings node is added, which automatically includes the
multiphysics coupling feature Piezoresistivity, Shell.

The participating Electric Currents in Shells interface by default adds the Piezoresistive
Shell node with its selection set to all domains. (Such a node can also be added
manually to the corresponding interface.) All piezoresistivity properties are entered in
this node.

The Piezoresistivity, Shell multiphysics coupling node can be active only on the
selection where both a Piezoresistive Shell and a Linear Elastic Material feature are active.

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics (up to version 5.2), a

specific physics interface called Piezoresistivity, Shell was added to the
Model Builder. Now, a predefined multiphysics coupling approach is used,
improving the flexibility and design options for your modeling. For
specific details, see The Multiphysics Branch and Multiphysics Modeling
Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings (for example,
Piezoresistivity, Shell) specific settings are included with the physics interfaces and the
coupling features.

226 | CHAPTER 6: PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if both Shell and Electric Currents in Shells interfaces are added, COMSOL
adds an empty Multiphysics Couplings node. You can choose the available coupling
feature Piezoresistivity, Shell but the modified settings are not included. In this example
the Piezoresistive Shell node needs to be added manually.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics Couplings node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics
menu.

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Coordinate Systems
When setting up a model, the coordinate systems used for the participating physics
interfaces should be consistent. In particular, the selected item for the Coordinate
system menu under the Shell>Linear Elastic Material>Shell Local System>Coordinate
System Selection section should match the one for the Coordinate system menu under
the Electric Currents, Shell>Piezoresistive Shell>Coordinate System Selection section.

Coupling Feature
The following multiphysics coupling feature node is described in this section:

• Piezoresistivity, Shell

• Theory for the Piezoresistivity Interfaces

Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor, Shell Application Library path:

MEMS_Module/Sensors/piezoresistive_pressure_sensor_shell

THE PIEZORESISTIVITY, SHELL INTERFACE | 227

 Piezoresistivity, Shell
The Piezoresistivity, Shell multiphysics coupling node ( ) computes the appropriate
conductivity tensor according to the mechanical stress or strain from the Linear Elastic
Material node in the Shell interface and the piezoresistivity properties from the
Piezoresistive Shell node in the Electric Currents in Shells interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is pzrs1.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Only boundaries that have both Piezoresistive Shell selected in the Electric Currents in
Shells interface and Linear Elastic Material selected in the Shell interface are applicable.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the Piezoresistivity, Shell multiphysics
coupling. The Shell and Electric currents, shell lists include all applicable physics
interfaces.

The default values depend on how the Piezoresistivity, Shell coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a Piezoresistivity, Shell multiphysics coupling
interface is selected in the Model Wizard or Add Physics window, then the newly
added Shell and Electric Currents in Shells interfaces are selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Piezoresistivity, Shell node
from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for
example if Shell is deleted, then the list defaults to None as there is nothing to couple to.

228 | CHAPTER 6: PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the lists. This is applicable to all multiphysics
coupling nodes that would normally default to the once present interface.
See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

THE PIEZORESISTIVITY, SHELL INTERFACE | 229

 The Piezoresistivity, Layered Shell
Interface
This physics interface requires a Composite Material Module license. For
theory and physics interface feature descriptions relating to the Layered
Shell interface, see the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide.

The Piezoresistivity, Layered Shell interface ( ) combines structural layered shells and
electric currents in shells together with the constitutive relationships required to model
the piezoresistive effects. The piezoresistive coupling can be formulated using either
the piezoresistance or elastoresistance form.

When a predefined Piezoresistivity, Layered Shell interface is added from the Structural
Mechanics branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or from Add Physics windows, Layered Shell
and Electric Currents in Layered Shells interfaces are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling feature Piezoresistivity, Layered.

The participating Electric Currents in Layered Shells interface will include by default a
Piezoresistive Shell feature. (Such a feature can be also added manually to the
corresponding interface.) You this feature to select those boundaries and layers, where
the material is supposed to experience piezoresistive coupling. All piezoresistivity
properties are entered in this feature. Note that the Piezoresistivity, Layered
multiphysics coupling node can be active only on the selection, where Piezoresistive
Shell is active. When used without the coupling feature, the Piezoresistive Shell node
acts as an ordinary Conductive Shell feature with its material data input limited to the
electric conductivity only.

