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Comprehension & Communication Skills in English

Theory
 War Minus Shooting- The Sporting Spirit- George Orwell
 A Dilemma- A Layman looks at Science Raymond B. Fosdick.
 You and Your English -Spoken English and Broken English- G.B. Shaw.

Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary- Antonym, Synonym, Homophones, Homonyms,

often confused words. Exercises to help the students in the enrichment of vocabulary based
on TOEFL and other competitive examinations. Functional grammar: Articles,
Prepositions, Verb, Subject verb Agreement, Transformation, Synthesis, Direct and
Indirect Narration. Writing Skills: Paragraph writing, Precise writing, Report writing and
Proposal writing. The Style: Importance of professional writing. Preparation of Curriculum
Vitae and Job applications. Synopsis writing. Interviews: kinds, Importance and process.

Practical

Listening Comprehension: Listening to short talk, lectures, speeches (scientific,

commercial and general in nature). Oral Communication: Phonetics, stress and intonation,
Conversation practice. Conversation: rate of speech, clarity of voice, speaking and
Listening, politeness & Reading skills: reading dialogues, rapid reading, intensive reading,
improving reading skills. Mock Interviews: testing initiative, team spirit, leadership,
intellectual ability. Group Discussion.
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WAR MINUS SHOOTING

The Sporting Spirit
George Orwell
George Orwell (1903-1950), who was born in Bengal and educated in England, is
well known for his greatest novel, Animal Farm, a masterly written political satire on the
Russian revolution. His last work, Nineteen Eighty-four, is a grim forecast of the future of
totalitarianism, written in the form of a readable novel. The Sporting Spirit first appeared
in the Tribune, in December 1945 and is a refreshingly frank expression of Orwell’s views
on competitive games.

Summary
Introduction:

In the extremely competitive atmosphere in which sports is administered today, every

player backed by every nation, would obviously have a strong temptation to take advantage of
the gaps in the rule book, bending the rules to his favour, and conveniently interpreting the
law to his advantage. Against this backdrop, George Orwell, pleads for the need to understand
the importance of demonstrating sportsmanship and sets a good example on the sporting field
for the others to emulate.
Sports as an Unfailing Cause of ill-will:

In his remarkable essay “The Sporting Spirit”, Orwell grieves over the fact that sport is
an unfailing cause of ill-will, and that the visit of the Russian football team Dynamos, has
only worsened the Anglo-Soviet relations instead of strengthening it. Two of the four matches
played led to much bad feeling. At the Arsenal match the referee was booed at. At the match
in Glasgow, it was a free-for-all right from the start. According to Orwell, football was
capable of provoking the vicious passions of patriotism, resulting in fresh animosity on both
sides.
According to Orwell, the dictum that sports creates goodwill between the nations, is a
great misnomer because, if the common peoples of the world could meet one another at
football or cricket, they would not have any inclination to meet on the battlefield. Such is the
ferocity and the fervour that flares up, leading to orgies of hatred, something similar to what
happened in the 1936 Olympic Games, for instance.
Sports Played for Exercise and Sports Played for Prestige:
On the village green, when you pick up sides, no feeling of local patriotism is involved.
The game is played simply for the fun and exercise. But, as soon as the question of prestige
arises, and the moment you feel that you will be disgraced if you lose, the most savage
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combative instincts are aroused. At the international level, sport is mimic warfare. More than
the behaviour of the players, it is the attitude of the spectators that aggravates the situation.
And that is because of a false notion that running, jumping and kicking a ball are tests of
national virtue.
Even a leisurely game like cricket, demanding grace rather than strength, has caused a
lot of ill-will, as seen in the controversy over body-line bowling in the 1921 match between
Australia and England. Football, a game in which everyone gets hurt and every nation has its
own style of play, is far worse. Worst of all is boxing. One of the most horrible sights in the
world is a fight between white and coloured boxers before a mixed audience.
Modern Sport and its Ancient Origin:
Orwell then proceeds to inquire into how this modern cult of sport arose. Most of the
games we play now are of ancient origin, but sport was not taken very seriously between
Roman times and the nineteenth century. Even in the English public schools the games did
not start till the later part of the twentieth century. So much that, Dr. Arnold, generally
regarded as the founder of the modern public school, looked on games as simply a waste of
time.
Sports today: Heavily Financed Activities:
But later on, chiefly in England and in the United States, games were built up into a
heavily-financed activity, capable of attracting vast crowds and rousing savage passions, and
the infection gradually spread from country to country. It is the most violently combative
sports like football and boxing that have spread the widest. And the whole thing is bound up
with the rise of nationalism. Even in the middle Ages games were played with much physical
brutality but they were not mixed up with politics nor were they a cause of group hatreds.
Organised games like these are most likely to flourish in urban communities where the
average human being lives a sedentary or confined life and does not get much opportunity for
creative labour. For these urbanites, Orwell advocates that, when it is not possible to work off
surplus energy by walking, swimming, climbing trees, riding horses, one must indulge in
group activities if one wants an outlet for one’s physical strength or for one’s sadistic
impulses.
Conclusion:
Orwell winds up his essay with a fervent plea for good sportsmanship, which, according
to him, is one of the most desirable qualities in any great player. As the Olympic oath
majestically declares, “in the true spirit of sportsmanship, for the glory of sport and the
honour of our teams," every player should imbibe these qualities of sportsmanship which
would go a long way in promoting the sporting spirit between nations.
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War Minus Shooting- The Sporting Spirit (Notes)

George Orwell expresses his views on competitive sports in the lesson War Minus
Shooting, which also appeared as an article in Tribune in December 1945. He says that, in
good golden days that are during Roman Times and in 19th century sports were not taken
seriously. Some games like fishing, cockfighting and ferrying of rats did exist long ago, but
they were unorganized and were meant only for the rustic communities. The posh and the elite
never gave any importance to games Dr. Arnold, the founder of the Modern Public School,
viewed games as a mere waste of time. It was later felt that some type of group activity is
essential for the outlet of physical strengthen and sadistic impulses. It is this opinion which
brought the existence of a more decent word “Sports”.
Then chiefly in England and in United States games were built up into a heavily
financial activity and attracted the crowds by rousing savage passions and this infection spread
from country to country. Games are taken seriously in London and New York. In the middle
ages they were played with much physical brutality and were not mixed up with politics or a
cause of group hatreds.
Organized sports then started gaining momentum and flourished in the Urban
Communities also. The English public schools in the later part of the last century became
centres of several important sports. In Countries like Rome, Byzantium, London, New York,
games were taken seriously. New sports namely walking, swimming, snowballing, climbing
and finding houses made inroads in different parts of the world. England and United States
witnessed costly games and savage passions were aroused.
Sports then began to be linked with nationalism. At the same time they were also said to
be the cause of politics, brutality and group hatred. Rivalry began to develop especially when
the games were played between Jews and Arabs, Germans and Czechs, Indians and British,
Italians and Yugoslavs, Russians and Porki. Sports have become one of the main reasons of
international rivalry. The author suggests that instead of making things worse by sending forth
a team of eleven men, labelled as national champions to do battle against some rival team and
allowing it to be felt on all sides that whichever nation defeated “will loose face”.
The huge crowds in Boxing, Football and Cricket matches started rattling the opposite
players with boos and insults. Harsh and fiercer passions began to be aroused in England and
also several other countries. Even a gentleman’s game like cricket, which is also called a
leisurely game, was under question.
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The controversy was witnessed over bodyline bowling and over the rough tactics of
Australian team that visited England in 1921. A boxing match between white and coloured
boxers gave a horrible sight. In countries like India or Burma, it is necessary at football
matches to have strong cordons of police to keep the crowd from invading the field. The first
big football match that was played in Spain about some time ago led to an uncontrollable riot.
George Orwell says that with the passage of time International sports became a mimic
warfare. Sports began to be equated with war minus shooting. Instead of promoting good will,
they were resulted in much hatred and further fostering the rivalry among the nations. Sports
have become competitive when they are played to win and the game has little meaning unless
it is won. As soon as the question of prestige arises players do every technique to win the game
as I think that their countries dignity would be lost if that are lost. The attitude of the spectators
is also important in creating much rivalry they forget that victory gained through cheating is
meaningless. Spectators definitely try to influence the game by cheering their own side by
insulting opposite players with boos and insults. The author feels that modern games have
abundant hatred, jealousy, boastfulness and ignoring of all the rules and witnessed of all the
violence.
Nearly all the sports practised nowadays are competitive. You play to win, and the game
has little meaning unless you do your utmost to win. On the village green, where you pick up
sides and no feeling of local patriotism is involved, it is possible to play simply for the fun
and exercise: but as soon as the question of prestige arises, as soon as you feel that you and
some larger unit will be disgraced if you lose, the most savage combative instincts are
aroused. Anyone who has played even in a school football match knows this. At the
international level sport is frankly mimic warfare. But the significant thing is not the
behaviour of the players but the attitude of the spectators: and, behind the spectators, of the
nations who work themselves into furies over these absurd contests, and seriously believe —
at any rate for short periods — that running, jumping and kicking a ball are tests of national
virtue.
Even a leisurely game like cricket, demanding grace rather than strength, can cause
much ill-will, as we saw in the controversy over body-line bowling and over the rough tactics
of the Australian team that visited England in 1921. Football, a game in which everyone gets
hurt and every nation has its own style of play which seems unfair to foreigners, is far worse.
Worst of all is boxing. One of the most horrible sights in the world is a fight between white
and coloured boxers before a mixed audience. But a boxing audience is always disgusting,
and the behaviour of the women, in particular, is such that the army, I believe, does not allow
them to attend its contests. At any rate, two or three years ago, when Home Guards and
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regular troops were holding a boxing tournament, I was placed on guard at the door of the
hall, with orders to keep the women out.
In England, the obsession with sport is bad enough, but even fiercer passions are
aroused in young countries where games playing and nationalism are both recent
developments. In countries like India or Burma, it is necessary at football matches to have
strong cordons of police to keep the crowd from invading the field. In Burma, I have seen the
supporters of one side break through the police and disable the goalkeeper of the opposing
side at a critical moment. The first big football match that was played in Spain about fifteen
years ago led to an uncontrollable riot. As soon as strong feelings of rivalry are aroused, the
notion of playing the game according to the rules always vanishes. People want to see one
side on top and the other side humiliated, and they forget that victory gained through cheating
or through the intervention of the crowd is meaningless. Even when the spectators don't
intervene physically they try to influence the game by cheering their own side and “rattling”
opposing players with boos and insults. Serious sport has nothing to do with fair play. It is
bound up with hatred, jealousy, boastfulness, disregard of all rules and sadistic pleasure in
witnessing violence: in other words it is war minus the shooting.
Instead of blah-blah about the clean, healthy rivalry of the football field and the great
part played by the Olympic Games in bringing the nations together, it is more useful to
inquire how and why this modern cult of sport arose. Most of the games we now play are of
ancient origin, but sport does not seem to have been taken very seriously between Roman
times and the nineteenth century. Even in the English public schools the games cult did not
start till the later part of the last century. Dr Arnold, generally regarded as the founder of the
modern public school, looked on games as simply a waste of time. Then, chiefly in England
and the United States, games were built up into a heavily-financed activity, capable of
attracting vast crowds and rousing savage passions, and the infection spread from country to
country. It is the most violently combative sports, football and boxing, that have spread the
widest. There cannot be much doubt that the whole thing is bound up with the rise of
nationalism — that is, with the lunatic modern habit of identifying oneself with large power
units and seeing everything in terms of competitive prestige. Also, organised games are more
likely to flourish in urban communities where the average human being lives a sedentary or at
least a confined life, and do not get much opportunity for creative labour. In a rustic
community a boy or young man works off a good deal of his surplus energy by walking,
swimming, snowballing, climbing trees, riding horses, and by various sports involving cruelty
to animals, such as fishing, cock-fighting and ferreting for rats. In a big town one must
indulge in group activities if one wants an outlet for one's physical strength or for one's
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sadistic impulses. Games are taken seriously in London and New York, and they were taken
seriously in Rome and Byzantium: in the Middle Ages they were played, and probably played
with much physical brutality, but they were not mixed up with politics nor a cause of group
hatreds.
If you wanted to add to the vast fund of ill-will existing in the world at this moment,
you could hardly do it better than by a series of football matches between Jews and Arabs,
Germans and Czechs, Indians and British, Russians and Poles, and Italians and Jugoslavs,
each match to be watched by a mixed audience of 100,000 spectators. I do not, of course,
suggest that sport is one of the main causes of international rivalry; big-scale sport is itself, I
think, merely another effect of the causes that have produced nationalism. Still, you do make
things worse by sending forth a team of eleven men, labelled as national champions, to do
battle against some rival team, and allowing it to be felt on all sides that whichever nation is
defeated will “lose face”.
I hope, therefore, that we shan't follow up the visit of the Dynamos by sending a British
team to the USSR. If we must do so, then let us send a second-rate team which is sure to be
beaten and cannot be claimed to represent Britain as a whole. There are quite enough real
causes of trouble already, and we need not add to them by encouraging young men to kick
each other on the shins amid the roars of infuriated spectators.
The author strongly feels that it is a pressing need to inculcate sportsman spirit among all
of us to promote peace and goodwill through sports.
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A Dilemma - A Layman Looks at Science

(Raymond B. Fosdick)
AUGUST 6, 1945 – The day the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima - brought
home to all of us in a dramatic fashion the significance of science in human life. The impact of
that bomb has left us stunned and confused. Certainly we laymen are frightened by science as
we never were before. And certainly too, we are bewildered by the power which science has
suddenly placed in our laps – bewildered and humbled by our realization of how unequipped
we are, in terms of ethics, law, and government, to know how to use it.
That, I think, is the first reaction of a layman to the stupendous repercussion of that
bomb on Hiroshima. And the first question that comes to his mind is this: what use are radio
and automobiles and penicillin and all the other gifts of science if at the same time this same
science hands us the means by which we can blow ourselves and our civilization into drifting
dust? We have always been inclined to think research and technology as being consciously
related to human welfare. Now, frankly, we are not so sure, and we are deeply troubled, by the
realization that man’s brain can create things which his will may not be able to control.
To the layman it seems as if science were facing a vast dilemma. Science is the search
for truth, and it is based on the glorious faith that truth is worth discovering. It springs from the
noblest attribute of the human spirit. But it is this same search for truth that has brought our
civilization to the brink of destruction; and we are confronted by the tragic irony that when we
have been most successful in pushing out the boundaries of knowledge, we have most
endangered the possibility of human life on this planet. The pursuit of truth has at last led us to
the tools by which we can ourselves become the destroyers of our own institutions and all the
bright hopes of the race. In this situation what do we do – curb our science or cling to the
pursuit of truth and run the risk of having our society torn to pieces?
It is on the basis of this dilemma that serious questions are forming in the public mind.
Unless research is linked to a human and constructive purpose, should it not be subject to some
kind of restraint? Can our scientists afford to be concerned solely with fact and not at all with
value and purpose? Can they legitimately claim that their only aim is the advancement of
knowledge regardless of its consequences? Is the layman justified in saying to the scientists:
‘We look to you to distinguish between that truth which furthers the well-being of mankind
and that truth which threatens it?
One of the scientists who played a leading role in the development of the atomic bomb
said to the newspapermen: ‘A scientist cannot hold back progress because of fears of what the
world will do with his discoveries’. What he apparently implied was the science has no
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responsibility in the matter, and that it will plunge ahead in the pursuit of truth even if the
process leaves the world in dust and ashes.
Is that the final answer? Is there no other answer? Frankly, as a layman, I do not know.
Offhand, this disavowal of concern seems callous and irresponsible. But we may be facing a
situation where no other answer is realistic or possible. To ask the scientist to foresee the use –
the good or evil of the use – to which his result may be put is doubtless beyond the realm of
the attainable. Almost any discovery can be used for either social or anti-social purposes. The
German dye industry was not created to deal with either medicine or weapons of war; and yet
out of that industry emerged sulphur drugs and mustard gas. When Einstein wrote his famous
transformation equation in 1905 he was not thinking of the atomic bomb, but out of the
equation came one of the principles upon which the bomb was based.
Willard Gibbs was a gentle spirit whose life was spent in his laboratory at Yale
University, and who never dreamed that his work in mathematical physics might have even a
remote relationship to war; and yet it is safe to say that his ideas gave added power to the
armaments of all nations in both World War I and World War II.
I suspect that the way out of the dilemma is not as simple as the questions now being
asked seem to imply. The good and the evil that flow from scientific research are more often
than not indistinguishable at the point of origin. Generally they are by products, or they
represent distortions of original purpose, none of which could have been foreseen when the
initial discovery was made. We are driven back to a question of human motives and desires.
Science has recently given us radar, jet propulsion and power sources of unprecedented
magnitude. What does society want to do with them? It can use them constructively to increase
the happiness of mankind or it can employ them to tear the world to pieces. There is scarcely a
scientific formula or a process or a commodity which cannot be used for war purposes, if that
is what we elect to do with it. In brief, the gifts of science can be used by evil men to do evil
even more obviously and dramatically than they can be used by men of goodwill, to do well.
I fear there is no easy way out of our dilemma. I would not absolve the scientists from
some measure of responsibility, for they are men of superior training and insight and we are
entitled to look to them for help and leadership more help and leadership, I venture to add,
than have thus far been given. However, I note that a considerable number of scientist who
were connected with the atomic bomb project have publicly expressed their apprehension of
the consequences of their own creation. ‘All of us who worked on the atomic bomb, said Dr
Allison of the University of Chicago, had a momentary feeling of elation when our experiment
met with success; but that feeling rapidly changed to a feeling of horror, and a fervent desire
that no more bombs would be dropped.
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Nevertheless, in the long run I do not believe that we shall be successful in making
science the arbiter of its discoveries. Somehow or other society itself must assume that
responsibility. The towering enemy of mankind is not science but war. Science merely reflects
the social forces by which it is surrounded. When there is peace, science is constructive; when
there is war, science is perverted to destructive ends. The weapons which science gives us do
not necessarily create war; they make war increasingly more terrible, until now it has brought
us to the doorstep of doom.
Our main problem therefore, is not to curb science but to stop war to substitute law for
force and international government for anarchy in the relations of one nation with another.
That is a job in which everybody must participate, including the scientists. But the bomb on
Hiroshima suddenly woke us up to the fact that we have very little time. The hour is late and
our work has scarcely begun. Now we are face to face with this urgent question: ‘Can
education and tolerance and understanding and creative intelligence run fast enough to keep us
abreast with or own mounting capacity to destroy?
That is the question which we shall have to answer one way or another in this generation.
Science must help us in the answer, but the main decision lies within ourselves.

