Unit IV Knowledge

• Logical Agents, Knowledge-Based Agents, The

Wumpus World, Logic, Propositional Logic: A
Very Simple Logic, Propositional Theorem
Proving, Effective Propositional Model
Checking, Agents Based on Propositional
Logic, First-Order Logic, Representation
Revisited, Syntax and Semantics of First-Order
Logic, Using First-Order Logic, Knowledge
Engineering in First-Order Logic
 What is Logical AI
• A logical agent is an entity in artificial
intelligence that makes decisions and takes
actions based on a set of logical rules and
reasoning processes.
• These agents typically operate in
environments where they can perceive
information and use it to infer new
knowledge, allowing them to achieve specific
goals.
 Key characteristics of logical agents
include:
• Knowledge Representation: They use formal
languages (like propositional logic or first-order
logic) to represent facts about the world.
• Inference Mechanism: They apply logical
reasoning to derive conclusions from known facts
and rules, enabling them to solve problems and
make decisions.
• Decision Making: Based on their knowledge and
reasoning, logical agents can choose actions that
lead to desired outcomes.
 Knowledge-based agents
• Intelligent agents need knowledge about the
world to choose good actions/decisions.
• Knowledge = {sentences} in a knowledge
representation language (formal language).
• A sentence is an assertion about the world.
• A knowledge-based agent is composed of:
1. Knowledge base: domain-specific content.
2. Inference mechanism: domain-independent
algorithms.
 Applications:

• Knowledge-based agents can be found in

various fields, including:
• Expert Systems: Systems that provide
decision-making support in specific domains
(e.g., medical diagnosis).
• Robotics: Autonomous robots that navigate
and interact with their environment.
• Natural Language Processing: Systems that
understand and respond to human language.
• The agent must be able to: –
• Represent states, actions, etc.
• – Incorporate new percepts
• – Update internal representations of the world
• – Deduce hidden properties of the world
• – Deduce appropriate actions
• The above diagram is representing a generalized
architecture for a knowledge-based agent.
• The knowledge-based agent (KBA) take input
from the environment by perceiving the
environment.
• The input is taken by the inference engine of the
agent and which also communicate with KB to
decide as per the knowledge store in KB.
• The learning element of KBA regularly updates
the KB by learning new knowledge.
• Knowledge base: Knowledge-base is a central
component of a knowledge-based agent, it is also
known as KB.
• It is a collection of sentences (here 'sentence' is a
technical term and it is not identical to sentence
in English).
• These sentences are expressed in a language
which is called a knowledge representation
language.
• The Knowledge-base of KBA stores fact about the
world.
• Why use a knowledge base?
• Knowledge-base is required for updating
knowledge for an agent to learn with
experiences and take action as per the
knowledge.
 Inference system

• Inference means deriving new sentences from

old. Inference system allows us to add a new
sentence to the knowledge base.
• A sentence is a proposition about the world.
Inference system applies logical rules to the KB to
deduce new information.
• Inference system generates new facts so that an
agent can update the KB. An inference system
works mainly in two rules which are given as:
• Forward chaining
• Backward chaining
• A. Forward Chaining
• Forward chaining is also known as a forward deduction
or forward reasoning method when using an inference
engine. Forward chaining is a form of reasoning which
start with atomic sentences in the knowledge base and
applies inference rules (Modus Ponens) in the forward
direction to extract more data until a goal is reached.
• The Forward-chaining algorithm starts from known
facts, triggers all rules whose premises are satisfied,
and add their conclusion to the known facts. This
process repeats until the problem is solved.
• Properties of Forward-Chaining:
• It is a down-up approach, as it moves from
bottom to top.
• It is a process of making a conclusion based on
known facts or data, by starting from the
initial state and reaches the goal state.
• Forward-chaining approach is also called as
data-driven as we reach to the goal using
available data.
 B. Backward Chaining:

• Backward-chaining is also known as a

backward deduction or backward reasoning
method when using an inference engine. A
backward chaining algorithm is a form of
reasoning, which starts with the goal and
works backward, chaining through rules to
find known facts that support the goal.
• Properties of backward chaining:
• It is known as a top-down approach.
• Backward-chaining is based on modus ponens inference
rule.
• In backward chaining, the goal is broken into sub-goal or
sub-goals to prove the facts true.
• It is called a goal-driven approach, as a list of goals decides
which rules are selected and used.
• Backward -chaining algorithm is used in game theory,
automated theorem proving tools, inference engines, proof
assistants, and various AI applications.
• The backward-chaining method mostly used a depth-first
search strategy for proof.
 Operations Performed by KBA