All structural and electric functionality for modeling is also accessible to include
surrounding elastic solids or air domains. For example, add any material model for
other solid domains, a conductive or dielectric model, or a combination of these. Note
that in order to model a nonsolid conductive or dielectric domain, such as air, you need
to remove such domains from the domain selection for the entire Layered Shell
interface. This is because all material models under that interface represent solid
materials (with the Linear Elastic Material node always being present and active in all
domains where it is not explicitly overridden by any other material model).

230 | CHAPTER 6: PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces
• The Layered Shell interface is described in The Layered Shell Interface.
• The Electric Currents in Layered Shells interface is described in The Electric
Currents, Layered Shell Interface in the AC/DC Module User’s Guide.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example
Piezoresistivity, Layered Shell, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces
and the coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if both Layered Shell and Electric Currents in Layered Shells interfaces are
added, COMSOL Multiphysics adds an empty Multiphysics node. You can add the
available coupling feature Piezoresistivity, Layered but the modified settings are not
included.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics Couplings
menu.

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Piezoresistivity, Layered
The Piezoresistivity, Layered multiphysics coupling node ( ) computes the
appropriate conductivity tensor according to the mechanical stress or strain from the
Linear Elastic Material node in the Layered Shell interface and the piezoresistivity
properties from the Piezoresistive Shell node in the Electric Currents in Layered Shells
interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

THE PIEZORESISTIVITY, LAYERED SHELL INTERFACE | 231

 The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is pzrl1.

BOUNDARY AND LAYER SELECTION

Only boundaries and layers that have both Piezoresistive Shell selected in the Electric
Currents in Layered Shells interface and Linear Elastic Material selected in the Layered
Shell interface are applicable.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the Piezoresistivity, Layered Shell
multiphysics coupling. The Structure and Electric currents in shells lists include all
applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how the Piezoresistivity, Layered coupling node is
created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a Piezoresistivity, Layered Shell multiphysics
coupling interface is selected in the Model Wizard or Add Physics window, then the
newly added Layered Shell and Electric Currents in Layered Shells interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Piezoresistivity, Layered node
from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for
example if Layered Shell is deleted, then the list defaults to None as there is nothing to
couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the lists. This is applicable to all multiphysics
coupling nodes that would normally default to the once present interface.
See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

232 | CHAPTER 6: PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES

Theory for the Piezoresistivity
Interfaces
In this section:

• Piezoresistive Materials
• Electric Currents Formulation
• Tensor Versus Matrix Formulations
• Material Property Definitions
• Coordinate Systems and Material Orientation
• References for the Piezoresistivity Interfaces

• The Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents Interface

• The Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents Interface
• The Piezoresistivity, Shell Interface
• The Piezoresistivity, Layered Shell Interface

The Piezoresistivity, Shell interface uses features from the Shell interface,
which requires the Structural Mechanics Module. Both the theory and
features are described in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide.

Piezoresistive Materials
A piezoresistive material responds to an applied stress with a change in its resistivity.
Normally piezoresistive materials are semiconductors, and the effect is associated with
band structure changes that alter the carrier mobility and number density much more
significantly than an applied stress would change, for example, the resistance of a
similar metal. The equivalent elastoresistance effect relates the strain in the material to
a change in resistivity. Note that the dependence between the structural mechanics and
the electrical properties of the material is unidirectional, so that applied currents do not
induce changes in the material stress or strain (assuming that other effects, such as
heating of the material, are negligible).

THEORY FOR THE PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES | 233

 Within a piezoresistive material, the relation between the electric field, E, and the
current, J, becomes:

E =   J +   J (6-1)

where is the resistivity and  is the induced change in the resistivity. In the general
case both and  are rank 2 tensors (matrices). The change in resistance is related to
the stress S (for the piezoresistance form of the equations), or the strain  (for the
elastoresistance form of the equations), by the constitutive relationship:

 =   S piezoresistance form
(6-2)
 = M   elastoresistance form

where  is the piezoresistance tensor (SI unit: mPa1) and M is the elastoresistance
tensor (SI unit: m). Both of these quantities are material properties.  and M are in
this case rank 4 tensors; however, they can be represented as matrices if the resistivity,
stress, and strain are converted to vectors within a reduced subscript notation.