A Dilemma - A Layman Looks at Science (Notes)

Raymond B. Fosdick in the lesson ‘A Dilemma’ says that science should be used only
for the constructive purpose and not to be aimed at the degeneration of the society. August 6,
1945, was an unfortunate day, on which the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. It
brought home to all of us, about the significance (or) importance of science in human life.
Mankind was frightened by science and bewildered by its enormous power. This instance has
realised the mankind how unequipped we are in terms of ethics, law, and government, to know
how to use it. The author says that science is based on truth and should spring from the noblest
attribute of the human spirit.
There are certain inventions that can evoke both positive and negative responses.
Invention of Radio, Automobiles, Radar and jet propulsions shall be aimed towards the
betterment of the society rather than creating ugliness and desolation. The gifts of science, the
author vehemently feels, should not blow our civilization into drifting dust. The research and
Technology yield right fruits when they are related to human welfare.
Science is the search for truth. But it is the same search for truth that has brought our
civilization to the brink of destruction. The writer strongly feels that research shall be
subjected to some kind of restraint if it is not linked to human constructive purpose; it is really
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disheartening to read about that leading scientists associated with atom bomb saying that one
should not hold back progress because of fear of misuse of science
Fosdick than says that some inventions are purely accidental and the scientists never had
any evil intentions while discovering them. For instance Albert Einstein never thought of atom
bomb while working for his transformation equation in 1905. Yet, from this come out one of
the principles upon atom bomb is based. Similarly sulphur drugs and mustard gas which are
offshoots of German dye industry was not created to deal with either medicine or weapons of
war; Willard Gibbs was a gentle spirit whose life was spent in his laboratory at Yale university
had never dreamt that his research in the mathematical physics might have even a remote
relationship to world war I & II. These discoveries are classic examples where the gifts of
science can be used by evil men to do evil even more obviously and dramatically than can be
used by men of goodwill to do well.
The author concludes that the towering enemy of mankind is not science but war.
Science merely reflects the forces by which if it’s surrounded. When there is peace, science is
constructive and when there is war, science is prevented to destructive ends. Our problem
therefore is not to comb science but to stop war- to substitute law for force and international
government aware in the relations of one nation with another. He feels that our education
should be based on tolerance understanding and creative intelligence that should run fast
enough to put an end to the evil effects of the science formally, Science must help us but the
decision lies within ourselves i.e., the whole responsibility is of human beings.
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YOU AND YOUR ENGLISH - SPOKEN ENGLISH AND BROKEN ENGLISH

G.B. SHAW

The name of George Bernard Shaw is well known in the world in which literature holds
a place. No other writer, except, perhaps, Shakespeare, has earned such world-wide fame. The
following text, which the literary genius prepared and spoke on a ‘gramophone’ recording for
the Lingua-phone Company, is loaded with characteristic Shavian wit, but with serious
purpose behind it all. The provocative ideas are couched in a simple but sparkling rhetorical
style.

YOU AND YOUR ENGLISH -SPOKEN ENGLISH BROKEN ENGLISH – SUMMARY

Introduction
George Bernard Shaw is a well-known writer. He prepared and spoke on the topic
‘Spoken English and Broken English’ on a gramophone recording for the Lingua-phone
institute. In his speech the provocative ideas are couched in a simple but sparkling rhetorical
style.
Advantages in learning to speak well
Bernard Shaw says that when we travel in the British Commonwealth or in America or
when we meet a native of these countries, we have to speak English well for enough
understanding. If we speak in a provincial or cockney dialect it may prevents us from
obtaining some employment which is open to those who only speak what is ‘correct English’.
No such thing ideally correct English
No two British subjects speak exactly alike. Even educated persons, the Poet Laureate
and trained speakers do not pronounce some of the simplest commonest words in the English
language exactly alike. Members of the committee who are selected as models of correct
speech speak differently. They differ according to the country in which they were born.
Confession of Bernard Shaw
Bernard Shaw confesses that he himself does not speak English in the same way.
When he speaks to audience, he speaks carefully. If he were to speak carefully to his wife at
home, she would think he was going mad. As a public speaker he has to take care that every
word he says is heard distinctly at far end of large halls containing thousands of people. At
home he speaks to his wife like mumbling. His wife also a little careless and so he sometimes
has to say “What?”
Advice to foreign students of English
Do not try to speak English perfectly because native speakers of English won’t
understand. In London nine hundred and ninety-nine out of thousand people not only speak
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bad English but speak even that very badly. No foreigner can ever stress the syllables and
make the voice rise and fall in questions and answer, assertion and denial, in refusal and
consent, in enquiry or information, exactly as a native does. Therefore, the first thing they
have to do is to speak with a strong foreign accent, and speak broken English.
Conclusion
Bernard Shaw criticizes that it is an insult to the native speaker of English who cannot
understand his own language when it is too well spoken.
SPOKEN ENGLISH AND BROKEN ENGLISH (Notes)
Shaw here emphasis the point that there is no such thing as ideally correct English and no
two Britishers speak English exactly in the same manner. He says that because of his rich
experience as a public speaker and also as a play righter he was appointed by the British
Broadcasting Corporation as a member of a committee whose main aim was to develop a model
of correct English speech for the British Islands. The Committee was chaired by a poet Laureate
who was also an artist and his materials are the sounds of Spoken English, and a specialist in
pronunciation Johnston Forbes Robertson, a well known actor known for the beauty of speech
was also a member of this committee which was heterogeneous blend of Krish, Scottish, Welsh,
Oxford and American members. All theses members could be recognized by their difference in
speech and hence we can’t conclude that they spoke English correctly. They, of course Spoken
English presentably which is easy to comprehend. Imitating them would make us persons of
good social standing. It is also astonishing to note that this committee sometimes did not agree
to the usage and pronunciation of most of the simple and common words of English.
Shaw says that the two commonest words in English are ‘Yes’ and ‘No’. But no two
members of the committee pronounce them exactly alike. Yet there are some people who find
delight in avoiding them. Shaw points out that good effort is needed to comprehend or to follow
words, syllable by syllable. He says that he is speaking carefully to an audience of thousands of
gramphonists. But if he speaks carelessly as he speaks to his wife, the audience can’t make out,
and at the same time if he speaks carefully at home, his wife thinks that he has gone mad.
The usage of English differs from situation to situation. One would indeed be labelled
mad or insane if one talks to his wife in the same manner as he does at a Gramophone recoding
and vice - versa. Shaw, in a lighter sense, asks us to be careful even while speaking to wife and
the conversation between a husband and wife should be like a conversation between a King and
a Queen. Unfortunately that doesn’t happen with all of us.
Shaw classifies manners into two types namely Company Manners and Home Manners
which also vary according to the situation. Family members do not speak among themselves in
the manner as they do on ordinary occasions when they are in the presence of an outsider. Shaw
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further adds by citing an example of ‘key hole moral’ the listener gets surprised to note the
difference between two situations. The difference is greater in speech than in anything else.
Foreigners need not speak English perfectly if they want to travel in England and if they
are wise to be understood these. Even if they do so, they will not be understood since a vast
majority in London speaks bad English. If a foreigner speaks perfect English, he/she will be
suspected of being a beggar or a confidence trickster. Speaking English too well is in fact a
pedantic affectation. George Bernard Shaw further mentions that the stranger hears every
syllable distinctly when he asks him what O’ Clock is it? But his wife hears it as “Cloxst”,
because it is good enough for her but not to the listener.
Shaw emphasizes that there is no such thing as perfectly correct English and there is
presentable English which we call “Good English”. In London, Shaw points out that Nine
hundred ninety nine out of every thousand people don’t only speak bad English but speak even
that very badly. They neither speak it correctly nor be understood when it is well spoken. He
suggests the foreigners, to speak with a foreign accent, and speak broken English, that is English
without grammar. Then, the native understands the foreigner and try to understand and gets
ready to help.
The native never expects the foreigner to be polite and to use elaborate grammatical
phrases. Shaw cites an example i.e.
“Will you have the goodness sir,
to direct me to the railway terminus at charring cross”
But if the foreigner shouts
“Please! Charing Cross! Which way!”
The stranger would have no difficulty, responding to it half a dozen people will
immediately overwhelmed to help.
If any foreigner requests the native, pronouncing all the vowels and consonants
beautifully, how will not understand, and would suspect him to be a beggar or a confidence
trickster.
Finally, G.B. Shaw suggests us that one must not speak too well even with cultivated
people, during private inter course also. While dispelling the fears of foreigners with regard to
the language G.B. Shaw says that little knowledge is adequate to travel England, and adds that
to speak too well is a pedantic affectation, even among English people. G.B. Shaw says that is
an insult to the native who can’t understand his own language when it is too well spoken.
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Reading comprehension
Reading comprehension involves two levels of processing, shallow (low-level)
processing and deep (high-level) processing. Deep processing involves semantic processing,
which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words. Shallow
processing involves structural and phonemic recognition, the processing of sentence and word
structure and their associated sounds. This theory was first identified by Fergus I. M.
Craik and Robert S. Lockhart.
Vocabulary
Reading comprehension and vocabulary are inextricably linked. The ability to decode or
identify and pronounce words is self-evidently important, but knowing what the words mean
has a major and direct effect on knowing what any specific passage means. Students with a
smaller vocabulary than other students comprehend less of what they read and it has been
suggested that the most impactful way to improve comprehension is to improve vocabulary.
Most words are learned gradually through a wide variety of environments: television,
books, and conversations. Some words are more complex and difficult to learn, such
as Homonyms, words that have multiple meanings and those with figurative meanings,
like Idioms, Similes, and Metaphors.
Broad vocabulary approach
The method of focusing of broad instruction on many words was developed by Andrew
Biemiller who argued that more words would benefit students more, even if the instruction
was short and teacher-directed. He suggested that teachers teach a large number of words
before reading a book to students, by merely giving short definitions, such as synonyms, and
then pointing out the words and their meaning while reading the book to students. The
method contrasts with the approach by emphasizing quantity versus quality. There is no
evidence to suggest the primacy of either approach.
Morphemic instruction
The final vocabulary technique, strategies for learning new words, can be further
subdivided into instruction on using context and instruction on using morphemes, or
meaningful units within words to learn their meaning. Morphemic instruction has been shown
to produce positive outcomes for students reading and vocabulary knowledge, but context has
proved unreliable as a strategy and it is no longer considered a useful strategy to teach
students. This conclusion does not disqualify the value in "learning" morphemic analysis -
prefixes, suffixes and roots - but rather suggests that it be imparted incidentally and in
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context. Accordingly, there are methods designed to achieve this, such as Incidental
Morpheme Analysis.
Reading strategies
Reciprocal teaching
In the 1980s Annemarie Sullivan Palincsar and Ann L. Brown developed a technique
called reciprocal teaching that taught students to predict, summarize, clarify, and ask
questions for sections of a text. The use of strategies like summarizing after each paragraph
has come to be seen as effective strategies for building students' comprehension. The idea is
that students will develop stronger reading comprehension skills on their own if the teacher
gives them explicit mental tools for unpacking text.
Text factors
There are factors that once discerned, make it easier for the reader to understand the
written text. One is the genre, like folktales, historical fiction, biographies or poetry. Each
genre has its own characteristics for text structure that once understood help the reader
comprehend it. A story is composed of a plot, characters, setting, point of view, and theme.
Informational books provide real world knowledge for students and have unique features such
as: headings, maps, vocabulary, and an index. Poems are written in different forms and the
most commonly used are: rhymed verse, haikus, free verse, and narratives. Poetry uses
devices such as: alliteration, repetition, rhyme, metaphors, and similes. "When children are
familiar with genres, organizational patterns, and text features in books they're reading,
they're better able to create those text factors in their own writing."
Non-Verbal Imagery
Media that utilizes schema to make connections either planned or not, more commonly
used within context such as: a passage, an experience, or one's imagination. Some notable
examples are emoji, emoticons, cropped and un-cropped images, and recently Imojis which
are humorous, cropped images that are used to elicit humour and comprehension.
Visualization
Visualization is like a "mental image" created in a person's mind while reading text,
which "brings words to life" and helps improve reading comprehension. Asking sensory
questions will help students to visualize. Students can practice visualizing by imagining what
they "see, hear, smell, taste, or feel" when they are reading a page of a picture book aloud, but
not yet shown the picture. They can share their visualizations, and then check their level of
detail against the illustrations.
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Partner reading
Partner reading is a strategy created for pairs. The teacher chooses two appropriate books
for the students' to read. First they must read their own book. Once they have completed this,
they are given the opportunity to write down their own comprehensive questions for their
partner. The students swap books, read them out loud to one another and ask one another
questions about the book they read.
This strategy:
*Provides a model of fluent reading and helps students learn decoding skills by offering
positive feedback.
*Provides direct opportunities for a teacher to circulate in the class, observe students, and
offer individual remediation.
Multiple reading strategies
There is a wide range of reading strategies suggested by reading programs and educators.
The National Reading Panel identified positive effects only for a subset, particularly
summarizing, asking questions, answering questions, comprehension monitoring, graphic
organizers, and cooperative learning. The Panel also emphasized that a combination of
strategies, as used in Reciprocal Teaching, can be effective. The use of effective
comprehension strategies that provide specific instructions for developing and retaining
comprehension skills, with intermittent feedback, has been found to improve reading
comprehension across all ages, specifically those affected by mental disabilities.
Reading different types of texts requires the use of different reading strategies and
approaches. Making reading an active, observable process can be very beneficial to struggling
readers. A good reader interacts with the text in order to develop an understanding of the
information before them. Some good reader strategies are predicting, connecting, inferring,
summarizing, analyzing and critiquing. There are many resources and activities educators and
instructors of reading can use to help with reading strategies in specific content areas and
disciplines. Some examples are graphic organizers, talking to the text, anticipation guides,
double entry journals, interactive reading and note taking guides, chunking, and summarizing.
The use of effective comprehension strategies is highly important when learning to
improve reading comprehension. These strategies provide specific instructions for developing
and retaining comprehension skills. Implementing the following instructions with intermittent
feedback has been found to improve reading comprehension across all ages, specifically those
affected by mental disabilities.
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Comprehension Strategies
Research studies on reading and comprehension have shown that highly proficient
readers utilize a number of different strategies to comprehend various types of texts, strategies
that can also be used by less proficient readers in order to improve their comprehension.
1. Making Inferences: In everyday terms we refer to this as “reading between the lines”. It
involves connecting various parts of texts that aren’t directly linked in order to form a sensible
conclusion. A form of assumption, the reader speculates what connections lie within the texts.
2. Planning and Monitoring: This strategy centre around the reader’s mental awareness and
their ability to control their comprehension by way of awareness. By previewing text (via
outlines, table of contents, etc.) one can establish a goal for reading-“what do I need to get out
of this”? Readers use context clues and other evaluation strategies to clarify texts and ideas,
and thus monitoring their level of understanding.
3. Asking Questions: To solidify one understands of passages of texts readers inquire and
develop their own opinion of the author’s writing, character motivations, relationships, etc.
This strategy involves allowing oneself to be completely objective in order to find various
meanings within the text.
4. Determining Importance: Pinpointing the important ideas and messages within the text.
Readers are taught to identify direct and indirect ideas and to summarize the relevance of
each.
5. Visualizing: With this sensory-driven strategy readers form mental and visual images of the
contents of text. Being able to connect visually allows for a better understanding with the text
through emotional responses.
6. Synthesizing: This method involves marrying multiple ideas from various texts in order to
draw conclusions and make comparisons across different texts; with the reader’s goal being to
understand how they all fit together.
7. Making Connections: A cognitive approach also referred to as “reading beyond the lines”,
it involves finding a personal connection to reading, such as personal experience, previously
read texts, etc. to help establish a deeper understanding of the context of the text.
Define Reading Comprehension?
According to Webster's Dictionary, comprehension is "the capacity for understanding
fully; the act or action of grasping with the intellect." Reading is "to receive or take in the
sense of, as letters or symbols, by scanning; to understand the meaning of written or printed
matter; to learn from what one has seen or found in writing or printing.
Identifying words on a page does not make someone a successful reader. When the words
are understood and transcend the pages to become thoughts and ideas then you are truly
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reading. Comprehension therefore is the capacity for understanding those thoughts and ideas.
Applying what you have read and understood becomes the successful conclusion.
Comprehension Regulation:
You can become an active, effective reader through comprehension regulation. This is a
method for consciously controlling the reading process. Comprehension regulation involves
the use of pre-planned strategies to understand text. It is a plan for getting the most out of
reading. It allows you to have an idea of what to expect from the text. Most importantly, it
gives you techniques to use when you are experiencing difficulties.
As an active reader, you can get an idea of what the writer is trying to communicate by:
 Setting goals based on your purpose for reading
 Previewing the text to make predictions
 Self-questioning
 Scanning
 Relating new information to old
Skills for being an effective reader and for increasing comprehension are:
 Finding main ideas and supporting details/evidence
 Making inferences and drawing conclusions
 Recognizing a text's patterns of organization
 Perceiving conceptual relationships
 Testing your knowledge and understanding of the material through application
Read the Preface & Introduction: Read the preface and introduction you'll get essential
information for understanding the author's perspective. The preface usually provides
information about the author's objective, the organizational plan, how it is different from
others, and the author's background. Once you know the author's objective or goal, it's easier
to see relationships among the facts presented. The introduction lays the foundation for the
rest of the text in the form of overview and background information that will make it easier to
digest information.
Make More Than One Pass: Reading articles and textbooks often requires more than one
pass. It usually takes two, three, or even more readings to grasp difficult concepts. Skim the
table of contents, preface, headings, and conclusions. Stop and think about the author's intent
as well the instructor's purpose in making the assignment and purpose for reading.
Take Notes: In early readings, take the briefest of notes while reading by adding brackets
in margins or underlining minimally. Note pages where you might want to take formal notes.
After reading, take more extensive notes. When reading and note taking are complete, reread
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all of your notes, think about what you've read, and add more notes based on your reflections.
Your goal is to have notes that are concise, capture the reading - and replace it so that you
don't have to go back and reread.
Don't Highlight: If you underline text, do so minimally and stay focused on the important
details. Avoid the temptation to highlight every line. Heavy highlighting is a procrastination
tool because usually you're marking what you should learn instead of focusing on learning it.
Identifying Topics, Main Ideas and Supporting Details: Understanding the topic, the
gist, or the larger conceptual framework of a textbook chapter, an article, a paragraph, a
sentence or a passage is a sophisticated reading task. Being able to draw conclusions,
evaluate, and critically interpret articles or chapters is important for overall comprehension in
college reading. Textbook chapters, articles, paragraphs, sentences, or passages all have topics
and main ideas. The topic is the broad, general theme or message. It is what some call the
subject. The main idea is the "key concept" being expressed. Details, major and minor,
support the main idea by telling how, what, when, where, why, how much, or how many.
Locating the topic, main idea, and supporting details helps you understand the point(s) the
writer is attempting to express. Identifying the relationship between these will increase your
comprehension
Grasping the Main Idea: A paragraph is a group of sentences related to a particular topic,
or central theme. Every paragraph has a key concept or main idea. The main idea is the most
important piece of information the author wants you to know about the concept of that
paragraph. When authors write they have an idea in mind that they are trying to get across.
This is especially true as authors compose paragraphs. An author organizes each paragraph's
main idea and supporting details in support of the topic or central theme, and each paragraph
supports the paragraph preceding it. A writer will state his/her main idea explicitly
somewhere in the paragraph. That main idea may be stated at the beginning of the paragraph,
in the middle, or at the end. The sentence in which the main idea is stated is the topic sentence
of that paragraph.
Identifying the Topic: The first thing you must be able to do to get at the main idea of a
paragraph is to identify the topic - the subject of the paragraph. Think of the paragraph as a
wheel with the topic being the hub - the central core around which the whole wheel (or
paragraph) spins. Your strategy for topic identification is simply to ask yourself the question,
"What is this about?" Keep asking yourself that question as you read a paragraph, until the
answer to your question becomes clear. Sometimes you can spot the topic by looking for a
word or two that repeat. Usually you can state the topic in a few words
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In writing, there are three types of paragraphs: introductory, transitional, and