• Following are three operations which are

performed by KBA in order to show the
intelligent behavior:
• TELL: This operation tells the knowledge base
what it perceives from the environment.
• ASK: This operation asks the knowledge base
what action it should perform.
• Perform: It performs the selected action.
 The Wumpus World

• The Wumpus world is a simple world example to

illustrate the worth of a knowledge-based agent
and to represent knowledge representation.
• The Wumpus world is a cave which has 4/4 rooms
connected with passageways.
• So there are total 16 rooms which are connected
with each other.
• We have a knowledge-based agent who will go
forward in this world.
• The cave has a room with a beast which is called
Wumpus, who eats anyone who enters the room
• . The Wumpus can be shot by the agent, but the agent
has a single arrow.
• In the Wumpus world, there are some Pits rooms
which are bottomless, and if agent falls in Pits, then he
will be stuck there forever.
• The exciting thing with this cave is that in one room
there is a possibility of finding a heap of gold. So the
agent goal is to find the gold and climb out the cave
without fallen into Pits or eaten by Wumpus.
• The agent will get a reward if he comes out with gold,
and he will get a penalty if eaten by Wumpus or falls in
the pit.
 PEAS description of Wumpus world:

• To explain the Wumpus world we have given

PEAS description as below:
• Performance measure:
• +1000 reward points if the agent comes out of
the cave with the gold.
• -1000 points penalty for being eaten by the
Wumpus or falling into the pit.
• -1 for each action, and -10 for using an arrow.
• The game ends if either agent dies or came out of
the cave.
• Environment:
• A 4*4 grid of rooms.
• The agent initially in room square [1, 1], facing
toward the right.
• Location of Wumpus and gold are chosen
randomly except the first square [1,1].
• Each square of the cave can be a pit with
probability 0.2 except the first square.
• Actuators:
• Left turn,
• Right turn
• Move forward
• Grab
• Release
• Shoot.
• Sensors:
• The agent will perceive the stench if he is in the room
adjacent to the Wumpus. (Not diagonally).
• The agent will perceive breeze if he is in the room
directly adjacent to the Pit.
• The agent will perceive the glitter in the room where
the gold is present.
• The agent will perceive the bump if he walks into a
wall.
• When the Wumpus is shot, it emits a
horrible scream which can be perceived anywhere in
the cave.
 The Wumpus world Properties

• Partially observable: The Wumpus world is partially

observable because the agent can only perceive the close
environment such as an adjacent room.
• Deterministic: It is deterministic, as the result and outcome
of the world are already known.
• Sequential: The order is important, so it is sequential.
• Static: It is static as Wumpus and Pits are not moving.
• Discrete: The environment is discrete.
• One agent: The environment is a single agent as we have
one agent only and Wumpus is not considered as an agent.
 Propositional logic in Artificial
intelligence
• Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of
logic where all the statements are made by
propositions. A proposition is a declarative
statement which is either true or false. It is a
technique of knowledge representation in
logical and mathematical form.
 Knowledge representation using
propositional logic
• is a method for representing knowledge to a machine in a
way that can be used to enhance its automatic learning
capacity. It's one of the simplest ways to represent
knowledge to a machine
• Here are some details about knowledge representation
using propositional logic:
• Propositions
• A proposition is a sentence that can be used to express an
idea, plan, opinion, statement, or suggestion. It can
represent a true or false value, but not both at the same
time. For example, "Tomorrow it will be rainy" is a
proposition because it can be true or false, but not both.
• Logical connectives
• Logical connectives are used to establish compound statements.
•
• Truth tables
• Truth tables are constructed to investigate the properties of logical
connectives.
•
• Logic
• Logic combines the advantages of natural languages and formal
languages. It allows users to make statements about the world that are
true or false.
•
• Intelligent agents
• Knowledge representation and logic are essential for building intelligent
agents that can perform tasks that usually require human intelligence.
 Following are some basic facts about
propositional logic:
• Propositional logic is the study of how sentences are related to each other
and what they mean.
• Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.
• In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic,
and we can use any symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C,
P, Q, R, etc.
• Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.

• Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical

connectives.
• These connectives are also called logical operators.
• The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the
propositional logic.
• Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two
sentences.
• A proposition formula which is always true is
called tautology, and it is also called a valid
sentence.
• A proposition formula which is always false is
called Contradiction.
• A proposition formula which has both true and
false values is called Statements which are
questions, commands, or opinions are not
propositions such as "Where is Rohini", "How are
you", "What is your name", are not propositions.
• Syntax of propositional logic:
• The syntax of propositional logic defines the
allowable sentences for the knowledge
representation. There are two types of
Propositions:
• Atomic Propositions
• Compound propositions
• Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are
the simple propositions. It consists of a single
proposition symbol. These are the sentences
which must be either true or false.
• Example:
• Compound proposition: Compound
propositions are constructed by combining
simpler or atomic propositions, using
parenthesis and logical connectives.
• Logical Connectives:
• Logical connectives are used to connect two
simpler propositions or representing a
sentence logically. We can create compound
propositions with the help of logical
connectives. There are mainly five
connectives, which are given as follows:
 First-Order Logic in Artificial
intelligence
• In the topic of Propositional logic, we have seen that
how to represent statements using propositional logic.
• But unfortunately, in propositional logic, we can only
represent the facts, which are either true or false.
• PL is not sufficient to represent the complex sentences
or natural language statements.
• The propositional logic has very limited expressive
power. Consider the following sentence, which we
cannot represent using PL logic.
• "Some humans are intelligent", or
• "Sachin likes cricket."
• To represent the above statements, PL logic is
not sufficient, so we required some more
powerful logic, such as first-order logic.
• Propositional theorem proving involves determining
the validity of logical propositions using formal systems
and rules of inference. Here’s a brief overview of the
key concepts and methods involved:
• Key Concepts
• Propositions: Statements that can be either true or
false. For example, ppp and qqq.
• Logical Connectives: Symbols used to form compound
propositions:
– AND (∧\land∧)
– OR (∨\lor∨)
– NOT (¬\neg¬)
– IMPLIES (→\rightarrow→)
– BICONDITIONAL (↔\leftrightarrow↔)
• Truth Tables: A method to evaluate the truth values of propositions based
on the truth values of their components.
• Inference Rules: Rules that allow you to derive new propositions from
existing ones, such as:
• Modus Ponens: From ppp and p→qp \rightarrow qp→q, infer qqq.
• Modus Tollens: From ¬q\neg q¬q and p→qp \rightarrow qp→q, infer
¬p\neg p¬p.
• Disjunctive Syllogism: From p∨qp \lor qp∨q and ¬p\neg p¬p, infer qqq.
• Proof Techniques:
• Direct Proof: Constructing a chain of logical implications leading from
premises to conclusion.
• Indirect Proof (Proof by Contradiction): Assuming the negation of what
you want to prove, leading to a contradiction.
• Proof by Cases: Analyzing separate cases based on different possibilities.
• Effective propositional model checking refers to
techniques used in computer science, particularly
in the fields of formal verification and artificial
intelligence, to systematically check the validity of
propositional logic statements or the correctness
of systems against specified properties. Here’s a
breakdown of key concepts and approaches
involved in this process:
• Key Concepts
• Propositional Logic: A branch of logic that deals
with propositions that can either be true or false.
It uses logical connectives like AND, OR, NOT, etc.
• Model Checking: A method for verifying whether
a model of a system satisfies a given specification.
This is often done by exhaustively exploring the
state space of the system.
• States and Transitions: In model checking,
systems are represented as states and transitions.
Each state corresponds to a condition of the
system, while transitions represent the changes
from one state to another.
• Temporal Logic: Often used in model checking,
temporal logic allows reasoning about the
temporal ordering of events. Common types
include Linear Temporal Logic (LTL) and
Computation Tree Logic (CTL).
• Agents based on propositional logic are computational
entities that use formal logical systems to represent
knowledge and make decisions. They operate by
reasoning through a set of propositions—statements
that can be true or false—using logical rules.
• Key Features of Propositional Logic Agents
• Knowledge Representation:
– Agents represent their knowledge as a collection of
propositions, such as "It is raining" or "The ground is wet."
– These propositions can be combined using logical
connectives (AND, OR, NOT, IMPLIES, IFF) to form more
complex statements.
• Reasoning:
• Agents use inference rules to draw conclusions from their
knowledge. For example, if they know that "If it is raining,
then the ground is wet," and they observe that it is raining,
they can conclude that the ground is wet.
• Common inference methods include Modus Ponens,
Modus Tollens, and Disjunctive Syllogism.
• Decision Making:
• Based on their knowledge and reasoning, agents can make
decisions. For example, if an agent concludes that the
ground is wet, it might decide to take an umbrella.
• Static Knowledge Base:
• Propositional logic agents typically operate with a fixed set
of propositions. They don’t handle uncertainty or varying
truth values as more advanced logic systems (like first-order
logic) do.
• First-Order logic:
• First-order logic is another way of knowledge
representation in artificial intelligence. It is an
extension to propositional logic.
• FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural
language statements in a concise way.
• First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or
First-order predicate logic. First-order logic is a
powerful language that develops information about
the objects in a more easy way and can also express
the relationship between those objects.
• First-order logic (like natural language) does not only
assume that the world contains facts like propositional
logic but also assumes the following things in the
world:
• Syntax of First-Order logic:
• The syntax of FOL determines which collection
of symbols is a logical expression in first-order
logic. The basic syntactic elements of first-
order logic are symbols. We write statements
in short-hand notation in FOL.
Basic Elements of First-order logic:
Following are the basic elements of
FOL syntax:
• Quantifiers in First-order logic:
• A quantifier is a language element which
generates quantification, and quantification
specifies the quantity of specimen in the
universe of discourse.
• These are the symbols that permit to
determine or identify the range and scope of
the variable in the logical expression. There
are two types of quantifier:
– Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone,
everything)
– Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).
• Universal Quantifier:
• Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical
representation, which specifies that the
statement within its range is true for
everything or every instance of a particular
thing.
• The Universal quantifier is represented by a
symbol ∀, which resembles an inverted A.
• Existential Quantifier:
• Existential quantifiers are the type of
quantifiers, which express that the statement
within its scope is true for at least one
instance of something.
• It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which
resembles as inverted E. When it is used with
a predicate variable then it is called as an
existential quantifier.
• If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will
be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as:
•
 Knowledge Engineering in First-order
logic
• The process of constructing a knowledge-base
in first-order logic is called as knowledge-
engineering.
• In knowledge-engineering, someone who
investigates a particular domain, learns
important concept of that domain, and
generates a formal representation of the
objects, is known as knowledge engineer
• 1. Identify the task:
• The first step of the process is to identify the task,
and for the digital circuit, there are various
reasoning tasks.
• Does the circuit add properly?
• What will be the output of gate A2, if all the
inputs are high?
• At the second level, we will examine the circuit
structure details such as:
• Which gate is connected to the first input
terminal?
• Does the circuit have feedback loops?
• 2. Assemble the relevant knowledge:
• In the second step, we will assemble the relevant
knowledge which is required for digital circuits.
So for digital circuits, we have the following
required knowledge:
• Logic circuits are made up of wires and gates.
• Signal flows through wires to the input terminal
of the gate, and each gate produces the
corresponding output which flows further.
• In this logic circuit, there are four types of gates
used: AND, OR, XOR, and NOT.
• All these gates have one output terminal and two
input terminals (except NOT gate, it has one input
terminal).
• 3. Decide on vocabulary:
• The next step of the process is to select functions,
predicate, and constants to represent the circuits,
terminals, signals, and gates.
• Firstly we will distinguish the gates from each other and
from other objects.
• Each gate is represented as an object which is named by a
constant, such as, Gate(X1).
• The functionality of each gate is determined by its type,
which is taken as constants such as AND, OR, XOR, or NOT.
Circuits will be identified by a predicate: Circuit (C1).