Tensor Versus Matrix Formulations

Electric Currents Formulation

The flow of electric current through a conducting medium in the quasistatic case is
governed by the equation of continuity which can be written in the form:

 
   J – J e + D = Qj
t 

where J is the induced electric current, Je includes external current sources that do
not result from the material conductivity (such as thermoelectric currents), D is the
electric displacement field, and Qj is a current source term. Both Qj and Je are usually
zero for piezoresistive devices.

In the stationary or quasistatic case, the electric current is related to the electric field,
E, by the constitutive relation:

J =  c   E (6-3)

where (c) is the conductivity tensor.

234 | CHAPTER 6: PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES

Relating E and D to the electric potential (E=-V, D=0(r)E, where 0 is the
permittivity of free space and (r) is the relative permittivity tensor) gives:


–      c   V – J e +   0   r   V  = Q j (6-4)
t

If current flow is restricted to a thin layer on the surface of a material this equation
takes the form:


–  t   d s    c    t V – J e +   0   r    t V   = Q j (6-5)
t

where the operator t represents the tangential derivative along the thin layer surface.
Equation 6-4 and Equation 6-5 form the basis of the Electric Currents interface.

The constitutive relationship described by Equation 6-3 uses the

conductivity form rather than the resistivity form used in Equation 6-1.

Since the equations of piezoresistivity are by convention formulated in the resistivity

form, Equation 6-1 must be inverted to give:

–1 –1
J =   c  +   E (6-6)

Although this expression appears cumbersome, it is required in this form for the
general case where the conductivity and change in resistivity are nonsymmetric tensor
quantities. For convenience, the tensor (c, eff) is defined as:

–1 –1
  c ,eff  =    c  +   (6-7)

The Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents Interface solves a modified form of

Equation 6-4 on the domain level:


–      c ,eff    V  – J e +   0   r   V  = Q j
 t 

while The Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents Interface and The Piezoresistivity, Shell
Interface solve a modified form of equation Equation 6-5 on the boundary level:


–  t   d s    c ,eff    t  V  – J e +   0   r    t V   = Q j
  t 

THEORY FOR THE PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES | 235

 where (c, eff) is computed from Equation 6-7 and from the definition of  given in
Equation 6-2.

• The Electric Currents Interface

• Theory for the Electric Currents Interface

Tensor Versus Matrix Formulations

The constitutive relations defined in Equation 6-2 relate the change in resistivity
matrix (a rank 2 tensor) to the stress or strain matrix (also a rank 2 tensor). This means
that the piezoresistivity tensor and the elastoresistance tensor are both rank 4 tensors.
A formal tensor formulation of Equation 6-1 therefore takes the form:

j j kl
E i =  ij J +  ijkl J S piezoresistance form
(6-8)
j kl j
E i =  ij J + M ij J  kl elastoresistance form

Here the Einstein summation convention is used. Note that this equation implies that
ij=ijklSkl and ij=Mijklkl. Tensors  and M have a number of symmetry
properties. Tensors S, , and  are symmetric and can be represented as six
component vectors. There are two conventions for ordering the components in these
vectors, and the Piezoresistivity interfaces all use the Voigt notation prevalent in the
literature.

The Structural Mechanics branch interfaces use a distinct standard

notation by default but does also support the Voigt notation.

Cubic materials, such as silicon, possess symmetries that mean the two notations are,
in any case, equivalent when defining material properties. Within Voigt notation, the
vectors that correspond to S, , and  are:

236 | CHAPTER 6: PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES

 xx
S s1  xx e1  xx r 1
yy
S s2  yy e2  yy r 2
zz
s  zz e3  zz r 3
s = S = 3 e = = r = =
S
yz s4 2 yz e4  yz r 4
xz s5 2 xz e5  xz r 5
S
xy s6 2 xy e6  xy r 6
S

This notation is known as the reduced subscript notation, since the number of
subscripts required to represent the stress, strain, or change in resistivity is reduced
from two to one. The relationship between the stress or strain and the resistivity
change becomes:

r =   s piezoresistance form
r = m  e elastoresistance form

Where  and m are now matrices related to the components of the corresponding 
and M tensors in the following manner:

 1111  1122  1133 2 1123 2 1113 2 1112

 2211  2222  2233 2 2223 2 2213 2 2212
 3311  3322  3333 2 3323 2 3313 2 3312
 =
 2311  2322  2333 2 2323 2 2312 2 2312
 1311  1322  1333 2 1323 2 1313 2 1312
 1211  1222  1233 2 1223 2 1213 2 1212

11 22 33 23 13 12
M 11 M 11 M 11 M 11 M 11 M 11
11 22 33 23 13 12
M 22 M 22 M 22 M 22 M 22 M 22
11 22 33 23 13 12
M 33 M 33 M 33 M 33 M 33 M 33
m =
11 22 33 23 13 12
M 23 M 23 M 23 M 23 M 23 M 23
11 22 33 23 13 12
M 13 M 13 M 13 M 13 M 13 M 13
11 22 33 23 13 12
M 12 M 12 M 12 M 12 M 12 M 12

THEORY FOR THE PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES | 237

 Components of the  and M tensors that do not appear in these matrices are always
equal to one of those that does appear as a result of symmetry constraints.

For the most general triclinic crystal groups, the  and m matrices are not
necessarily symmetric, as is the case for the elasticity matrix in structural
mechanics.

This is because the rank four tensors  and M lack one of the symmetry properties of
the elasticity tensor (ijkl  klij and Mijkl Mklij see Ref. 1 and Ref. 2 for details).
Finally the relationship between  and m is given by:

m = D (6-9)

where D is the elasticity matrix (s=De), which is defined in Voigt notation as:

1111 1122 1133 1123 1113 1112

C C C C C C
2222 2233 2223 2213 2212
C C C C C
3333 3323 3313 3312
D = C C C C
2323 2313 2312
C C C
symmetric 1313 1312
C C
1212
C

Material Property Definitions

The definitions of the piezoresistance and elastoresistance material properties implied
by Equation 6-1, Equation 6-2, and Equation 6-8 include the resistivity of the
material implicitly. This approach is common in the theoretical literature (see for
example Ref. 1 and Ref. 2), since it is essential for a generalized description of the
phenomena. However, many engineering texts (see for example Ref. 3, Ref. 4, and
Ref. 5) describe the material properties in terms of a relative change in resistivity. In
this approach the quantities ' and m' are defined such that:

 =  0 '
(6-10)
m =  0 m'

where 0 is the scalar resistivity of the undeformed material. Here  has the units Pa1
and m is dimensionless. For comparison  has the units mPa1 and m has units m.

238 | CHAPTER 6: PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES

Equation 6-10 only applies when the resistivity is isotropic in the unstressed case.
Cubic materials, such as silicon, have an isotropic resistivity when unstressed and so can
employ this approach. It has the advantage that the piezoresistive material properties
do not change with doping level for lightly doped silicon (dopant concentrations of
less than approximately 1016 cm3). In COMSOL Multiphysics the built-in material
properties have been implemented so that the dopant number density is added in the
interface as a model input and the resistivity and conductivity are computed
automatically within the material. These quantities are then included as part of the
definitions of  and m. This approach provides the maximum level of flexibility
(enabling noncubic materials and nonuniform dopant densities to be straightforwardly
modeled), without sacrificing the convenience of the approach usually adopted for
cubic materials. When entering custom material properties for materials not present in
the library, it is important to remember that the resistivity should be included in the
piezoresistance or elastoresistance material properties entered in the material library.

The piezoresistive material properties for single crystal silicon included

with the MEMS module are based on Ref. 6 and Ref. 7. Those provided
for polysilicon are based on Ref. 3 and Ref. 7.

About the Material Libraries for the MEMS Module

Coordinate Systems and Material Orientation

The material orientation is defined in COMSOL Multiphysics by means of a local
coordinate system. The local coordinate system is the coordinate system that
corresponds to the physical property axes of the material, that is, the orthogonal
coordinate system in which the material properties are defined (see section 4.3 of
Ref. 2). For materials with orthogonal crystallographic axes, the physical property axes
correspond to the crystallographic axes. For other crystals a definition of the
orientation of these axes should be provided with the material properties — often the
standard described in Ref. 2 is used. In COMSOL Multiphysics, the equations of solid
mechanics are usually solved in the local coordinate system, whilst the electric currents

THEORY FOR THE PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES | 239

 equations are solved in the global system. Appropriate coordinate transforms of the
relevant physical quantities have been implemented in the Piezoresistivity interfaces.