summarizing.
Introductory paragraphs tell you, in advance, such things as (1) the main ideas of the
chapter or section; (2) the extent or limits of the coverage; (3) how the topic is developed; and
(4) the writer’s attitude toward the topic. Transitional paragraphs are usually short; their sole
function is to tie together what you have read so far and what is to come - to set the stage for
succeeding ideas of the chapter or section. Summarizing paragraphs are used to restate briefly
the main ideas of the chapter or section. The writer may also draw some conclusion from
these ideas, or speculate on some conclusion based on the evidence he/she has presented.
Strengthening Reading Comprehension:
1. Analyze the time and place in which you are reading - If you've been reading or studying
for several hours, mental fatigue may be the source of the problem. If you are reading in a
place with distractions or interruptions, you may not be able to understand what you're
reading.
2. Rephrase each paragraph in your own words - You might need to approach complicated
material sentence by sentence, expressing each in your own words.
3. Read aloud sentences or sections that are particularly difficult - Reading out loud
sometimes makes complicated material easier to understand.
4. Reread difficult or complicated sections - At times, in fact, several readings are appropriate
and necessary.
5. Slow down your reading rate - On occasion, simply reading more slowly and carefully will
provide you with the needed boost in comprehension.
6. Turn headings into questions - Refer to these questions frequently and jot down or underline
answers.
7. Write a brief outline of major points - This will help you see the overall organization and
progression of ideas.
8. Highlight key ideas - After you've read a section, go back and think about and highlight what
is important. Highlighting forces you to sort out what is important, and this sorting process
builds comprehension and recall.
9. Write notes in the margins - Explain or rephrase difficult or complicated ideas or sections.
10. Determine whether you lack background knowledge - Comprehension is difficult, at times,
and it is impossible, if you lack essential information that the writer assumes you have.
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SYNONYMS
Synonyms are those words, which are very nearly alike in meaning but not quite. We have
to choose from a number of synonyms, the particular word that exactly expresses the idea that
we wish to convey. Synonyms can provide you with variety in speech or writing. There are
endless examples of synonyms, making it easy for you to avoid overusing the same word and
sounding repetitive.
List of Synonyms

 Action

o Come — advance, approach, arrive, near, reach

o Go — depart, disappear, fade, move, proceed, recede, travel

o Run — dash, escape, elope, flee, hasten, hurry, race, rush, speed, sprint

o Hurry — rush, run, speed, race, hasten, urge, accelerate, bustle

o Hide — conceal, cover, mask, cloak, camouflage, screen, shroud, veil

o Move —go, crawl, inch, poke, drag, toddle, shuffle, trot, dawdle, walk, traipse,
mosey, jog,

o Do — execute, enact, carry out, finish, conclude, effect, accomplish, achieve,

attain

o Have — hold, possess, own, contain, acquire, gain, maintain, believe, bear, beget,
occupy, absorb, fill, enjoy

o Use — employ, utilize, exhaust, spend, expend, consume, exercise

o Get — acquire, obtain, secure, procure, gain, fetch, find, score, accumulate, win,

o Keep — hold, retain, withhold, preserve, maintain, sustain, support

o Put — place, set, attach, establish, assign, keep, save, set aside, effect, achieve, do,
build

o Take — hold, catch, seize, grasp, win, capture, acquire, pick, choose, select,
prefer, remove, steal, lift, rob, engage, bewitch, purchase, buy, retract, recall,
assume, occupy, consume

o Make — create, originate, invent, beget, form, construct, design, fabricate,

manufacture, produce, build, develop, do, effect, execute, compose, perform,
accomplish, earn, gain, obtain, acquire, get

o Break — fracture, rupture, shatter, smash, wreck, crash, demolish, atomize

o Destroy — ruin, demolish, raze, waste, kill, slay, end, extinguish

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o Kill — slay, execute, assassinate, murder, destroy, cancel, abolish

o Cut — gash, slash, prick, nick, sever, slice, carve, cleave, slit, chop, crop, lop,
reduce

o Fall — drop, descend, plunge, topple, tumble

o Fly — soar, hover, flit, wing, flee, waft, glide, coast, skim, sail, cruise

o Decide — determine, settle, choose, resolve

o Help — aid, assist, support, encourage, back, wait on, attend, serve, relieve,
succour, benefit, befriend, abet

o Mark — label, tag, price, ticket, impress, effect, trace, imprint, stamp, brand, sign,
note, heed, notice, designate

o Plan — plot, scheme, design, draw, map, diagram, procedure, arrangement,

intention, device, contrivance, method, way, blueprint

o Show — display, exhibit, present, note, point to, indicate, explain, reveal, prove,
demonstrate, expose

o Begin — start, open, launch, initiate, commence, inaugurate, originate

o Big — large, enormous, huge, immense, gigantic, vast, colossal, gargantuan,

sizable, grand, great, tall, substantial, mammoth, astronomical, ample, broad,
expansive, spacious, stout, tremendous, titanic, mountainous

o Little — small, tiny, diminutive, shrimp, runt, miniature, puny, exiguous, dinky,
cramped.

o New — fresh, unique, original, unusual, novel, modern, current, recent

o Old — feeble, frail, ancient, weak, aged, used, worn, dilapidated, ragged, faded,
broken-down,

o False — wrong, fake, fraudulent, counterfeit, spurious, untrue, unfounded,

erroneous, deceptive, incorrect, inaccurate, mistaken, erroneous, improper,
unsuitable

o True — right, accurate, proper, precise, exact, valid, genuine, real, actual, trusty,
steady, loyal, dependable, sincere, fair

o Fast — quick, rapid, speedy, fleet, hasty, snappy, mercurial, swiftly, rapidly,
quickly, snappily, speedily, like a flash

o Slow — unhurried, gradual, leisurely, late, behind, tedious, slack

o Cool — chilly, cold, frosty, wintry, icy, frigid

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o Hot — feverish, warm, heated, sweltering, torrid, fiery, flaming, sizzling, charged,
burning, seared, chafed´, inflamed

o Quiet — silent, still, soundless, mute, tranquil, peaceful, calm, restful, hushed,
inaudible reticent, reserved, taciturn, secretive, uncommunicative

o Noisy — loudly, ear-splitting, stentorian, strident, clamorous, boisterous,

clangourous, deafening, roisterers, uproarious

o All — complete, entire, full, gross, outright, perfect, total, utter, whole, any,
complete, every, sum, totality, each and every, every bit of, bar none, every single,
everything, everyone

o None — nothing, nobody, no one, zero, zilch, no one at all, no part, not a bit, not a
soul, not a thing, not any, not anyone, not anything, not one, nonexistent, null
nadir, nil, naught, void, nada, blank, nix

o Normal — daily, traditional, familiar, routine, proper, ordinary, typical, everyday,

usual, commonplace, natural, classic, standard, general,

o Strange — abnormal, aberrant, anomalous, bent, bizarre, deviant, queer, eccentric,

freakish, unusual, extraordinary, insane, irrational, disorderly, rare, exceptional.

 Descriptive

o Describe — portray, characterize, picture, narrate, relate, recount, represent,

report, record

o Difference — disagreement, inequity, contrast, dissimilarity, incompatibility

o Explain — elaborate, clarify, define, interpret, justify, account for

o Idea — thought, concept, conception, notion, understanding, opinion, plan, view,

belief

o Look — gaze, see, glance, watch, examine, gape, ogle, scrutinize, inspect, leer,
behold, observe, view, witness, explore

o Story — tale, myth, legend, fable, yarn, account, narrative, chronicle, epic,
anecdote, record, memoir

o Tell — disclose, reveal, show, expose, uncover, relate, narrate, inform, advise,
explain, divulge, declare, command, order, bid, recount, repeat

o Think — judge, deem, assume, believe, consider, contemplate, reflect, mediate

 Feelings

o Anger — enrage, infuriate, arouse, nettle, exasperate, inflame, madden

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o Angry — mad, furious, enraged, excited, wrathful, indignant, exasperated,

aroused, inflamed

o Calm — quiet, peaceful, still, tranquil, mild, serene, smooth, composed, collected,
unruffled, level-headed, unexcited, detached, aloof

o Eager — keen, fervent, enthusiastic, involved, interested, alive to

o Fear — fright, dread, terror, alarm, dismay, anxiety, scare, awe, horror, panic,
apprehension

o Happy — pleased, contented, satisfied, delighted, elated, joyful, cheerful, ecstatic,

jubilant, gay, tickled, gratified, glad, blissful, overjoyed

o Hate — despise, loathe, detest, abhor, disfavour, dislike, disapprove, abominate

o Love — like, admire, esteem, fancy, care for, cherish, adore, treasure, worship,
appreciate, savour

o Moody — temperamental, changeable, irritable, testy, peevish, fretful, spiteful,

sulky, touchy

o Sad — miserable, uncomfortable, wretched, heart-broken, unfortunate, poor,

downhearted, sorrowful, depressed, dejected, melancholy, glum, gloomy, dismal,
discouraged, unhappy

o Scared — afraid, frightened, alarmed, terrified, panicked, fearful

 Negative

o Awful — dreadful, terrible, abominable, bad, poor, unpleasant

o Bad — evil, immoral, wicked, corrupt, sinful, depraved, rotten, contaminated,

spoiled, foul, rank, ghastly, execrable

o Crooked — bent, twisted, curved, hooked, zigzag

o Dangerous — perilous, hazardous, risky, uncertain, unsafe

o Dark — shadowy, unlit, murky, gloomy, dim, dusky, shaded, sunless, black,
dismal, sad

o Dull — boring, tiring, tiresome, uninteresting, slow, dumb, stupid, unimaginative,

lifeless, humdrum, dreary

o Fat — stout, corpulent, fleshy, beefy, paunchy, plump, full, rotund, tubby, pudgy,
chubby, chunky, burly, bulky, elephantine

o Gross — improper, rude, coarse, indecent, crude, vulgar, outrageous, extreme,

grievous, shameful, uncouth, obscene, low
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o Hurt — damage, harm, injure, wound, distress, afflict, pain

o Lazy — indolent, slothful, idle, inactive, sluggish

o Predicament — quandary, dilemma, pickle, problem, plight, spot, scrape, jam

o Trouble — distress, anguish, anxiety, worry, wretchedness, pain, danger, peril,

disaster, grief, misfortune, difficulty, concern, pains, inconvenience, exertion,
effort

o Ugly — hideous, frightful, terrifying, gross, grisly, ghastly, horrid, unsightly,

plain, homely, evil, repulsive, repugnant, gruesome

 Positive

o Amazing — incredible, unbelievable, improbable, fabulous, wonderful, fantastic,

astonishing, astounding, extraordinary

o Beautiful — pretty, lovely, attractive, gorgeous, dazzling, splendid, magnificent,

comely, fair, ravishing, graceful, elegant, fine, exquisite, aesthetic, pleasing,
radiant, glowing, blooming, sparkling

o Brave — courageous, fearless, dauntless, intrepid, plucky, daring, heroic,

valorous, audacious, bold, gallant, valiant, doughty, mettlesome

o Bright — shining, shiny, gleaming, brilliant, sparkling, shimmering, radiant, vivid,

colourful, lustrous, luminous, incandescent, intelligent, knowing, quick-witted,
smart, intellectual

o Delicious — savoury, delectable, appetizing, luscious, scrumptious, palatable,

delightful, enjoyable, toothsome, exquisite

o Enjoy — appreciate, delight in, be pleased, indulge in, luxuriate in, bask in, relish,
devour, savour, like

o Famous — well-known, renowned, celebrated, famed, eminent, illustrious,

distinguished, noted, notorious

o Funny — humorous, amusing, droll, comic, comical, laughable, silly

o Good — excellent, fine, superior, wonderful, marvellous, qualified, suited, suitable

o Great — noteworthy, worthy, distinguished, remarkable, grand, considerable,

powerful, much, mighty

o Mischievous — prankish, playful, naughty, roguish, waggish, impish, sportive

o Neat — clean, orderly, tidy, trim, dapper, natty, smart, elegant, well-organized,
super, desirable, spruce, shipshape, well-kept, shapely
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o Popular — well-liked, approved, accepted, favourite, celebrated, common, current

 Talk / Speech

o Answer — reply, respond, retort, acknowledge

o Ask — question, inquire of, seek information from, put a question to, demand,
request, expect, inquire, query, interrogate, examine, quiz

o Cry — shout, yell, yowl, scream, roar, bellow, weep, wail, sob, bawl

o Say/Tell — inform, notify,

o Mean (Something) — add up to, affect, be important, be of value, be substantive,

carry weight, connote, count, denote, express, imply, intend, involve, signify, spell,
stand for, suggest, value, weigh in,