• For the terminal, we will use predicate: Terminal(x).

• For gate input, we will use the function In(1, X1) for
denoting the first input terminal of the gate, and for output
terminal we will use Out (1, X1).
• 4. Encode general knowledge about the
domain:
• To encode the general knowledge about the
logic circuit, we need some following rules:
• If two terminals are connected then they have
the same input signal, it can be represented
as:
• 5. Encode a description of the problem instance:
• Now we encode problem of circuit C1, firstly we
categorize the circuit and its gate components.
• This step is easy if ontology about the problem is
already thought.
• This step involves the writing simple atomics
sentences of instances of concepts, which is
known as ontology.
• For the given circuit C1, we can encode the
problem instance in atomic sentences as below:
• Since in the circuit there are two XOR, two AND,
and one OR gate so atomic sentences for these
gates will be:
• 6. Pose queries to the inference procedure
and get answers:
• In this step, we will find all the possible set of
values of all the terminal for the adder circuit.
The first query will be:
• What should be the combination of input
which would generate the first output of
circuit C1, as 0 and a second output to be 1?
• 7. Debug the knowledge base:
• Now we will debug the knowledge base, and
this is the last step of the complete process. In
this step, we will try to debug the issues of
knowledge base.
• In the knowledge base, we may have omitted
assertions like 1 ≠ 0.
what are the approaches of knowledge
representation in AI
• The four main approaches to knowledge
representation in artificial intelligence (AI) are:
• Simple relational knowledge
• Stores information in tables or relational
databases, representing knowledge as facts in the
form of relationships between entities.
• Inheritable knowledge
• Uses hierarchies and inheritance to represent
information about objects, allowing entities to
inherit properties from higher-level categories.
• Procedural knowledge
• Defines sequences of actions or steps needed to
accomplish specific tasks.
• Inferential knowledge
• Represents knowledge in a way that allows the AI to
infer new information from existing facts and rules.