Reduced subscript matrices and vectors do not obey the usual tensor
transformation rules for coordinate transforms. The COMSOL
Multiphysics software uses the quadratic transformation laws to transform
these quantities between coordinate systems where this is necessary. See
Ref. 1 for further details.

The local coordinate system for a material is set within the Linear Elastic Material and
Charge Conservation, Piezoresistive features (or their equivalents). These features
default to using the global system, but alternative systems can be defined by adding
one of the coordinate system nodes to the Definitions node level of the Model Builder.
Often the Rotated System feature is used to specify the new coordinate system in terms
of Euler angles.

Converting from Miller indices and wafer flat orientations to the

appropriate Euler angles is not straightforward and a carefully drawn
diagram is recommended.

Coordinate Systems in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

References for the Piezoresistivity Interfaces

1. R.F. Tinder, Tensor Properties of Solids, Morgan and Claypool Publishers, 2008.

2. R.E. Newnham, Properties of Materials, Oxford University Press, 2005.

3. M. Bao, Analysis and Design Principles of MEMS Devices, Elsevier B. V., 2005.

4. S.D. Senturia, Microsystem Design, Springer, 2000.

5. A. A. Barlian; W.-T. Park; J.R. Mallon, Jr.; A.J. Rastegar; and B.L. Pruitt, “Review:
Semiconductor Piezoresistance for Microsystems”, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 97,
no. 3, 2009.

6. C.S. Smith, “Piezoresistance Effect in Germanium and Silicon”, Physical Review,

vol. 94, no. 1, pp. 42–49, 1957.

240 | CHAPTER 6: PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES

7. C. Jacoboni, C. Canali, G. Ottaviani, and A. Alberigi Quaranta, “A Review of Some
Charge Transport Properties of Silicon”, Solid-State Electronics, vol. 20, pp. 77–89,
1977.

THEORY FOR THE PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES | 241

242 | CHAPTER 6: PIEZORESISTIVITY INTERFACES
 7

Glossary

This Glossary of Terms contains finite-element modeling terms specific to the

MEMS Module and its applications. For mathematical terms as well as geometry
and CAD terms specific to the COMSOL Multiphysics® software and its
documentation, see the glossary in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
To find references in the documentation set where you can find more information
about a given term, see the index.

243
 Glossary of Terms
accelerometer A sensor that measures acceleration or gravitational force. See also
sensor.

actuator A device or mechanism that produces mechanical motion.

ALE See arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian method.

arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian (ALE) method A technique to formulate equations in a

mixed kinematical description. An ALE referential coordinate system is typically a mix
between the material (Lagrangian) and spatial (Eulerian) coordinate systems.

aspect ratio The ratio of the dimensions of a device in different directions, for
example, the ratio of height to width. See also lateral aspect ratio and vertical aspect
ratio.

biosensor A general term for sensor devices that either detect biological substances or
use antibodies, enzymes, or other biological molecules in their operation. Biosensors
are a subcategory of chemical sensors.

bonding A process by which one substrate is firmly attached to the surface of another.

buckling The sudden collapse or reduction in stiffness of a structure under a critical

combination of applied loads.

cantilever beam A beam with one end fixed and one end free.

capacitive sensor A sensor that produces a signal due to a change in its capacitance.

Cauchy stress The most fundamental stress measure defined as force/deformed area
in fixed directions not following the body.

compliance matrix The inverse of the elasticity matrix. See elasticity matrix.

comb drive A MEMS device consisting of interdigitated fingers similar in appearance

to two interlocking combs.

244 | CHAPTER 7: GLOSSARY

constitutive equations The equations formulating the stress-strain relationship of a
material.

creep Time-dependent material nonlinearity that usually occurs in metals at high

temperatures in which the effect of the variation of stress and strain with time is of
interest.

damping Dissipation of energy in a vibrating structure. A common assumption is

viscous damping, where the damping is proportional to the velocity. See also Rayleigh
damping.

elastic deformation A nonpermanent deformation that recovers its shape completely

upon the release of an applied stress.

elasticity matrix The matrix D relating strain to stresses:

 = D

Eulerian Model described and solved in a coordinate system that is fixed (spatial). See
also Lagrangian and arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian method.

frequency-response analysis An analysis solving for the steady-state response from a

harmonic excitation. Typically a frequency sweep is performed, solving for many
excitation frequencies.