 Unsorted

o Somewhat — a little, sort of, kind of, a bit, relatively, slightly, moderately, to
some extent / degree , reasonably

o Somehow — in a way, virtually, to a certain extent, in some measure, to some

extent, to a certain degree, quasi , in a manner of speaking, effectively
anyhow, anyway, anywise, by hook or by crook, another, howsoever, in any way,
somehow or other, someway, by some means

o Definite — certain, sure, positive, determined, clear, distinct, obvious

o Fair — just, impartial, unbiased, objective, unprejudiced, honest

o Important — necessary, vital, critical, indispensable, valuable, essential,

significant, primary, principal, considerable, famous, distinguished, notable, well-
known

o Interesting — fascinating, engaging, sharp, spellbinding, curious, captivating,

enchanting, bewitching, appealing

o Part — portion, share, piece, allotment, section, fraction, fragment

o Place — space, area, spot, plot, region, location, situation, position, residence,
dwelling, set, site, station, status, state
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Antonym
An antonym is the opposite of another word. Antonyms can be used to help show contrast
between two things or give clues to exactly what is meant. Below are some examples of
antonyms:
Antonym Examples
 Achieve – Fail  Guilty – Innocent
 Active – Idle  Hire – Fire
 Afraid – Confident  Include – Exclude
 Ancient – Modern  Individual – Group
 Arrive – Depart  Innocent – Guilty
 Arrogant – Humble  Knowledge – Ignorance
 Ascend – Descend  Liquid – Solid
 Attack – Defend  Major – Minor
 Attractive – Repulsive  Marvellous – Terrible
 Adversity – Prosperity  Mature – Immature
 Affirm - Deny  Maximum - Minimum
 Blunt – Sharp  Noisy – Quiet
 Brave – Cowardly  Optimist - Pessimist
 Cautious – Careless  Ordinary – Extraordinary
 Complex – Simple  Partial – Complete
 Compliment – Insult  Passive – Active
 Crazy – Sane  Permanent – Unstable
 Crooked – Straight  Plentiful – Sparse
 Condemn - Approve  Positive – Negative
 Decrease – Increase  Powerful – Weak
 Demand – Supply  Praise – Criticism
 Destroy – Create  Private – Public
 Divide – Unite  Problem – Solution
 Drunk – Sober  Professional – Amateur
 Expand – Contract  Profit – Loss
 Freeze – Boil  Quality – Inferiority
 Full – Empty  Random – Specific
 Generous – Stingy  Rigid – Flexible
 Giant – Dwarf  Segregate – Integrate
 Gloomy – Cheerful  Shame – Honour
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 Simple - Complicated  Union – Separation

 Single – Married  Unique – Common
 Strength – Weakness  Upset – Relaxed
 Sunny - Cloudy  Urge – Deter
 Superb – Awful  Vacant – Occupied
 Temporary – Permanent  Vague – Definite
 Timid – Bold  Vertical – Horizontal
 Toward – Away  Villain – Hero
 Tragic – Comic  Visible - Invisible
 Transparent - Opaque  Wax - Wane
 Triumph – Defeat  Wealth – Poverty
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Homonyms and Homophones

Homonyms
Homonyms are words that are pronounced the same and spelled the same but have
different meanings. Homonyms are words that are both spelled and pronounced the same as
each other yet have different meanings. The category is somewhat subjective, because words
sometimes have related, only very slightly different, meanings. Therefore, a homonym is a
word that has the same name as another word, meaning that the two words look and sound
exactly alike.
A simple example of a homonym is the word “pen.” This can mean both a holding
area for animals and a writing instrument. Another example is “book,” which can mean
something to read or the act of making a reservation. In both cases, the sound and spelling are
the same, and only the definition changes.
A word that sounds the same or is spelled the same as another word but has a different
meaning, e.g."No" and "know" are homonyms.

More Examples of Homonyms

Here are a few more examples of homonym pairs:
 address (to speak to)/address (location)
 air (oxygen)/air (a lilting tune)
 band (a musical group)/band (a ring)
 bark (a tree’s out layer)/bark (the sound a dog makes)
 current (up to date)/current (flow of water)
 die (to cease living)/die (a cube marked with numbers one through six)
 fair (equitable)/fair (beautiful)
 kind (type)/kind (caring)
 lie (to recline)/lie (to tell a falsehood)
 match (to pair like items)/match (a stick for making a flame)
 mean (average)/mean (not nice)
 Pole (a person from Poland)/pole (a piece of metal that holds a flag)
 pound (unit of weight)/pound (to beat)
 ream (a pile of paper)/ream (to juice a citrus fruit)
 rose (to have gotten up)/rose (a flower)
 spring (a season)/spring (coiled metal)
 tender (gentle)/tender (to pay money)
 tire (to grow fatigued)/tire (part of a wheel)
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Homophones
Homophones are words that sound alike, thanks to that all-important suffix “phone,”
which means sound. Homophones are two or more words that sound alike but that are spelled
differently and have different meanings. Homonym traces back to the Greek words homos,
meaning “same,” and onuma, meaning “name.” So a homonym is sort of like two people who
have the same name: called the same thing but different Homophones have the same sound
but different meaning, and they are often spelled differently. For example, consider the word
“plate” and “plait.” A plate is a dish for eating, but a plait is a special knot or twist, usually
indicating something braided, like hair or rope.

Homophones occur in English because there are multiple ways to spell the same sound.
For example:
 The sound of /n/ can be spelled with the letter N or the letter combination KN,
resulting in the homophones night and knight
 The sound of /ā/ can be spelled A-consonant-E or AY (among other possible
spellings), giving us daze and days.
 The schwa sound (the muffled /uh/ sound of vowels in unaccented syllables) causes
words like complement and compliment to be pronounced alike.
Homophones may or may not be spelled the same, because the definition is really about
the sound.
Other examples:
 mat/matte
 two/too
Here are some more examples of homonyms:
 Bear and bear
We saw a bear in the woods. The cold was more than he could bear.
(Same spelling, same pronunciation.)
 Left and left
They left the coin on the beach. Turn left when you get to the lemonade stand.
(Same spelling, same pronunciation.)
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Commonly confused words

English has a lot of commonly confused words. They look alike, sound alike or, worst
of all, look and sound alike but have completely different meanings. Other words look and
sound different but are similar in meaning, and it’s hard to determine which the correct one in
a given context is. There are a lot of words that look or sound alike but have very different
meanings, such as pore and pour or flaunt and flout.
Take a look at these two sentences – one of them contains a mistake:

I poured over book after book.

We pored over the catalogues.
Here’s a quick-reference list of pairs of words that regularly cause people problems.
The words follow the accepted British English spelling. Hopefully the following list of pairs
of commonly confused words will help you keep them straightened out.

Accept vs. Except

Accept (verb) - to receive

 I accepted all my birthday gifts with gratitude.
Except (conjunction) - apart from; otherwise than; were it not true
 When Susan travels, she packs everything except the kitchen sink.
Affect vs. Effect
Affect (verb) - to have an effect on; influence; produce a change in; to stir the emotions
 The dog's death affected his owners.
Effect (noun) - anything brought about by a cause or agent; result
 The new speed limit law had little effect on the speed of the motorists.
A Lot vs. Allot
A lot (noun phrase) -many
 A lot of people came to the party.
*"A lot" is always two separate words. "Alot" is not a real word.
Allot (verb) - to distribute, give or assign
 Fifteen minutes were allotted to each of the speakers at the conference.
Allusion vs. Illusion
Allusion (noun) - an indirect reference
 The Austin Powers movies often make allusions to the James Bond films.
Illusion (noun) - a false idea or conception; belief or opinion not in accord with the facts; an
unreal, deceptive, or misleading appearance or image
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 The magician created the illusion that he was levitating.

Breath vs. Breathe
Breath (noun) - air taken into the lungs and then let out
 Take a deep breath.
Breathe (verb) - to inhale and exhale
 Just calm down and breathe.
Desert vs. Dessert
Desert (verb) - to forsake or abandon; to leave without permission; to fail when needed
 Soldiers should not desert their posts.
Desert (noun) - dry, barren, sandy region
 The largest desert in the world is the Sahara.
Dessert (noun) - a sweet course served at the end of a meal
 Fruit makes a healthy dessert after lunch or dinner.
Lose vs. Loose
Lose (verb) - to become unable to find; to mislay; to fail to win or gain
 Did you lose your glasses again?
 How many games did your team lose last season?
Loose (adjective) - not tight; giving enough room
 I’ve lost twenty pounds, and now these jeans are really loose.
Principal vs. Principle
Principal (noun) - a governing or presiding officer, specifically of a school; (adjective) - first
in rank, authority, importance, degree, etc.
 The student’s parents had to have a meeting with the principal.
Principle (noun) - a fundamental truth, law, doctrine, or motivating force, upon which others
are based
 The student’s parents thought that they had instilled stronger moral principles in their son.
Site vs. Sight
Sight (noun) - something seen, a view, field of vision
 She was a sight for sore eyes.
Site (noun) - a piece of land considered for a specific purpose

 The corner lot was a perfect site for the new shopping centre.
Stationary vs. Stationery

Stationary (adjective) - not moving or not movable; fixed or still

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 I rode the stationary bike at the gym for an hour.

Stationery (noun) - writing materials; specifically, paper and envelopes used for letters
 My grandmother has given me a lot of stationery over the years. I think she wants me to
use it to write her.
Than vs. Then
Than (conjunction) - used to introduce the second element in a comparison
 My right foot is bigger than my left foot.
Then (adverb) - at that time; next in order; (adjective) - of that time; (noun) - that time
 Take off all your clothes first. Then get in the shower.
 Emily drove up to New York with her then boyfriend, Nick.
 Let's wait until we're hungry; we can decide what we want to eat then.
Their vs. There vs. They’re
Their (adjective) - of, belonging to, made by, or done by them
 They were proud of their work.
There (noun) - that place or point
 Just put it over there.
They’re (contraction) of they + are
 They’re going out to dinner tonight.
To vs. Too vs. Two
To (preposition) - in the direction of and reaching; as far as; to the extent of
 I’m going to Baltimore.
Too (adverb) - in addition; as well; besides; also; more than enough; superfluously; overly; to
a regrettable extent; extremely
 I’m going to Baltimore, too.
 I'm too busy. I can't go to Baltimore.
Two (adjective) the number 2
 I have two jobs.
Your vs. You're
Your (adjective) - belonging to you
 Is this your dog?
You're (contraction) - you are
 You're a great mother!
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Who vs. Whom

Who (subject pronoun) - what or which person or persons; the person or persons that, or a
person that (used to introduce a relative clause)
 Who is going to the party with you?
Whom (object pronoun) - what or which person or persons; the person or persons that, or a
person that (used to introduce a relative clause)
 With whom are you going to the party?

Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct word.

1. My little cousin turns ________(to, too, two) years old tomorrow.
2. The next-door neighbour’s dog is ________(quite, quiet, quit) loud. He barks constantly
throughout the night.
3. ________(Your, You’re) mother called this morning to talk about the party.
4. I would rather eat a slice of chocolate cake ________(than, then) eat a chocolate muffin.
5. Before the meeting, he drank a cup of coffee and ________(than, then) brushed his teeth.
6. Do you have any ________(loose, lose) change to pay the parking meter?
7. Father must ________(have, of) left his briefcase at the office.
8. Before playing ice hockey, I was ________(suppose, supposed) to read the contract, but I
only skimmed it and signed my name quickly, which may ________(affect, effect) my
understanding of the rules.
9. Tonight she will ________(set, sit) down and ________(right, write) a cover letter to
accompany her résumé and job application.
10. It must be fall, because the leaves ________(are, our) changing, and ________(it’s, its)
getting darker earlier.
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Vocabulary based on TOEFL and other competitive examinations

Vocabulary is an important part of the TOEFL, and many questions on the exam require you
to have a strong vocabulary. Here is a list of the 327 best TOEFL vocabulary words in order
to guide your studying.

The 327 TOEFL Words You Need to Know

Word Definition Sample Sentence
Abundant Present in large quantities. Living close to a lake means we have an
abundant supply of water.
Accumulate To gradually collect. Each fall, leaves accumulate in our
driveway.
Accurate Correct; free from errors. Make sure your address is accurate
before submitting your online order.
Accustomed Used to something. Having 8AM classes means I’m
accustomed to getting up early.
Acquire To come into possession of. When my grandmother died, I acquired
her cookbook collection.
Adamant Refusing to change an opinion. The defendant was adamant that he was
innocent.
Adequate Enough to suit your needs. Our house isn’t big, but it’s adequate for
the two of us.
Adjacent Close to or next to. The park is adjacent to the school.
Adjust To change something so it The bike seat may be too high; you’ll
serves its purpose better. probably need to adjust it.
Advantage Something that makes it easier His height gives him an advantage in
to achieve success. basketball.
Advocate To publicly support. My aunt is a major advocate for
women’s’ rights.
Adverse Unfavourable; against one’s I had an adverse reaction to my
desires. medication and had to stop taking it.
Aggregate To combine. We should aggregate our resources to
share them more easily.
Aggressive Assertive and pushy. The salesperson was very aggressive
when trying to get us to buy the
television.
Allocate To put aside for a specific The village needs to allocate funds for
purpose. building the new school.
Alternative Another option or choice. If the ATM is broken, an alternative
solution is to stop by the bank.
Amateur Someone who is inexperienced He’s an amateur soccer player and is still
or not highly skilled in a learning the rules of the game.
particular area.
Ambiguous Having several potential When I asked the HR manager what my
meanings; unclear and difficult chances were of getting the job, she gave
to understand. me a very ambiguous reply.
Ambitious Having large goals. My son is very ambitious and hopes to be
a millionaire by the time he’s thirty.
Amend To change for the better; to I believe we should amend our country’s
improve. tax laws.
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Ample Plentiful. Our new apartment has ample space for

the two of us.
Anomaly Deviation from the norm. The basketball player is the team’s best
free thrower, so his missing both shots
was an anomaly.
Annual Occurring yearly. The annual company barbeque takes
place every August.
Antagonize To tease or be hostile towards a The boy loves to antagonize his little
person or group. sister by pulling her hair.
Attitude Manner or feeling. After she got grounded, the teenager had
a bad attitude for the rest of the day.
Attribute To give credit. Be sure to attribute credit to your sources
when writing a research paper.
Arbitrary Based on a whim or random Flipping a coin is an arbitrary way to
decision. make a decision.
Arduous Requiring a lot of effort. After you cross the bridge, there’s an
arduous walk up the hill.
Assuage To lessen a negative feeling. The mother assuaged her child’s fear of
the dark.
Assume To suppose without solid proof. I assumed he was rich because he worked
as a lawyer.
Augment To increase or make larger. She augments her regular salary by
babysitting on the weekends.
Benefit Something positive or A benefit of doing homework on Friday
advantageous. is that your weekend will be free.
Berate To scold. Our neighbor berated us after we broke
his window playing baseball.
Bestow To give as a gift. The medal was bestowed upon him by
the president.
Boast To brag or talk with excessive He always boasts of his talents after he
pride. wins a game.
Boost To help raise or increase I gave him a pep talk to boost his self-
something. esteem before his speech.
Brash Rude and tactless. The brash man always asked
inappropriate questions.
Brief Short (in terms of time). It will only have a brief meeting, so
you’ll still have plenty of time for lunch.
Brusque Abrupt to the point of rudeness. After being away for so long, I expected
more than her brusque greeting.
Cacophony A harsh, unpleasant mixture of The cuckoo clock shop lets off a
noise. cacophony every hour.
Cease To stop. I wish they would cease arguing.
Censure To express strong disapproval. Every parent in our district censured the
education cuts.
Chronological Arranged in order of time or Put the historical events in chronological
date. order to make them easier to study.
Clarify To make clear; to remove I didn’t understand the instructions, so I
confusion. asked the teacher to clarify them.
Coalesce To combine or grow together. The people on the street eventually
coalesced into a group.
Coerce To force someone to do The young boy was coerced into stealing
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something against their will. by his friends.

Cognizant Being aware or having Before mountain climbing, you need to
knowledge of something. be cognizant of the risks.
Cohesion Uniting; becoming one. Water molecules show strong cohesion
when they stick together.
Coincide To occur at the same time. This year Thanksgiving coincided with
my birthday.
Collapse To fall down or break down. The old building finally collapsed,
leaving nothing but a pile of rubble.
Collide To hit one another with a The two cars collided on the freeway.
forceful impact.
Commitment Dedication to a cause or activity. Joining a school play is a big
commitment. You’ll need to practice
every evening.
Community A group of people who live or The Chinese community in my city is
work together. hosting a New Year celebration next
week.
Conceal To hide. The mountains concealed the ocean from
view.
Concur To agree. He believes women should be paid as
much as men, and I concur.
Conflict A disagreement or fight. The conflict between the two families has
been going on for generations.
Constrain To restrict or repress. You should move your plant to a bigger
pot, otherwise you’ll constrain its roots.
Contemplate To consider thoughtfully. I spend a lot of time contemplating what
career I want to have.
Continuously To go on without stopping. My neighbours have been continuously
blasting their music since last night.
Contradict To give the opposite opinion. I told the employees that sales were
down, but my boss contradicted me and
said sales were actually up.

Contribute To give something (usually Every roommate contributes part of his

money or time) to a common paycheck to the grocery bill.
fund or cause.

Convey To make known. I’ve conveyed my interest in working for

that company.

Copious Abundant. He always takes copious notes during

class to study later on.

Core Central; of main importance. Although many employees left the

company, the core leadership remained.
Corrode To gradually wear away. The rust corroded the paint on my car.
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Cumbersome Burdensome; clumsy Trying to carry four grocery bags at once

was very cumbersome.
Curriculum The courses given by a school or Our school needs to add more music
program. courses to its curriculum.