• Knowledge representation is important in AI because it

allows computers to understand, store, and manipulate
human knowledge. This enables them to solve complex
problems, make decisions, and perform tasks that
require intelligence.
 Detail an algorithm for deciding
entailment in PL
• A set of sentences (called premises) logically
entails a sentence (called a conclusion) if and
only if every truth assignment that satisfies
the premises also satisfies the conclusion.
• Prepare This question
 What is knowledge representation?

• Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and

interpreting knowledge. Human knows things, which is
knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform
various actions in the real world. But how machines do
all these things comes under knowledge
representation and reasoning. Hence we can describe
Knowledge representation as following:
• Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is
the part of Artificial intelligence which concerned with
AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes to
intelligent behavior of agents.
• It is responsible for representing information
about the real world so that a computer can
understand and can utilize this knowledge to
solve the complex real world problems such as
diagnosis a medical condition or communicating
with humans in natural language.
• It is also a way which describes how we can
represent knowledge in artificial intelligence.
Knowledge representation is not just storing data
into some database, but it also enables an
intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge
and experiences so that it can behave intelligently
like a human.
• What to Represent:
• Following are the kind of knowledge which needs
to be represented in AI systems:
• Object: All the facts about objects in our world
domain. E.g., Guitars contains strings, trumpets
are brass instruments.
• Events: Events are the actions which occur in our
world.
• Performance: It describe behavior which involves
knowledge about how to do things.
• Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we
know.
• Knowledge-Base: The central component of
the knowledge-based agents is the knowledge
base. It is represented as KB. The
Knowledgebase is a group of the Sentences
(Here, sentences are used as a technical term
and not identical with the English language).
• Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or
familiarity gained by experiences of facts,
data, and situations. Following are the types
of knowledge in artificial intelligence:
• Techniques of knowledge representation
• There are mainly four ways of knowledge
representation which are given as follows:
• Logical Representation
• Semantic Network Representation
• Frame Representation
• Production Rules
• 1. Logical Representation
• Logical representation is a language with some concrete
rules which deals with propositions and has no ambiguity in
representation. Logical representation means drawing a
conclusion based on various conditions.
• Syntax:
• Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct
legal sentences in the logic.
• It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge
representation.
• How to write those symbols.
• Semantics:
• Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the
sentence in the logic.
• Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each
sentence.
• Semantic Network Representation
• Semantic networks are alternative of
predicate logic for knowledge representation.
In Semantic networks, we can represent our
knowledge in the form of graphical networks.
This network consists of nodes representing
objects and arcs which describe the
relationship between those objects.
• 3. Frame Representation
• A frame is a record like structure which consists
of a collection of attributes and its values to
describe an entity in the world. Frames are the AI
data structure which divides knowledge into
substructures by representing stereotypes
situations. It consists of a collection of slots and
slot values. These slots may be of any type and
sizes. Slots have names and values which are
called facets.
• 4. Production Rules
• Production rules system consist of (condition,
action) pairs which mean, "If condition then
action". It has mainly three parts:
• The set of production rules
• Working Memory
• The recognize-act-cycle
• In production rules agent checks for the condition
and if the condition exists then production rule
fires and corresponding action is carried out.
 Inference in First-Order Logic

• Inference in First-Order Logic is used to

deduce new facts or sentences from existing
sentences.
• Inference Rules
• Here are some inference rules for first-order logic:
• Existential introduction
• Also known as existential generalization, this rule states
that if an element in the universe has a property, then
something in the universe has that property. For
example, if Priyanka got good marks in English, then
someone got good marks in English.
•
• Resolution
• A fundamental inference method for logical reasoning
and theorem proving. It generates new clauses from
old ones to resolve logical issues
• Universal generalization: If a premise P(c) is true
for any arbitrary element c in the universe of
discourse, then the conclusion is ∀ x P(x).
• Universal instantiation: Also called universal
elimination, this is a valid inference rule.
• Equality: FOL uses equality to make atomic
sentences in addition to terms and
predicates. For example, Brother (John) = Smith.
• Substitution: A fundamental operation
performed on terms and formulas.