Green–Lagrange strain A measure of nonlinear strain used in large-deformation

analysis. In a small-strain large rotation analysis, the Green–Lagrange strain
corresponds to the engineering strain with the strain values interpreted in the original
directions. The Green–Lagrange strain is a natural choice when formulating a
problem in the undeformed state.

initial strain The strain in a stress-free structure before it is loaded. See also strain and
residual strain.

initial stress The stress in a nondeformed structure before it is loaded. See also stress
and residual stress.

Joule heating The increase in temperature of a medium as a result of resistance to an

electric current flowing through it.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS | 245

 Knudsen number A dimensionless number that provides a measure of how rarefied a
gas flow is, in other words, the average distance between the gas molecules compared
to the length scale of the flow. The following equation defines the Knudsen number
Kn where is the mean free path of the molecules and L is a length scale characteristic
to the flow.


Kn = ----
L

Lagrangian Model described and solved in a coordinate system that moves with the
material. See also Eulerian and arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian method.

large deformation The deformations are so large so the nonlinear effect of the change
in geometry or stress stiffening need to be accounted for.

lateral aspect ratio The ratio of the length of a structure in the plane of a wafer to its
width in that plane. See also aspect ratio and vertical aspect ratio.

MEMS An acronym for microelectromechanical systems. More generally, MEMS

refers to systems, devices, and components with microscale size and in which the
physics is not necessarily limited to electrical or mechanical phenomena.

microsystems See MEMS.

piezoelectricity The ability of certain crystalline materials to produce an electric

voltage when subjected to mechanical stress (direct piezoelectric effect). Inversely, the
material’s ability to change shape when an external voltage is applied (reverse
piezoelectric effect).

plane strain An assumption on the strain field where all out-of-plane strain
components are assumed to be zero.

plane stress An assumption on the stress field where all out-of-plane stress
components are assumed to be zero.

principle of virtual work States that the variation in internal strain energy is equal to
the work done by external forces.

proof mass A predetermined test mass in a measurement device or machine that serves
as the reference mass for the quantity to be measured.

246 | CHAPTER 7: GLOSSARY

Rayleigh damping A viscous damping model where the damping is proportional to the
mass and stiffness through the mass and stiffness damping parameters.

residual strain Strain remaining in a structure after some operation, for example, the
strain resulting from cooling a system after high-temperature bonding. It often appears
as the initial strain for any consequent tasks. See also strain and initial strain.

residual stress Stress remaining in a structure after some operation, for example, stress
resulting from cooling a system after high-temperature bonding. It often appears as the
initial stress for any consequent tasks. See also stress and initial stress.

second Piola–Kirchhoff stress Conjugate stress to Green–Lagrange strain used in

large deformation analysis.

sensor A device that measures a physical variable such as temperature or pressure and
converts it (usually) to an electrical signal.

slide-film damping The damping effect of a fluid between two solid surfaces when the
distance between them is small compared to their area and there is mostly tangential
movement (lubrication). Slide-film damping is a type of thin-film damping.

spin tensor The skew-symmetric part of the velocity gradient tensor.

squeeze-film damping The damping effect of a fluid between two solid surfaces when
the distance between them is small compared to their area and there is mostly normal
movement. Squeeze-film damping is a type of thin-film damping.

strain Relative change in length, a fundamental concept in structural mechanics.

stress Internal forces in a material. Normal stresses are defined as forces/area normal
to a plane, and shear stresses are defined as forces/area in the plane. A fundamental
concept in structural mechanics.

thermoelastic damping When an elastic rod is stretched reversibly and adiabatically its
temperature drops. The drop in temperature compensates for the increase in entropy
caused by the stress in the rod (since the process is reversible the entropy remains
constant). In a general deformation, the strain in a structure is nonuniform and so the
temperature changes in a nonuniform manner throughout the structure. The
irreversible flow of heat that accompanies these temperature changes result in energy
loss and damping of the structure.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS | 247

 thin-film damping Damping that occurs in a thin channel of fluid (fluid film) between
moving structures. See squeeze-film damping and slide-film damping.

transducer A device that converts one type of energy to another. It often refers to a
device that responds to a physical parameter and converts it to an electrical signal.

vertical aspect ratio The ratio of the height of a structure perpendicular to a wafer’s
surface to its depth in the wafer’s plane.