Data Facts, statistics, or pieces of The data from these graphs show that
information. yearly temperatures are increasing.
Decay To decline in health or After the tree died, its wood began to
excellence. decay.
Deceive To trick or mislead. He deceived me by pretending to be a
millionaire.
Decipher To find the meaning of. The spy deciphered the secret code.
Declaration An announcement. He made a declaration to the office that
he was quitting.
Degrade To lower in quality. My attempt at cake degraded into a
crumbly mess.
Demonstrate To show. Let me demonstrate the proper way of
throwing a football.
Deny To state that something isn’t He denied being the robber.
true.
Deplete To significantly decrease. Your shopping sprees have depleted my
savings.
Deposit To deliver and leave an item. Please deposit your books in the bin
outside the library.
Desirable Worth having or wanting. Bravery is a desirable trait for firefighters
to have.
Despise To hate. I despise early morning classes.
Detect To locate something. The police dog detected the missing
child’s scent.
Deter To discourage. The warning signs on the house deterred
trespassers.
Deviate To differ from the norm. I decided to deviate from my normal
route home and took a shortcut.
Devise To plan or create. The coach devised a plan for winning the
game.
Diatribe A sharp criticism or attack. The politician went into a diatribe against
her opponent.
Digress To wander from the main The teacher digressed from the lecture to
subject. discuss the weather.
Dilemma A situation where one must The student faced the dilemma of
choose between two difficult attending school sick or missing her
choices. exam.
Diminish To shrink or reduce. Sprinkle baking soda on the carpet to
diminish the stain.
Dispose To get rid of. I need to dispose of this trash.
Disproportion Too large or small when The piece of pie I received was
ate compared to something else. disproportionately small.
Disrupt To interrupt by causing a The protesters disrupted the politician’s
disturbance. speech.
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Distort To misrepresent. The camera filter distorted the image.

Distribute To give portions of something. Distribute the materials evenly among the
class.
Diverse Showing a lot of variety. This city has a very diverse population.
Divert To cause a change of course. Because of the accident, the police had to
divert traffic down a side street.
Dynamic Constantly changing. The theater has dynamic shows, so you
never know what you’ll see.
Ease To reduce unpleasantness or This prescription will ease your allergies.
difficulty.
Efficient Maximizing productivity. Now that I’m following a schedule at
work, I’m much more efficient.
Eliminate To remove. Our team lost the match and was
eliminated from the competition.
Elite A select, above-average group. The elite detective team were also sent
for when there were big crimes.
Eloquent Moving speech or writing. Her eloquent writing has gained her
many fans.
Emphasize To give special importance to The teacher emphasized the due date of
when speaking or writing. the project.
Endure To suffer through something He has endured four knee operations so
difficult with patience. far.
Enhance To intensify or magnify. The falling snow enhanced the beauty of
the small village.
Epitome A perfect example of something. The duchess is the epitome of class.
Equivalent Equal. Twenty-four is equivalent to two dozen.
Erroneous Incorrect. He apologized for his erroneous
statement.
Estimate An approximate value. Try to get an estimate of the number of
people attending the concert.
Evade To avoid or escape. By hiding in the bathroom, we were able
to evade the intruder.
Evaluate To assess. At the end of the class, every student will
evaluate how well the professor taught.
Evidence Facts or information that help These fossils are evidence of evolution.
prove or disprove something.
Evolve To gradually change. The small school evolved into a world-
class institution.
Exemplary Worthy of imitation. She is an exemplary student, and you
should copy her study habits.
Exclude To leave out. The young boy was excluded from his
friends’ soccer game.
Exclusive Not admitting the majority. We may not be able to get in since that
club is very exclusive.
Expand To increase in size. Adding air to bike tires will cause them
to expand.
Expertise Expert knowledge or skill in a The surgeon’s expertise is knee surgeries.
particular field.
Exploit To use selfishly. The company exploited its workers by
making them work long hours.
Expose To reveal or unmask. The emails presented exposed the
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company’s corruption.
Extension An act of making something If you’re sick on the day the paper is due,
longer. the teacher may give you an extension on
the due date.
Extract To get or remove something. The dentist extracted one of my teeth.
Famine A time when there is an extreme Millions of children in Ethiopia died due
lack of food. to the famine there.
Feasible Possible to do. This study plan you made for me sounds
feasible, even with my work schedule.
Finite Having an end or limits. Remember that life is finite; you’re not
immortal.
Flaw A feature that ruins the I got the diamond for a reduced price
perfection of something. since the stone had a flaw.
Fluctuate To change continually. I’m not sure what to wear since the
temperature has been fluctuating so
much.
Focus The central point or idea. The program is going to focus on
environmental issues.
Fortify To strengthen. The king decided to fortify the castle
walls to protect them during attacks.
Framework A skeletal structure designed to Skyscrapers must have a strong
support something. framework to support all the floors.
Frivolous Unnecessary; of little You must stop spending your money on
importance frivolous purchases.
Function A purpose natural to a person or The function of petals is to attract insects
thing. to the plant.
Fundamental Of primary importance. Learning scales is fundamental to being a
good piano player.
Gap A space in between two objects. Be careful to avoid the gap between the
two steps.
Garbled Communication that is distorted Our answering machine is so bad that
and unclear. people’s voices are always garbled.
Generate To produce. The fire generates heat, which keeps the
room warm.
Grandiose Pompous; overly important. The actress had only one small part
before she got grandiose ideas of her
fame.
Hackneyed Overused and unoriginal. His poems contain many hackneyed
phrases.
Haphazard Lacking planning. There was no schedule, so the event was
very haphazard.
Harsh Not gentle; unpleasant. Her comments on my performance were
very harsh and not kind at all.
Hasty In a hurry. In order to avoid the police, the robbers
made a hasty retreat.
Hazardous Full of risk. The nuclear reactor has a lot of hazardous
waste.
Hesitate To pause, often due to She hesitated before entering the
reluctance. abandoned building.
Hierarchy A ranking system. In the office hierarchy, the manager is
higher than the associate.
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Hindrance Something that causes delay or Her hatred of public transportation is a

resistance. hindrance when trying to get around New
York City.
Hollow Empty inside. The dead tree is hollow.
Horror An intense feeling of fear. The haunted house filled me with horror.
Hostile Extremely unfriendly. My ex-boyfriend’s new girlfriend was
very hostile towards me.
Hypothesis An unproven idea that attempts You’ll need to conduct an experiment to
to explain something. test your hypothesis.
Identical Exactly the same. The twins were completely identical.
Illiterate Unable to read. Because he’d never been able to attend
school, the man was illiterate.
Illustrate To explain by using an example. The professor illustrated the lesson with a
personal story.
Impact Effect or influence. His moving words had a large impact on
me.
Impair To worsen. Drinking alcohol will impair your driving
abilities.
Implement To carry out. We will implement the new schedule
starting next semester.
Imply To strongly suggest. My mother implied that I was the one
who forgot to take out the trash.
Impose To force upon. After the riots, the mayor imposed a
curfew on the town.
Impoverish To reduce to poverty. These medical bills are going to
impoverish me.
Incentive A reason to do something. I hate my job, but the big pay checks are
a good incentive to stick with it.
Incessant Continuing without pause. I can’t sleep because of the dog’s
incessant barking.
Incidental A minor part. Don’t worry about your grade on this
quiz; it’s only an incidental part of your
grade.
Incite To urge on. The ringleader incited the soldiers to
rebellion.
Inclination A preference. My inclination is to go to bed early.
Incompetent Incapable; lacking ability. The incompetent worker was fired from
his job.
Inconsistent Changing randomly. His pitching has been very inconsistent
all season.
Indefatigable Untiring. She is an indefatigable hiker and can
walk all day.
Indisputable Not able to be challenged. She’s the indisputable star of the
basketball team.
Ineffective Not producing any major The drug was shown to be ineffective at
impact. curing cancer.
Inevitable Unable to be avoided. Even if you’re healthy, death is inevitable
in the end.
Infer To guess based on evidence. I inferred that she was annoyed based on
her body language.
Inflate To increase in size. Getting a promotion has really inflated
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his ego.
Influence The ability to have an impact of The older sister has been a positive
something. influence on her younger siblings.
Inhibit To hinder or restrain. This cleaning spray inhibits the growth of
bacteria.
Initial The first. She was the initial president of the
company.
Inquiry An investigation to determine Congress launched an inquiry after the
the truth. senator was accused of taking bribes.
Integral Necessary to complete the You can’t quit. You’re an integral part of
whole. this team.
Integrate To combine. When making a cake, you need to fully
integrate the wet and dry ingredients.
Interpret To explain the meaning of I need you to interpret this German
something. speech for me.
Intervene To come between people, When the toddlers couldn’t share their
objects, or an event and change toys, their mothers had to intervene.
what is happening.
Intrepid Fearless. The intrepid mountain climber reached
the top of Mt. Everest.
Intricate Highly detailed. The pattern on this blanket is so intricate.
Invasive Intrusive. We found the stranger’s questions too
personal and very invasive.
Investigate To examine or study. The police are going to investigate the
crime scene.
Irascible Easy to anger. Even though my grandfather seems
irascible, he’s actually very loving.
Irony The use of words to give a “I love spending my Friday nights doing
meaning opposite to their literal homework,” she said with irony.
meaning.
Irresolute Uncertain. Not sure which direction to go in, he
stood irresolute.
Jargon Words specific to a certain job To be a successful doctor, you’ll need to
or group. learn a lot of medical jargon.
Jointly Together. The newlyweds jointly opened up a bank
account.
Knack A special talent or skill. My brother has a real knack for solving
tricky math problems.
Labour Work or effort. Building a house requires a lot of labour.
Lag To fall behind. I stayed with the front group of runners
for the first few miles, but after that I
began to lag.
Lampoon To mock or ridicule. The cartoonist lampooned the president’s
speech.
Languish To become weak; to be During winter break, my plants
neglected. languished since I was visiting my
parents and couldn’t water them.
Lecture A talk given to an audience. The professor will give a 30 minute
lecture before the quiz.
Leery Wary. I’m leery of taking the dark-looking
shortcut.
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Legitimate Lawful. The way he became mayor is completely

legitimate.
Lenient Merciful; less harsh. The judge gave the criminal a lenient
sentence due to his bad childhood.
Likely Probable. I don’t have much homework, so it’s
likely I’ll be able to go out tonight.
Ludicrous Ridiculous. His claims about me are absolutely
ludicrous.
Maintain To continue at the same level. She has maintained the same weight
since high school.
Major Very important. This test is a major part of your final
grade.
Manipulate To influence, especially in an He tried to manipulate the results of the
unfair way. election.
Maximize To increase to the greatest The store’s goal this year is to maximize
possible size. its profit.
Measure To find the size and dimensions By measuring the tree, I found it was
of something. seven feet tall.
Mediocre Ordinary, average. The meal the chef made was only
mediocre.
Mend To fix. My mother will mend the hole in my
shirt.
Method A way of doing something. Her method for making bread takes three
days.
Migrate To move from one place to Every fall, the geese migrate to Florida.
another.
Minimum The smallest or lowest amount You need to get a minimum of 70% on
possible. the test to pass the class.
Misleading Giving the wrong idea. The advertisement for the weight loss
pills is very misleading since studies have
shown they’re ineffective.
Modify To change. I need to modify my style so it looks
more professional.
Morose Gloomy, depressed. The boy was morose after hearing he
didn’t make the football team.
Negligent Lazy, neglectful. The negligent babysitter invited her
friends over while the children were
upstairs.
Nonchalant Indifferent, unexcited. I was hurt when my friend greeted me so
nonchalantly.
Obey To follow orders or instructions. My dog always obeys me when I ask her
to sit.
Obtain To get. The spy obtained the secret codes we
need.
Obvious Easily understood. The large poster of Michael Jackson over
her bed made it obvious who her
favourite singer was.
Opponent Someone on the opposite side The soccer player blocked her opponent’s
for a game or contest. shot at the goal.
Oppress To unfairly burden. For the past ten generations the royal
family has oppressed the peasants by
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keeping them in poverty.

Origin The source; where something The explorers are trying to find the origin
began. of the Nile.
Paradigm A typical example of something. This work of art is a paradigm of the
period; you’ll see many examples of it in
the museum.
Parsimonious Frugal, stingy. The parsimonious woman only donated a
dollar to charity.
Partake To join in. My leg was feeling much better, so I
decided to partake in the soccer match.
Partial Preferring one option over We can get strawberry ice cream, but I’m
others. actually more partial to chocolate.
Paucity Something existing in very small During the drought, the town had a
amounts; scarcity. paucity of fresh water.
Peak The highest or most important Winning the championship was the peak
point. of his career.
Peripheral Located on the side or edge. There are some peripheral fights going on
at the outdoor concert.
Permeate To penetrate or pass through. Let the maple syrup permeate your
waffles before eating them.
Persist To continue, especially when I may have lost my last six games, but I
facing opposition. will continue to persist trying to win.
Pertain Relate. How does your question pertain to the
lecture?
Phase A period or stage in a process. In high school, I went through a phase
where I only wore black clothes.
Poll A record of opinions or votes. The polls show that my candidate is
going to win the election.
Potent Powerful. Only take one sleeping pill since they’re
very potent.
Pragmatic Practical, sensible. Your boyfriend is too dramatic. I think
you need a more pragmatic man.
Praise To give approval or admiration. The book is the best I’ve ever read; I
can’t praise it enough.
Precede To come before. The flower girls preceded the bride when
they walked down the aisle.
Precise Exact. When collecting data, it’s important that
your measurements are very precise.
Prestigious Having a high reputation. Harvard is one of the most prestigious
colleges in the United States.
Prevalent Widespread. If more people don’t start washing their
hands, disease will become more
prevalent.
Primary First; most important. Maeve’s primary goal in life is to become
a doctor.
Prior Previous or earlier. Prior to becoming a teacher, Elena
worked as a book editor.
Proceed To continue doing something. I’m sorry for interrupting; please proceed
with your speech.
Progeny Offspring. The dog’s progeny all have yellow fur.
Promote To further to progress of I’m promoting this new indian movie so
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something. that more people will buy tickets to it.

Prosper To do well. Dave hopes his new business will prosper
and make him a millionaire.
Proximity Nearness in time or space. The twins hated to be apart, so they
bought houses in close proximity to each
other.
Quarrel Disagreement or fight; to have Nina and her boyfriend always quarrel
an argument. over money.
Range The distance between two The range of ages at the concert spanned
things, often the maximum and from 12 to 65.
the minimum.
Rank An official position or station. Archibald was promoted to the rank of
first captain.
Rebuke To sternly disapprove or After staying out too late, Grace received
reprimand. a rebuke from her parents.
Recapitulate To give a brief summary. At the end of his speech, the politician
made sure to recapitulate his main points.
Recede To retreat. Two days after the flood, the seawater
finally began to recede from our house.
Recommend To present someone with I need to ask Mr. Smith if he’ll
confidence and approval. recommend me for this leadership
position.
Reform To make changes that improve Melanie’s father is in charge of reforming
something. to school system.
Regulate To supervise or control a process Ben needs to regulate how much he eats
so that it functions correctly. in order to stay at a healthy weight.
Reinforce To strengthen with added The builders reinforced the house’s
support. wooden frame with steel beams.
Reject To say no to something that is Lydia rejected my invitation to the
offered. homecoming dance.
Release To free; to allow to be known. The CEO decided to release the
company’s profits from last year.
Rely To depend on. I rely on coffee to get through my
morning.
Reproach To express disapproval or The coach reproached the players for
disappointment. failing to play their best.
Require To need for a specific purpose. The camping trip requires that every
participant bring their own food and
sleeping bag.
Resent To feel bitterness or anger I’ve always resented my sister because
towards someone or something. she is my mother’s favourite child.
Resign To give up an office or position. Due to his declining health, the mayor
decided to resign from office.
Resist To withstand the effect of. Resist the impulse to have ice cream for
breakfast.
Resolve To come to a firm decision. Matt resolved to get better grades next
semester by studying every night.
Restrict To confine or keep within limits. My doctor told me to restrict myself to
one glass of wine a day.
Retain To continue to do something or I’ve decided to retain my normal
keep something. hairstyle.
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Retract 1. To draw back in. 1. I felt calmer after the lion retracted its
2. To withdraw something after claws.
it’s found to be untrue. 2. After numerous errors were found, the
newspaper retracted the story.
Retrieve To bring back. Alexis got out of the car to retrieve the
ball her little brother had thrown.
Rhetorical Used just for style or impact. You aren’t expected to actually answer
rhetorical questions.
Rigid Stiff; unyielding. The boys’ father was happy to see the
base of the tree house was rigid and
sturdy.
Rotate To turn. Rotate the sculpture so I can see the other
side.
Safeguard Something that serves as A retirement fund is one way to
protection or ensures safety. safeguard your finances for the future.
Scrutinize To very carefully examine. The judges were looking for perfection,
so they scrutinized every entry.
Section A part of the whole. This section of the stadium dressed
completely in red.
Select To choose. Jane selected a blue dress to wear to the
wedding.
Sequence Things that follow each other in Librarians need to know how order books
a certain order. in the correct sequence.
Severe 1. Harsh or strict. 1. The robbers suffered severe
2. Grave, critical. consequences for stealing.
2. My uncle is currently battling a severe
illness in the hospital.
Shallow Not deep. You don’t need to worry about getting
your dress wet. The water is very shallow
here.
Shelter To protect from something The empty barn gave the men shelter
harmful. during the storm.
Shrink To become smaller. Hopefully this cream will cause my scar
to shrink.
Significant Important, noteworthy. The Gettysburg Address was a significant
event during the Civil War.
Source A person, place, or thing where You shouldn’t use Wikipedia as a source
something was obtained. when writing school papers.
Sparse Thinly scattered. The farm was almost empty; there were
just a few sparse trees here and there.
Specify To clearly indicate which one. You need to specify which size shirt you
want before I can order it.
Speculate To form a theory without strong My sister loves to speculate on the
evidence. private lives of celebrities.
Solitary Alone; without others. The hermit lives a solitary existence deep
in the mountains.
Sombre Gloomy; depressing. After losing the competition, the chess
players were very somber.
Soothe To calm or comfort. The mother sang a lullaby to soothe her
crying baby.
Squalid Filthy and unpleasant. The shelter was squalid and
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overcrowded.
Stable Unlikely to change or fail. We’re lucky to live in a country with
such a stable government.
Stagnant Sluggish, showing little With few new jobs created, the economy
movement. has remained stagnant for the past five
years.
Strategy A plan to reach a desired The football team will need a good
outcome. strategy to win the game tomorrow.
Subsequent Coming after something in time. The first king was a good ruler, but
subsequent kings have all been corrupt.
Substitute A person or thing acting in place If you don’t have sugar, honey makes a
of another. good substitute for this recipe.
Subtle Difficult to notice right away. Maya’s perfume was very subtle; you had
to get close to her to smell it.
Sufficient Enough to serve a particular Make sure you have sufficient food for
purpose. the camping trip.
Summarize To briefly give the main points. The class didn’t have time to read the
book, so the professor summarized it for
them.
Supervise To oversee work or a process. My dad didn’t think we were old enough
to build the fort on our own, so he
supervised us.
Supplant To take the place of something The king was supplanted by his
else. treacherous younger brother who locked
him in the dungeon.
Suspend 1. To temporarily stop. 1. The power outage suspended the
2. To hang something from school concert.
somewhere. 2. The lamp is suspended from the high
ceiling.
Suspicious Having the belief that someone The couple became suspicious when they
is doing something dishonest or saw strange men removing their
illegal. neighbour’s expensive electronics during
the night.
Sustain To keep going. I stopped trying to sustain the friendship
after he made fun of how I looked.
Symbolic Serving as a symbol. A cross is symbolic of Christianity.
Technical Relating to a specific subject or The laptop manual is full of technical
craft. terms only a computer expert can
understand.
Terminal Situated at the end. Everyone on the train must get off at the
terminal stop.
Tolerate To put up with. I tolerate the rude man since he is my
husband’s best friend.
Transfer To move from one place to Ben’s work is going to transfer him from
another. Chicago to Detroit.
Transition Changing from one state or The transition from student to employee
condition to another. can often take awhile to get used to.
Transparent 1. See-through material. 1. The glass vase is completely
2. Easy to detect. transparent.
2. Her attempt to flatter the movie star
was very transparent.
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Tuition The fee for instruction at a College tuition prices have gone up in
school. recent decades.
Unobtrusive Not attracting attention. The prince’s bodyguards had mastered
the art of being unobtrusive.
Upbeat Happy; optimistic. Even when she’s having a bad day, my
mom always has an upbeat attitude.
Unjust Unfair. Since I tried my hardest on the exam, I
felt my teacher’s criticism of me was
unjust.
Vacillate To waver or be indecisive. She vacillated between the two dresses
before finally deciding to wear a skirt.
Valid Just; well-founded. The soldiers had valid concerns about the
battles they’d be facing.
Vanish To disappear quickly. The plane vanished behind the clouds.
Verdict A judgement or decision. The jury delivered a guilty verdict.
Whereas On the contrary. I always save my money whereas my
brother is constantly in debt.
Wholly Completely. The monk is wholly devoted to his faith.
Widespread Occurring over a large region. There is widespread poverty across that
country.
Wilt To droop and become limp. Plants will wilt if you don’t water them
regularly.
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FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR

Introduction:
Functional English is usage of the English language required to perform a specific
function. This is typically taught as a foundation subject as a good command of English
is often required for academic study and career progression. In some cases, a particular
form of technical English may be required for a particular profession. Such specialized
usage is known and taught as English for Specific Purposes which is Functional
English.
The term “Functional” should be considered in the broad sense of providing learners
with the skills and abilities they need to take an active and responsible role in their
communities, everyday life, the workplace and educational settings. Functional English
requires learners to communicate in ways that make them effective and involved as
citizens, to operate confidently and to convey their ideas and opinions clearly.
Conversation: Conversation in plain context means the use of speech for informal
exchange of views or ideas or information, or the spoken exchange of thoughts,
opinions and feelings. It needs at least two persons to carry out a conversation because
it is interactive and participants take turns to exchange messages. Therefore,
conversation is fundamentally a sequential activity. Strong conversation skills benefit
both the speaker and the listener in several ways.
Starting a Conversation - General Tips:
 Speak with clarity and purpose. Show interest in the conversation.
 Reflect before speaking if it's your turn to talk and allow silence to also have its rightful
place in your conversation. Don't be afraid of pauses – use them to change topics, re-
energize the conversation, or to take a short breather even.
 It will help if you watch some TV, listen to radio shows, and/or read a lot –
newspapers, magazines, and/or books. Doing this will ensure that you have some idea
of what's going on in the world.
 Follow the lead that your listener is expressing. If he or she appears interested, then
continue. If he or she is looking at a clock or watch, or worse, looking for an escape
strategy, then you've been going on for too long.
 Interesting and funny quotes or facts can lighten things up, and make way for things to
talk about
 Practice better non-verbal skills that are friendly and confident.
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 Remember, whoever you are talking to, you always have something in common. We all
experience the weather, like good food, and enjoy a good laugh. When in doubt, just
talk to them about what they are there for. For example, if you meet them at a bus stop,
ask them where they are going. If they are from out of town, ask them about their life at
home.
 To break the ice, a compliment is always nice.
 Make sure what you say is relevant to others. You can't make a connection with
someone without commonality. It's just human nature.
 Additionally, you can always resort to fun but obvious conversation applications.
 Look at the person or people you are talking to
 If you haven’t met before, introduce yourself and ask their name
 Use a person’s name when talking to them
 Ask questions when you don’t understand something
 Stick to the subject
 Say nice things about people and praise those who deserve it
 It’s fine to disagree, but disagree politely
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Articles
An article is a word used to modify a noun, which is a person, place, object, or idea.
Technically, an article is an adjective, which is any word that modifies a noun. Usually
adjectives modify nouns through description, but articles are used instead to point out or refer
to nouns. There are two different types of articles that we use in writing and conversation to
point out or refer to a noun or group of nouns: definite and indefinite articles.
Definite Article (The)
Let's begin by looking at the definite article. There is only one definite article in the
English language (the). “The” is used in front of singular or plural nouns and adjectives to refer
to something with which both the speaker/writer and listener/reader are familiar. For example,
if you're bouncing a basketball at school, your friend might say, "Give me the ball." In this
case, both you and your friend recognize that there is only one specific ball being referred to,
and that's the one you're bouncing. Your friend doesn't want a ball (meaning any ball); he or
she wants the ball that you're holding.
If you introduce a word with a or an, you may use the anytime thereafter because the
introduction has made both the speaker/writer and listener/reader familiar with the word.
Here's an example:
Ruchika bought a book yesterday. She read the first three pages when she got home and
decided to return the book because it was boring. This article is the word 'the,' and it refers
directly to a specific noun or groups of nouns. For example:
 the freckles on my face
 the alligator in the pond
 the breakfast burrito on my plate
Indefinite Articles (A and An)
If indefinite articles are the proverbial thorn in your side, the good news is that you
don't need a lot of grammatical jargon to understand their usage. You simply need your ears
(okay, and maybe just a little grammatical jargon).
In English, ‘a’ and ‘an’ are indefinite articles, which means that they don't refer to
anything definite or specific. If someone were to say, "Give me an apple," you might be
inclined to run out and pick one from the tree outside, or you may even run to the store and
buy one. By using the word an, the speaker has let you know that he or she is looking
for any apple rather than a specific one.
The same can be said for the article ‘A’. If someone told you there's a dog on the road,
you would probably know it's not your or your best friend's dog because the speaker chose to
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use the word a rather than call the pooch by name. Hence, it's understood that the dog on the
road is one of the millions of dogs in the world and is therefore not specific.
How do I know which one to use?
That's a very good question. Fortunately, the answer is quite simple. It's
about listening to the words you're using. The rule for indefinite article usage is as follows:
*Use a before nouns (or adjectives) that start with a consonant sound.
*Use an before nouns (or adjectives) that start with a vowel sound.
Here are some examples from our English editing professionals:
Please give the dog a cookie.
(The noun cookie starts with a consonant sound, so a must be used.)
Please give the dog a delicious cookie.
(We have put the adjective delicious in front of cookie, but as you can see, delicious still starts
with a consonant sound, so a must still used.)
I need to work for an hour before we go to dinner.
The word hour is actually pronounced like the possessive pronoun our, which starts with
the o vowel sound. Therefore, because we're starting with a vowel sound (regardless of
whether the first letter is actually a consonant), we must use an. The same is true for the
opposite (i.e., a vowel that makes a consonant sound):
A union
The word may start with a u, but think for a minute about the sound that the word makes:
you-nion. We know that y is a consonant, so consequently we must use a. Here are a few
more tricky ones to keep your eye on:
A university (again, the you sound made by a vowel)
An x-ray (a consonant making the ex sound, which, you'll notice, starts with the e vowel
sound)
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THE PREPOSITION

The preposition is a part of speech which denotes the relations between objects and
phenomena. It shows relationships in time and space and relationships between ideas (logical
relationships). Many words that can be used as prepositions can also be used as adverbs, but
not all of them can, A preposition in a prepositional phrase is always followed by a noun, a
pronoun, or another word that can replace a noun, such as an -ing form (Gerund). An object
form of a personal pronoun after a preposition is used.
As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:
simple (in, on, at, for, with, etc.);
derivative (behind, below, across, along, etc.);
compound (inside, outside, within, without, etc.);
composite (because of, in front of, in accordance with, etc.).
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between two things. In the example
above, the prepositions show the relationships between a plane and a cloud. Below is a list of
most common prepositions: about, beside inside, to, above ,besides, like, toward, across,
between, near, under, after, beyond, of underneath, against, by, off, until, along, despite, on,
up, among, down, out, with, around, during, outside, within, at, except, over, without, before,
for, past ,behind, from, since, below, in ,through, beneath, into ,throughout etc.
Some prepositions consist of more than one word. Here is a list of the most common
multiword prepositions: along with, in place of, because of ,in spite of ,Due to ,instead of,
except for, on account of, in addition to, out of, in case of, up to ,in front of ,with the
exception of etc.

Prepositions (in, on, at, to)

Rules for Prepositions IN, ON, AT, TO
Basic Rules
A. AT a time
B. ON a day
C. IN a month (season, year, decade, century)
D. AT an address
E. ON a street
F. IN an area (neighborhood, town, borough, state, country, continent, ocean, the world, the solar
system, the universe)
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20 Special Rules for Prepositions IN, ON, AT, TO

1. Look AT and listen TO
2. TO with verbs of desire, necessity, expectation, love TO, like TO, hate TO, want TO, need TO,
have TO, hope TO, expect TO
3. AT night, IN the morning, IN the afternoon, IN the evening
4. ON transportation, ON the bus, ON the train, ON the subway, ON a plane, ON a jet, ON a ship,
ON a bicycle, ON a motorcycle, ON a surfboard, ON a skateboard, BUT IN a car, IN a taxi, IN a
small boat, IN an elevator, IN a helicopter
5. AT an intersection (where two streets cross) AT Broadway and 42nd Street, AT Fifth Avenue and
34th Street
6. ON an island, ON a farm, ON a college campus, ON earth, ON a planet
7. Expressions that mean sometimes use different prepositions:
from time TO time, ON occasion, once IN a while
8. IN a park, IN a yard, AT a playground
9. ON anything flat, ON a plate, ON the wall, ON the floor, ON a shelf, ON the blackboard, ON a
table, ON a desk, ON the stove, ON your face, a hat ON your head
10. IN a room or anything smaller, IN the closet, IN a drawer, IN a cup, IN a bowl, IN a glass, IN your
mouth, ideas IN your head, a look IN your eye, a ribbon IN your hair
11. TO when moving from point A TO point B go TO school, drive TO work, take a trip TO Boston,
take your kids TO school, fly TO London, walk TO the library, bring your dog TO the vet
12. ON a/an [adjective] morning, afternoon, evening, night, day ON a cold afternoon, ON a sunny
morning, ON a rainy evening, ON a Saturday night, ON a spring day, ON a special night
13. ON vacation, ON the weekend, ON a trip, ON a picnic, ON your break, ON a leave of absence,
ON your lunch hour
14. IN the water swimming (or drowning), ON the water boating
15. AT the beach (the whole place), lie ON the beach (=ON the sand), play IN the sand
16. ON anything like a line, ON the coast, stand ON line, ON the border, ON the side, ON a
team/committee
17. ON forms of communication, ON TV, ON the radio, ON the phone, ON the fax machine, ON the
computer, ON a disk, ON a CD, ON a hard drive, ON a channel, ON a screen
18. a report or news article ON the economy (ABOUT the economy)
19. ON time for an event or activity: Come to the meeting ON time. Be in class ON time.
20. IN time (or too late) TO do something: Get to the station IN time TO catch a train.
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Practice

Prepositions for Time, Place, and Introducing Objects

Time
*On is used with days.
I will see you on Monday.

The week begins on Sunday.

*At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day.

My plane leaves at noon.

The movie starts at 6 p.m.

*In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons.

He likes to read in the afternoon.

The days are long in August.

The book was published in 1999.

The flowers will bloom in spring.

* Since, for, by, from—to, from—until, during, (with)in – expresses extended time.

She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has not returned.)

I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)

The movie showed from August to/until October. (Beginning in August, ending in October.) I
watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in the evening.)

We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)

Place

* In – describes the point itself.

There is a wasp in the room.

 Inside – expresses something contained.

Put the present inside the box.

 On – talks about the surface.

I left your keys on the table.

 At – talks about a general vicinity.

She was waiting at the corner.

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 Over, above – when the object is higher than a point.

He threw the ball over the roof.

Hang that picture above the couch.

 Under, underneath, beneath, below – when the object is lower than a point.

The rabbit burrowed under the ground.

The child hid underneath the blanket.

We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches.

The valley is below sea-level.

 Near, by, next to, between, among, opposite – when the object is close to a point.

She lives near the school.

There is an ice cream shop by the store.

An oak tree grows next to my house

The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.

I found my pen lying among the books.

The bathroom is opposite the kitchen.

Introduce objects of verbs

 At – with verbs glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, and stare

She took a quick glance at her reflection.

(exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the mirror.)

You didn't laugh at his joke.

I'm looking at the computer monitor.

We rejoiced at his safe rescue.

That pretty girl smiled at you.

Stop staring at me.

 Of – with verbs approve, consist, and smell

I don't approve of his speech.

My contribution to the article consists of many pages.

He came home smelling of alcohol.

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 Of/About –with verbs dream and think

I dream of finishing college in four years.

Can you think of a number between one and ten?

I am thinking about this problem.

 For – with verbs call, hope, look, wait, watch, and wish
Did someone call for a taxi?
He hopes for a raise in salary next year.
I'm looking for my keys.
We'll wait for her here.
You go buy the tickets, and I'll watch for the train.
If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work hard.
Frequently Misused Prepositions
Prepositions may sometimes be confused because of slang and the general informality of talk.
Here are some frequently misused prepositions.

 Beside, besides. Beside means next to, whereas besides means in addition.

The comb is beside the brush.

Besides planning the trip, she is also getting the tickets.

 Between, among. Generally, between is used when two items are involved; with
three or more, among is preferred.

Between you and me, he is among friends.

 Due to. Due to should not be used as a preposition meaning because of.

Because of (not due to) his speeding, we were all ticketed.

 Inside of. The of is always unnecessary.

Stay inside the house.

The man stayed outside (not outside of) the post office.
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1. Fill in each space in the following sentences with the right preposition of place.
1) She lives [at] 43 Duke Road.
2) We sat [on] the floor.
3) He's [at] work (i.e. not at home).
4) She lives [in] Milan.
5) Our house is between two shops and it is [near] a bus stop; you just go [across] the road
and walk along.
6) The key's [in] my pocket.
7) Put it [in] the box.
8) They're [at] a party tonight.
9) He's [in] the kitchen.
10) Below us was the river which ran [under] the bridge.
Prepositions of time
At a time: at 9 o'clock
an age: at fifteen/the age of fifteen
On a day or a on Monday, on 25th September
date: on Saturday afternoon, on the morning of 4th June
noun/gerund: On departure /departing, she ... = When she departed, she...

In a period of time:
- some time during that period: in the morning, in February, in 1994;
- at the end of a stated period: I'll be ready in five minutes. (five minutes from now);

- the length of time that something takes: / read the book in two and a half hours.

By a time, date, period, not later than that time: You must be here by 7 o'clock.
before a time, date, period, event: / never go to bed before midnight.
after a time, date, period, event: /'// phone you after lunch.
since a point in time, from that time now or until a point in the past: We've been here since
Tuesday. It was the end of the summer. They had been there since June.

For a period of time: They've been together for three years.

during a named period or an event: We always work hard during the summer.
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Practice
1. Fill in each space in the following sentences with: in, at or on.

1) I get up early [in]… the morning and go to bed late [at]… night.

2) I'm so bored. There's nothing to do [at]… weekends.

3) He went swimming [on]… Sunday morning, and [in]… the evening he play squash.

4) I love going for walks [in] summer. It's still light [at]… nine o'clock.

5) I take my annual holiday [in]… June, but I have a few days off [at]… Christmas.

6) He usually starts work [at]… 9.30, but [on]… Friday he starts [at]… 8.30.

7) I was born [in]… January, 1954.

8) People exchange presents [on]… Christmas Day.

9) This house was built [in]… the nineteenth century.

10) We usually work late [on]… weekdays.

NOTES:

• We use at with festivals and religious celebrations: at Easter.

• We say at night. But we can also say in the night meaning during.

• We often use last 1 this / next with time words: We didn 't go on holiday last summer. I'm
going home this weekend. I'll see you next Monday.

• During versus for. We rented a cottage for the summer. He became ill during the summer.
We spend all our time outside during the summer.

• During versus in.

They can both be used to refer to something that happens throughout a time period, from its
beginning to its end, and so it is often possible to use either during or in
: It's very cold here during day in the wintes.
But
– We use in and not during when we want the time reference to sound more specific. So, for
example, if we are contrasting one period of time with another, we use in: I last saw you in
May, not July.
– We use during when we want to stress the idea of duration. She felt miserable during the
whole of that summer.
– When the time reference is an activity rather than a time period, we use during: She didn't
speak once during the meal.
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Practice

1. Fill in each space in the following sentences with while, during or for.
1) I fell and hurt myself … I was playing tennis.
2) It started to rain … the match.
3) We played tennis … two hours.
4) I worked in Pune … three years.
5) … the summer I stayed on a farm in Jabalpur.
6) I learned English … I was there.
7) We went on holiday to Mumbai … three weeks.
8) … the day it was very hot, but it was cool at night.
9) We went to Disneyland … we were there.
10) We had a lovely meal yesterday. We sat at the table … three hours.
11) … the meal we exchanged news.
12) … I was talking to Pratibha, I learned that Sunil was in hospital.
13) They rented a villa … a month.
14) Children got lots of presents … Diwali.
15) Fighting broke out between rival fans … the match.
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Conjunctions

There are two types of conjunctions, a small group of coordinators (or coordinating
conjunctions) and a much larger group of subordinators (subordinating conjunctions).
A coordinator
1. is a word that connects two things at the same level (two noun phrases, two adjective
phrases, two clauses of the same type).
2. can be either simple (and, but, or) or complex (as well as, both…and, either…or,
neither…nor).
3. does not usually occur at the beginning of a sentence in formal and written language.
A subordinator
1. is a word that introduces a dependent clause, which usually functions either as an
adverbial or as the post modifier in a noun phrase.
2. can be either simple (as, because, where) or complex (as if, as long as, so that)
3. contributes to expressing one of a number of different meanings, such as time (while),
place (where), comparison (as if), intention/result (in order that), cause/reason
(because), condition (in case), contrast/opposition/exclusion (whereas), question
(whether)
4. can express different meanings in different contexts (since time/cause, if
question/condition)
The most frequent subordinator is that, which is often left out, especially in informal
language. He said /that/ you were in town.
In formal writing, whether is often preferred to if. In some cases, whether is the only
acceptable alternative: A) after a preposition, B) when introducing a structure with or not, C)
before an infinitive.
Some words in the subordinator class also belong to the preposition class (after, as, before,
like, than, since), and a few others also belong to the adverb class (when, where).
Many subordinators express meaning similar to the meanings of adverbs and it can be
difficult to keep them apart. Compare the following examples:
1. He proceeded to distribute the exam, although the students complained loudly.
(Subordinator, used to introduce a dependent clause linked to the rest of the sentence by
a comma)
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2. He proceeded to distribute the exam. However, the students complained loudly.

(Adverb, used in a main clause separated from the previous sentence by a full stop and a
capital letter).

If although is used to introduce a sentence standing on its own, we have a sentence

fragment. *He did it. Although they complained. If however is used in a dependent clause
connected to the previous clause by a comma, we have a run-on sentence. *He did it,
however they didn’t like it. Knowing about subordinators will help you avoid these types of
problem sentences.
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Direct and Indirect Narration

(Reported Speech)
INTRODUCTION
There are two ways of relating what a person has said: direct and indirect.
In Direct Speech we repeat the original speaker’s exact words:
He said, “I have lost my umbrella.”
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in
writing, we place the words spoken between quotation marks (" ") and there is no change in
these words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for example a telephone
conversation), or telling someone later about a previous conversation. Direct speech is found
in conversations in books, in plays and in quotations.

INDIRECT SPEECH
Reported or indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally
change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we
may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used.
She said, "I saw him." (Direct speech) = She said that she had seen him. (Indirect speech)
'That' may be omitted:
She told him that she was happy. = She told him she was happy.
We give the exact meaning of a remark or a speech, without necessarily using the
speaker’s exact words:
He said (that) he had lost his umbrella.
There is no comma after say in indirect speech. That can usually be omitted after say and tell
+ object. But it should be kept after other verbs: complain, explain, object, point out,
protest etc. Indirect speech is normally used when conversation is reported verbally, though
direct speech is used, to give a more dramatic effect.
When we turn direct speech into indirect, some changes are usually necessary.

'SAY' AND 'TELL'

Use 'say' when there is no indirect object:
He said that he was tired.
Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect object):
He told me that he was tired.
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'TALK' AND 'SPEAK'

Use these verbs to describe the action of communicating:
He talked to us.
She was speaking on the telephone.
Use these verbs with 'about' to refer to what was said:
He talked (to us) about his parents.
Tenses
If you turn direct speech into indirect speech, the tense of the sentence has to change. It goes
one step back in time. This is called backshift.
Example
He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he was happy.

Backshift of tenses

from to
Simple Present Simple Past
Simple Past
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Past Perfect
can could
will would
Progressive forms (continuous)
am/are/is was/were
was/were
has been had been
had been
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Backshift of tenses

From To
Ram: "I work in the garden." Ram said that he worked in the garden.
Ram: "I worked in the garden."
Ram: "I have worked in the garden." Ram said that he had worked in the garden.
Ram: "I had worked in the garden."
Ram: "I will work in the garden." Ram said that he would work in the garden.
Ram: "I can work in the garden." Ram said that he could work in the garden.
Ram: "I may work in the garden." Ram said that he might work in the garden.
Ram: "I would work in the garden." Ram said that he would work in the garden.
(could, might, should, ought to) (could, might, should, ought to)
Progressive forms
Ram: "I'm working in the garden." Ram said that he was working in the garden.
Ram: "I was working in the garden."
Ram said that he had been working in the
Ram: "I have been working in the garden."
garden.
Ram: "I had been working in the garden."
The verbs could, should, would, might, must, needn’t, ought to, used to do not normally change.
Example:

He said, “She might be right.” – He said that she might be right.

Pronouns
In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on who says what.
Example
She says, “My mum doesn’t have time today.” – She says that her mum doesn’t have time
today.

Place and Time expressions

For place and time expressions you have to check whether place and time are the same in direct
and reported speech or not. Check out the following example:
Transformation in time expressions:
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Direct Speech Reported Speech

today that day
now then
yesterday the day before
… days ago … days before
last week the week before
next year the following year
tomorrow the next day / the following day
here there
this that
these those
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Agreement of Subject and Verb

Subject/verb agreement can seem straightforward for native speakers and others
comfortable with English; we know to write “the attorney argues” and “the attorneys argue.”
However, some special circumstances can make it more difficult to tell whether a subject and
verb really do agree. These complications can arise from the words themselves, or from their
order in a particular sentence.
Verbs can change form in tense, person, and number. The subject and verb of every
clause (independent or dependent), however, must agree in person and number. Once you
identify the subject and the verb, you can then determine such agreement of the subject and
the verb.
There are three persons:
First person- the speaker
Second person-the person spoken to
Third person- the person spoken about
There are two numbers:
Singular- denoting one person or thing
Plural- denoting more than one person or thing
Nouns ending in s are usually plural.
Verbs ending in s are singular.
Singular subjects should be paired with singular verbs and plural subjects should be paired
with plural verbs.
She walks
The book is
They want
Bill, John, and Jane go
1. Compound Subjects
Compound subjects joined by and normally require a plural verb:
Hard work and persistence are required in all rewarding accomplishments.
Where are the pens and paper?
Subjects which include at least two nouns or pronouns connected by and should be paired
with plural verbs.
the manager and the employees are
the cats and the dog run
the man and the woman are
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2. Subjects Joined by Or or Nor

When two or more subject are joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the subject part
closest to the verb. This also applies to either/or and neither/nor.
The professor or her students write
The students or their professor writes
3. Intervening Expressions
Modifying phrases or clauses that come between the subject and the verb do not change the
number of the verb. The number of the verb is determined entirely by the number of the
subject:
The assignment, which they submitted to their professor, was incomplete.
[Assignment is the subject of the verb was].
The new computer classroom, with its many work stations and its sophisticated
technology, fills [not fill] a long-felt need. [Computer classroom is the subject of the
verb fills; the phrase with its many work stations… has nothing to do with the verb.]
4. Verb Preceding the Subject
It is possible for a verb to come before a subject in a sentence. The rules of agreement
between the subject and the verb remain the same despite the change in order.
There is in many cities a desire to reduce traffic and pollution. [Desire is the subject of
the verb is.]
There are a stapler, two pens, four books, and a writing tablet on the desk. [Stapler,
pens, books and writing tablet are the subjects of the verb are.]
Where are Joan and her daughters going? [Joan and her daughters are subjects of the
verb are going.]
5. Indefinite Pronouns
The indefinite pronouns or adjectives either, neither, and each, as well as compounds such as
everybody, anybody, everyone, and anyone are always singular. None may be singular or
plural. The plural usage is more common.
Each of the cars has its insurance proof in the glove compartment.
Everyone at the meeting was upset over the policies announced.
Every employee, supervisor, and executive reveals the operation of a model company.
Is either of you ready for lunch?
None of the employees have brought their children to the company dinner.
None of the students is interested in the research project.
None--no, not one--is planning to attend the retreat.
6. Subjects Plural in Form
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Singular verbs are usually used with nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning.
The following nouns are usually singular in meaning: news, economics, ethics, physics,
mathematics, gallows, mumps, measles, shambles, whereabouts.
a peanut butter and jelly sandwich is…
physics is a difficult course…
statistics is…
politics is…
athletics seems…
Nouns such as gymnastics, tactics, trousers, scissors, athletics, tidings, acoustics, riches, and
barracks are usually treated as plural.
His tactics are sneaky.
The scissors are on the table.
The trousers are hanging in the closet.
Plural nouns denoting a mass, a quantity, or a number require a singular verb when the subject
is regarded as a unit.
Five dollars is too much for her to pay.
Fifty bushels was all the bin would hold.
Though the usage is mixed, phrases involving addition, multiplication, subtraction, and
division of numbers usually take the singular form.
Two plus two is four.
Two times three is six.
Twelve divided by six is two.
In expressions like part of the apple, some of the pie, all of the money, the number of part,
some, and all is determined by the number of the noun in the prepositional phrase.
Some of the pie has been eaten.
Some of the pies have been eaten.
7. The subject of some form of To Be
When one noun precede and another follows some form of the verb to be, the first noun is the
subject, and the verb agrees with it and not with the complement even if the complement is
different in number.
The only food remaining is mashed potatoes.
Mashed potatoes are the only food remaining.
[In the first sentence, food is the subject; in the second, mashed potatoes.]
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8. Relative Pronoun as Subject

When a relative pronoun (who, which, or that) is used as the subject of a clause, the number
and person of the verb are determined by the antecedent of the pronoun, the word to which the
pronoun refers.
This is the professor who is to be hired. [The antecedent of who is the singular noun
professor; therefore, who is singular.]
These are the employees who are to be working tomorrow. [The antecedent of who is
the plural noun employees.]
Should I, who am not a student at the school, be allowed to take the class? [Who refers
to I; I is first person, singular number.]
She is one of those tough professors who are always expecting the best from students.
[The antecedent of who is professors.]
If sentences such as the last one give you trouble, try beginning the sentence with the "of"
phrase, and you will readily see that the antecedent of who is persons and not one.
Of those tough professors who are always expecting the best from students, she is one.
9. Collective Nouns
Some nouns are singular in form but plural in meaning. They are called collective nouns and
include such words as team, class, committee, crowd, and crew. These nouns may take either
a singular or plural verb; if you are thinking of the group as a unit, use a singular verb; if you
are thinking of the individual members of the group, use a plural verb.
When referring to a group as a single unit, a singular verb is used.
The public is…
The family is…
The class is demanding…
When referring to a group's members as individuals, a plural verb is used.
The committee fight among themselves.
The student body are talking with each other.
The class are writing.
10. Nouns with Foreign Plurals
Some nouns retain the plural forms peculiar to the languages from which they have been
borrowed: alumni, media, crisis. Still other nouns occur with either their original plural
forms or plural forms typical of English: aquaria or aquariums, criteria or criterions. If
you are in doubt as to the correct or preferred plural form of a noun, consult a good
dictionary.
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Writing skills
Paragraph Writing
A paragraph is a series of sentences in a special order. These sentences work together
to develop a single idea. All the sentences in a paragraph must relate to the main idea.
How to Write a Paragraph
Paragraph writing remains one of the most important parts of writing. The paragraph
serves as a container for each of the ideas of an essay or other piece of writing. Paragraphs
are versatile and can take many forms that strengthen your writing, provide variety for
readers, and help readers to organize the ideas you present.
Paragraph Length in a Piece of Writing

While it is true that a paragraph may be of any length, it is most common for an essay
paragraph to be at least 3-5 sentences long and to be no longer than half a typed, double-
spaced page. Journalism paragraphs (newspapers and magazines) tend to be 1-3 sentences
long. Some paragraphs in books, especially technical treatises, might go on for several printed
pages. No matter what length an individual paragraph, most good writing varies paragraph
length within any one piece of writing. If there are a few short paragraphs, then a longer one
usually comes along. If there are one or two long paragraphs, usually a short paragraph or two
will intervene to give the reader a short break in concentration.

Use Paragraphs to Break Up Ideas

A paragraph is the container for only one idea. Often, a longer paragraph can - and
should - be divided into smaller units. Usually a large, complex idea is made up of smaller
ideas and can be explained in more paragraphs with those smaller ideas. The point, though, is
to have one coherent paragraph - all of the ideas in each sentence of the paragraph must relate
to a single main point. That point is most often made in a topic sentence.

Topic Sentences in Paragraphs

A topic sentence gives the main idea of a paragraph. It usually occurs as the first or
last sentence of the paragraph. Some paragraphs will not have a topic sentence, if the main
point is obvious. Others might place the topic sentence slightly differently. Occasionally, as in
this paragraph, the topic sentence might begin the paragraph but be restated in a different way
at the end. That is to say, most writers put the topic sentence of a paragraph at the beginning
or the end or both.
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Grammar in Paragraphs

Every sentence in a paragraph must be grammatically correct, in so much as that

grammar aids in understanding the ideas that the writer would like to convey. The topic
sentence, in particular, must be very well written and very clear to readers.

Types of Paragraphs

Most writing has an introductory paragraph or an introduction of a few paragraphs,

and a conclusion of a few paragraphs or concluding paragraph. The introduction and
conclusion are, of course, supported by body paragraphs. The typical body paragraph
develops, supports, or elaborates a given topic sentence. Most paragraph structures longer
than 1-2 sentences have common elements.
For example, expository paragraphs have three important elements common to most
paragraphs: flow, or unity (a clear connection to the rest of the essay and placed in a sensible
way among the other paragraphs; development (detailed, specific support or elaboration of the
main idea); and coherence (each sentence clearly relates to the previous and next sentence in
an understandable and sensible manner). Persuasive paragraphs focus on developing a
strong argument that would convince someone who disagrees with the writer's position.
Narrative paragraphs have similar features of flow (or unity) and coherence. However, the
development might be more related to the action or events narrated in the paragraph than to
supporting an argument. Coherence in a narrative paragraph usually comes from the
chronological order of the "story" or narrative. Similarly, a descriptive paragraph might find
its development through giving a series of sensory details or of abstract ideas that describe an
object (or concept or theory), rather than through support. These two types of paragraph -
narrative and descriptive - differ only slightly in these respects from expository paragraphs,
but the differences are still important.
With some attention to flow, development, and coherence in your paragraphs, you will
soon be writing powerfully.
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Paragraph Plan
Topic/Title
_____________________________________
Topic Sentence
____________________________________
Ideas & Facts
1. __________________________________

2. __________________________________

3. __________________________________
Concluding Sentence………………………….