248 | CHAPTER 7: GLOSSARY

I n d e x
A AC/DC Module 34 charge conservation, piezoelectric
accommodation coefficients 62 (node) 95
ammeter (node) 140 charge relaxation theory 155
Application Libraries window 26 circuit import, SPICE 153
application library examples collector node 147
contact impedance 132 common settings 21
electric currents 112 conduction loss (time-harmonic) (node)
electrical circuits 63 79
electrostatics 75 contact impedance (node) 130
heat transfer in solids 49 continuum mechanics forces 189
MEMS materials database 44 coordinate systems
piezoelectric materials database 44 piezoresistivity interfaces 239
piezoresistive materials 44 coupling, to the electrical circuits inter-
piezoresistivity, boundary currents 223 face 64
piezoresistivity, shell 227 current conservation (node) 115

B base node 147 current source (node)

bipolar junction transistor 147 electric currents 121

boundary conditions electrical circuits 142

forced voltage, port 50 current sources, theory 157

boundary current source (node) 124 current-controlled current source

boundary nodes (node) 145

electric currents 113 current-controlled voltage source

electrostatics 75 (node) 144

bulk node 148 D damping

C calculating slide-film effects 61

S-parameters 52 squeeze-film 61

capacitance matrix, fixed charge 51 damping forces 35

capacitance matrix, forced voltage 50 device models, electrical circuits 172

capacitor (node) 141 dielectric shielding (node) 87

change cross-section (node) 94 diode (node) 149

change thickness (out-of-plane) (node) diode transistor model 178

95 dislocation movement 208

charge conservation (node) 77, 105 dispersion (node) 96, 118

charge conservation, ferroelectric distributed capacitance (node) 91

(node) 95 distributed impedance (node) 125

documentation 25

INDEX| 249
 domain nodes theory 155
electric currents 113 electrostatics, boundary elements inter-
electrostatics 75 face 100
dopant concentrations, silicon 239 emailing COMSOL 27
drain node 148 emitter node 147
entropy balance equation 208
E edge nodes
equation of continuity 155
electric currents 113
equivalent circuit 37
electrostatics 75
error message, electrical circuits 63
Einstein summation 236
Euler angles 240
elastoresistance effect 233
exporting
elastoresistance tensor 236
SPICE netlists 68
electric currents interface 110
external current density (node) 121
theory 168
external I vs. U (node) 150
electric displacement field (node) 84
external I-terminal (node) 152
electric fields theory 155
external surface charge accumulation
electric insulation (node) 122
(node) 83
electric point dipole (node)
external U vs. I (node) 151
electric currents 135
electric point dipole (on axis) (node) 136 F FBAR filters 34
electric potential (node) 82, 106 fixed current, ports 50
electric scalar-scalar potential coupling floating potential (node)
(node) 108 electric currents 122
electric shielding (node) 130 electrostatics 89, 106
electrical circuit interface 138 fluid flow 60
theory 171 fluid-structure interaction 60, 195
electrical circuits force calculation (node) 80
modeling techniques 63 forced voltage, port 50
electromechanical coupling factor 40 forces, continuum mechanics and 189
electromechanical forces (node), multi- frequency domain study 169
physics 186 force calculation and 80
electromechanics interface 185, 195 theory, electric currents 157
theory 189
G gate node 148
electroquasistatic criterion 47
Gauss’ law and charge relaxation theory
electrostatic forces 32
155
electrostatic point dipole (node) 99
Gauss’ law equation 158
electrostatically actuated structures 185,
Gibbs free energy 209
195
ground (node) 82, 106
electrostatics interface 72
ground node (node) 140

250 | I N D E X
H heat transfer, in MEMS devices 56 multiphysics

I importing piezoelectricity and pyroelectricity 202

SPICE netlists 67, 153 pyroelectricity 198–199

inductor (node) 141 multiphysics coupling

initial values (node) electromechanical forces 186

electric currents 120 fluid-structure interaction 195

electrostatics 79 mutual inductance (node) 148

internet resources 25 N n-Channel MOS transistor 148, 175

irreversible heat conduction 207 n-Channel MOSFET (node) 148

K Kirchhoff’s circuit laws 171 netlists, SPICE 67, 153

knowledge base, COMSOL 27 nodes, common settings 21

Knudsen number 61 normal current density (node) 124

NPN bipolar junction transistor 172
L line charge (node) 91
NPN BJT (node) 147
line charge (on axis) (node) 92
line charge (out-of-plane) (node) 92 O Ohm’s law and charge relaxation theory

line current source (node) 133 155

line current source (on axis) (node) 134 oscillatory complex numbers 214

lumped parameters P pair contact impedance (node) 130

converting 52 pair nodes
fixed current 50 electric currents 113
Ohm’s law and 49 electrostatics 75

M magnetic MEMS devices 33 p-Channel MOS transistor 148

mass matrix scaling 39 p-Channel MOSFET (node) 148

material orientation 239 periodic condition (node) 85

material properties, piezoresistivity in- physical phenomena scaling, MEMS de-

terfaces 238 vices and 32

max scaling 40 physics interfaces, common settings 21

Maxwell relation 210 piezoelectric forces 34

Maxwell stress tensor 47, 190 piezoelectricity and pyroelectricity mult-

Maxwell’s equations iphysics interface 202

electrical circuits and 171 piezoresistive effect 54

mechanisms of heat transfer 56 piezoresistive materials 233

MEMS materials 43 piezoresistivity tensor 236

MEMS, definition 12 piezoresistivity, boundary currents inter-

Microfluidics Module 34 face 222

Miller indices 240 theory 233

MPH-files 26 piezoresistivity, domain currents inter-

INDEX| 251
 face 218 S-parameter calculations
theory 233 electric field, and 51
piezoresistivity, shell interface 226 SPICE
theory 233 exporting 68
Piola-Kirchhoff stress 208 SPICE netlists 67, 153
PNP BJT (node) 147 squeeze-film damping 61
point charge (node) 93 standard notation, structural mechanics
point charge (on axis) (node) 94 interfaces 236
point current source (node) 134 standard settings 21
point current source (on axis) (node) study types
135 electric currents 169
point nodes subcircuit definition (node) 146
electric currents 113 subcircuit instance (node) 147
electrostatics 75 surface charge density (node) 83, 107
predefined couplings, electrical circuits switch (node) 145
64 symmetry plane (node) 84
pyroelectricity (node) 199 symmetry properties, piezoresistivity in-
pyroelectricity multiphysics interface 198 terfaces 236

Q quadratic transformation laws 240 T technical support, COMSOL 27

terminal (node)
R rank 2 tensors 234, 236
electric currents 127
rank 4 tensors 234, 236
electrostatics 87
rarefaction effects 62
electrostatics, boundary elements 107
realdot operator 215
theory
reduced subscript notation 237
electric currents interface 168
reduced-order modeling 37
electric fields 155
resistor (node) 140
electrical circuit interface 171
Reynolds equation 61
electromechanics 189
S scaling MEMS devices 32
electrostatics interface 155
scattering parameters. see S-parameters
piezoresistivity, boundary currents 233
second-order heat source terms 214
piezoresistivity, domain currents 233
sector symmetry (node) 132
piezoresistivity, shell 233
semiconductor device models 172
thermoelasticity 207
shift function 97, 119
thermal actuators, modeling 57
silicon 239
thermal forces 34
slide film damping 61
thermal stresses, modeling 57
source node 148
thermodynamic potential 209
space charge density (node) 80
thermoelastic damping 58, 207

252 | I N D E X
 thermoelasticity interface 204
theory 207
thin low permittivity gap (node) 86
thin-film flow, definition 60
time dependent study 157, 169
TMAC 62
transformer (node) 149

V variables
S-parameters 52
Voigt notation 236
voltage source (node) 141
voltage-controlled current source
(node) 144
voltage-controlled voltage source (node)
143
voltmeter (node) 140

W wafer flat orientations 240

websites, COMSOL 27
WLF shift functions 98, 119, 165

Z zero charge (node) 81

zero charge, boundary elements (node)
108

INDEX| 253
254 | I N D E X