The instructions to be given are:

(a) Write a topic sentence.
(b) Write three descriptive sentences.
(c) Write a clincher or emphatic concluding sentence.
How to Write a Paragraph
 The Topic Sentence： main idea of the paragraph
 Supporting Sentences：adding details to the topic
 The Concluding Sentences：summarizing the main idea
Writing a paragraph.
1. Look at the topic and come up with a topic sentence.
2. Jot down any ideas that support the topic sentence.
3. Decide which should be included in the paragraph. Cross out the ones that are not
relevant.
4. Write the relevant ideas from the list in sentence form.
5. Write the sentences in paragraph form.
Tips:
1. Never use I or you (Unless specifically told that it is allowed.).
2. Do not use contractions in formal writing.
3. Organization is one of the most important parts of good writing. Make sure to organize
from the first paragraph on.
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Try to identify the topic sentence, developing sentences and the concluding sentence.
Swimming has many benefits. For one thing, after I swim, I feel refreshed. When I swim
regularly, I have more energy. For another, unlike a lot of other exercise, swimming works
the muscles in my entire body. Not only does this help build muscles, but it also burns
calories. Most importantly, swimming itself is enjoyable. The cool water feels great, and the
motions of swimming relax me. In short, swimming is good therapy for the body, mind, and
soul.
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Précis Writing

The word précis means an abstract, abridgement or summary; and précis writing
means summarizing. To make a précis of a given passage is to extract its main points and
to express them as clearly and as briefly as possible. A précis is a summary. Précis writing
is an exercise in compression. A précis is the gist of a passage expressed in as few words
as possible. A précis should give all essential points so that anyone reading it will be able
to understand the idea expressed in the original passage.
Note that précis writing is different from paraphrasing. In a paraphrase you should
give all the details: you should not leave out any details. A paraphrase will be at least as
long as the original. A précis, on the other hand, must always be shorter than the original.
It should express only the main theme that too as briefly as possible
How long should a précis be?
There are no rigid rules regarding the length of a précis. But as a general rule, it should
not contain more than a third of the total number of words in the original passage.
Uses of précis writing
Most people read carelessly and fail to fully comprehend the meaning of the passage.
Précis writing forces them to pay attention to what they read because no one can write a
summary of a passage unless they read it carefully. So summarizing teaches one to read
with concentration.
Précis writing also improves your overall writing skills. It teaches you how to express
your thoughts clearly, concisely and effectively. You learn to choose your words carefully
and construct your sentences in a logical and concise manner. A Precise is a summary.
Precise-Writing is a very useful exercise. Most of us read carelessly. Writing précis gives
training in careful reading. Précis-writing is regarded as a very important kind of
composition because it develops one's capacity to discriminate between the essential and
the non-essential.
A Précis is a shortening, in your own words, of a text of written work. You are to
describe as accurately and briefly as possible the substance or main ideas contained in a
text. To write an effective précis, read the passage several times for a full understanding.
Note key points. It may, in fact, be helpful to underline these words. Do not use
abbreviations or contractions. When writing about history, use the past tense.
Finally, check your précis against the original to be sure that it is exact and retains the
order, proportions, and relationships of the original.
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Précis Writing: Writing a précis means making an intelligent summary of a long passage.
To write a précis one should have a clear understanding of the passage: only then one is
able to include all the essential points, tips and tricks of essay examples in the précis.
Some general considerations:
1. Learn to shorten your words, text of written work, useful writing tips, essential thoughts,
ideas or fact.
2. It is generally accepted that a précis should be a third of the passage given. If the
original passage has 300 words, the précis should not be more than 110 words in length.
3. A précis should be in the language of the précis-writer. The original passage is not to be
reduced in length by just removing unimportant or unnecessary sentences and by
reproducing the rest as the précis. It should be a brief gist or summary of the passage
expressed in the writer’s own words.
4. A précis should be full i.e. it should contain all the essential thoughts, ideas or fact in the
original passage. It should not contain repetitions or observations that are not relevant to
the main theme of the original.
5. A précis is always written in Reported Speech. The passage given may be a speech made
by a person in Direct Speech, but the précis is to be in Reported Speech or the Third
Person or in the Past tense.
Techniques of Précis – Writing
There three kinds of work to be done in producing a clear and successful précis. They are
(1) Reading, (2) Writing (3) Revision.
1. Reading
Read the passage carefully: If one reading is not enough to give you a general idea of
its meaning, then read it second time. As you read, find out the subject or the theme of the
passage and what is said about the subject.
It will be a good thing if you find out the lead or the topic sentence. The lead sentence
will help you to see the subject clearly. It will also help you to think of a title. The writer of
the précis writing passages has to decide what facts or ideas in the passage are essential
and what are of secondary or no importance. Taking the main ideas of the passages as your
point of reference, it should not be too difficult to write out the important points in the
original in a corner of your writing work sheet.
2. Writing: You should first prepare a draft of the précis, keeping in mind, the need to
reduce the original to one-third its length. The main thoughts expressed in the passage, the
ideas it contains, the opinions presented and the conclusion arrived at should figure in the
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rough draft. Unimportant things like the names of people and places and dates should not
figure in it.
It may so happen that your first draft is too long or that it sounds rather jerky. Shorten
it if necessary and write out a careful second draft. Sometimes you may need to work out
three or even four drafts, but with reasonable care and concentration, you should normally
succeed in producing good précis writing by the second draft.
3. Revision: When you have made your second (or final) draft, carefully revise it before
writing out the fair copy. Look for any mistakes or slips in grammar or spelling and correct
them. Don’t forget to give your précis a title.
Rules for Good Précis Writing
1. Decide Theme of the Passage: The main theme of the passage should be find out
through careful reading. These things are essential for brief and clear presentation of
précis.
2. No Reproduction of Important Sentences: The sentences of original passage cannot
be used for précis-writing. Précis-writing is an art of remodelling of sentences without
affecting main theme of the original passage.
3. Have Brevity and Clarity: Brevity is the soul of précis-writing. But, at the same time,
clarity should not be given up. Mere deletion or addition of few words of original passage
cannot be a précis-writing. Moreover, brevity should not create any ambiguity in the minds
of the reader.
4. Reflects the Intelligence of the Précis-writer: The style of language and words used in
the précis-writing indicate the intelligence of the précis writer. In other words, the précis-
writing preserved the spirit of the original passage with different words and sentences.
5. Use Own Language: The précis-writer should use his/her own language for precis-
writing. The writer should not retain any significant phrases or technical terms of the
original passage. It means that the writer should use his/her own sentences for précis-
writing
6. Avoid Direct Speech and Use Indirect Speech: The précis-writing is presented in third
person point of view. The text of the original passage presented in direct speech. Now, it is
the duty of the précis-writer that he/she should present in indirect speech.
7. Inclusion of Statistical Information: If statistical information is included in the
original passage, they can be used in the précis-writing for maintaining quality. If
statistical information is excluded, it affects very purpose of précis-writing and convey
different meaning.
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8. Observe Proportion: Original passage is divided into many parts. Each part is dealt
with according to importance but not according to length. In this way, objectives of précis-
writing are achieved.
9. No Comments but Conclusion: The précis-writer need not give any comments over the
original passage but should give conclusion. It means that the précis-writer need not
evaluate the mind of the author but interpret the original passage in a meaningful way.
10. One third of Original Passage: It is the general practice that the length of precis-
writing should be one third of original passage. If so, reader can get full information and do
his/her job very effectively
The essential features of a good précis are:

 It should give the main points and the general impression of the passage
summarized.
 It should be read like a continuous piece of prose.
 It should be clear. It must present the substance of the original in clear language
 It should be precise and brief. Cutaway all irrelevancies, omit all digressions
and remove all unimportant details.
 It should not be sketchy. It should be complete in every way. It should contain
all that is important in the original
 It should be 1/3 rd of the passage given.
Important points while making a précis:
 Write down in order all the important points of the original passage, which
serves as a framework.
 Keeping this framework before you, now try to write your summary.
 Write simply, clearly and briefly.
 See that the parts of your précis have the same balance and proportion in
relation to one another, as do the parts of original.
 It will be advisable to present the facts in the same order as they appear in the
original.
 If the length of the précis is not prescribed, about one third of the original is
usually expected.
 Choose your words carefully. Avoid all unnecessary adjectives and adverbs.
Pay proper attention to important nouns and verbs that make your précis
short and impressive.
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 The use of direct speech is to be avoided. The précis is written in indirect

speech, after a verb of saying in the past tense.
 Avoid figurative language, omit all metaphors and similes. Avoid
redundancy and ambiguous words.
 Précis must be connected whole.
Some Don’ts
· Don’t write your précis in a very small hand in order to give impression of
conciseness.
· Don’t add comments of your own or other irrelevancies.
· Don’t borrow phrases and sentences from the original.
· Don’t emphasize the wrong point.
· Don’t exceed or fall short of the prescribed limit by more than five and six words.
· Don’t make your précis a series of disjointed sentences.
· Don’t be so brief as to become unintelligible. Your précis must be brief and clear.
· Don’t use colloquial expressions, circumlocutions or rhetorical statements.
· Don’t write bad English. Avoid mistakes in spelling, grammar punctuation, idiom
and the like.
· Don’t use personal construction when summarizing. Avoid such phrases as I
think, I believe, and in my opinion etc.
Make a précis of the following paragraph and suggest suitable title:
Speech is a great blessing, but it can also be a great cure, for, while it helps us to make
our intentions and desires known to our fellows, it can also, if we use it carelessly, make our
attitude completely misunderstood. A slip of the tongue, these of an unusual word, or of an
ambiguous word and so on, may create an enemy where we had hoped to win a friend. Again
different classes of people use different vocabularies, and the ordinary speech of an educated
man may strike an uneducated listener as showing pride; unwittingly we may use a word,
which bears a different meaning to our listeners form. Thus speech is not a gift to use lightly
without thought, but one, which demands careful handling. Only a fool will express himself
alike to all kinds and conditions of men.
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Report Writing
A report is written for a clear purpose and to a particular audience. Specific
information and evidence are presented, analysed and applied to a particular problem or issue.
When you are asked to write a report you will usually be given a report brief which provides
you with instructions and guidelines.
How to write a report

Reports generally involve presenting your investigation and analysis of information or

an issue, recommending actions and making proposals. There are many different types of
reports, including business, scientific and research reports, but the basic steps for writing them
are the same. These are outlined below.
Step 1: Decide on the 'Terms of reference'
Step 2: Decide on the procedure
Step 3: Find the information
Step 4: Decide on the structure
Step 5: Draft the first part of your report
Step 6: Analyse your findings and draw conclusions
Step 7: Make recommendations
Step 8: Draft the executive summary and table of contents
Step 9: Compile a reference list
Step 10: Revise your draft report

Writing Your Report

1. Write your introduction. Your intro is where you introduce your topic and state your
thesis. ...
2. Write your body paragraphs. The body paragraphs are where you state your evidence that
supports your thesis. ...
3. Support your topic sentence. ...
4. Write your conclusion. ...
5. Cite your sources. ...
6. Format your report.
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Report Writing: Formatting the Report Elements

Here are the main sections of the standard report writing format:
Title Section - If the report is short, the front cover can include any information that you feel
is necessary including the author(s) and the date prepared. In a longer report, you may want to
include a table of contents and a definitions of terms.
Summary - There needs to be a summary of the major points, conclusions, and
recommendations. It needs to be short as it is a general overview of the report. Some people
will read the summary and only skim the report, so make sure you include all the relevant
information. It would be best to write this last so you will include everything, even the points
that might be added at the last minute.
Introduction - The first page of the report needs to have an introduction. You will explain
the problem and show the reader why the report is being made. You need to give a definition
of terms if you did not include these in the title section, and explain how the details of the
report are arranged.
Body - This is the main section of the report. The previous sections needed to be written in
plain English, but this section can include jargon from your industry. There needs to be
several sections, with each having a subtitle. Information is usually arranged in order of
importance with the most important information coming first. If you wish, a “Discussion”
section can be included at the end of the Body to go over your findings and their significance.
Conclusion - This is where everything comes together. Keep this section free of jargon as
most people will read the Summary and Conclusion.
Recommendations - This is what needs to be done. In plain English, explain your
recommendations, putting them in order of priority.
Appendices - This includes information that the experts in the field will read. It has all the
technical details that support your conclusions. This report writing format will make it easier
for the reader to find what he is looking for. Remember to write all the sections in plain
English, except for the Body. Also remember that the information needs to be organized
logically with the most important information coming first.
Tips for Good Writing
Here are a few tips for good writing.
 Keep it simple. Do not try to impress, rather try to communicate. Keep the sentences short
and to the point.
 Use an active voice rather than passive. Active voice makes the writing move smoothly
and easily. It also uses fewer words than the passive voice and gives impact to the writing by
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emphasizing the person or thing responsible for an action. Here is an example: Bad customer
service decreases repeat business.
 Good grammar and punctuation is important. Having someone proofread is a good idea.
Remember that the computer cannot catch all the mistakes, especially with words like “red,
read” or “there, their.”
How should a report be written?
The Style
A report is the Verbal structure, and style is the way we select and arrange the
elements of structure. Jonathan Swift thought that style is “proper words in proper places”.
Lord Chesterfield said that style is the “dress of thoughts”.
Importance of Professional Writing:
The ability to communicate effectively is one of the greatest assets anyone can acquire
but the most common and perhaps the greatest communication problem today is that many
people are unaware that they lack communicative ability.
To be an effective writer:
Visualize what you wish to say. If the picture you want to communicate is clear to you, the
words should automatically follow to express it.
Prepare the first draft without caring much for the mechanics of writing.
Stop when you have finished saying what you wanted to say.
Revise the draft carefully; delete a word, phrase, sentence or paragraph that does not add any
meaning to point under discussion.
Approach the problems with scientist’s objectivity, detachment and passion for truth. This
will help make your writing crisp and sharp.
Choice of words and phrases: No two words in a language convey exactly the same
meaning. For example, pretty’, ‘charming’ and ‘delightful’ are not synonyms they have only a
common area of meaning. Sometimes a wrong choice of words may lead to embarrassment,
confusion and misunderstanding.
Do’s
Prefer concrete to abstract words: A concrete word permits limited interpretation and
conveys more definite meaning. A few examples are names of persons. Number, words, dates
etc. (e.g. I, he, she, etc.). Abstract words have a tendency to be general and vague.
Original Revised
a. Fuel tanks deformation was present The fuel tank was deformed.
b. The reason for the popularity of slides Slides are popular because they are
is the simplicity of their preparation easy to prepare
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Precision
Prefer specific to general words: The use of specific words makes writing clearer and
immediately creates an image in the mind of the reader.
1. She has developed a new gas lighter (designed)
2. Transfer the liquid into the receptacle (pour, beaker)
Conciseness: Modifiers of nouns and verbs tend to be vague and subjective. Use verbs
instead of phrases having - -‘action words’ formed from verbs.
Phrases (Modifier) Verbs
Make an investigation investigate
Prepare a formulation formulate

Plainness: Prefer plain and familiar to long and unfamiliar

Long and unfamiliar Short and familiar
Expedite hurry up
Optimum best
Residence house
Commence start
Endeavour try
Envisage foresee

Cliches: A cliché is a faded word or a phrase, which has lost its effectiveness because of
overuse. When it is first coined it is fresh and vigorous and conveys the meaning vividly.
With the passage of time it losses sharpness and ceases to exercise the desired impact. Very
often when you start writing, such words and phrases come to your mind and if you are not
alert, find a place in the text of your report and thus weaken it.
Avoid excessive use of jargon: ‘The technical terminology or characteristic idiom of a
special language or group’ – jargon. Every group of specialists has developed a highly
specialized terms, yet these are the very words that cause readers a lot of difficulty.
Avoid using foreign words and phrases: Foreign words and phrases also like jargon are
often used to impress and mystify the reader or to parade one’s scholarship. Some writers
believe that their use would make the writing dignified. Thus instead of ‘see above’ they use
‘vide supra’ but keep your writing simple, use plain English for foreign words and phrases.
Abbreviations like e.g., i.e.., viz., a.m., p.m., need not be avoided.
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Curriculum Vitae (CV)

CV is a multi-purpose, personal application form for employment, educational
opportunities, honours and awards, membership or participation in an organization.
Curriculum Vitae is an outline of a person's educational and professional history, usually
prepared for job applications

A good CV now will aid you throughout your professional life. It is a living, not a
static, document that needs to be continually updated as new experiences or accomplishments
are completed. Despite its multiple purposes, your CV must be restructured and rewritten, or
at least reviewed, for each specific purpose for which it is to be used. It might be entirely
inappropriate to include a lengthy list of publications in a CV you are submitting as
application for membership in a volunteer organization. Experts recommend maintaining two
versions of your CV--one, a short summary of your training and experience and the other, a
longer version with more detailed information about your publications and presentations. In
general, however, no CV should be lengthy.
Sometimes, a CV is referred to as a "résumé." In fact, these terms are probably
interchangeable. In academic or educational circles we tend to use the word curriculum vitae,
or CV, more frequently than résumé. CV is much more comprehensive than a Resume and
therefore it can be much longer. There is no limit to how long, but it must include only
information that is needed to illustrate your academic and professional experience.

General Tips

 A chronological CV should be arranged in reverse chronological order. It should be

apparent immediately where you are presently.
 It may be difficult to decide at first what is appropriate to include in your CV. It may
seem that the residency application forms have already captured everything you have
to say about yourself. Try to remember that an application form is limited to the few
things that a particular institution wants to know about everybody. A CV lets you give
information that is unique to you. Try putting in everything you can think of at first
pull it out later if it doesn't seem pertinent.
 The appearance of your CV is extremely important. When you have finished designing
the content and format, consider having it reproduced by a commercial printing
service using an offset printing method. Alternatively, you can produce it yourself
providing you have an excellent letter quality printer. Use standard size 8 1/2 by 11
inch paper in a white or very lightly coloured stock.
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 The language of a CV is abbreviated and succinct. Resist the temptation to append

explanatory sentences or language which will distract the reader from the basic
information being presented. When applying for residency training, you will have the
opportunity to express yourself in a personal or biographical statement. In the future,
when applying for a job or some other type of position, you will want to include an
appropriate cover letter with your CV to explain your particular qualifications and
strengths for the position.

 Everybody's CV is different. Even using the same format suggested in this

section, your CV will not look the same as others because it doesn't have the same
content. Don't despair if you discover that your CV is not done in the same way as a
friend applying to the same residency programme. There is enough variation in format
that no residency programme director is looking for a specific style.

 Be honest. If you haven't accomplished anything in a particular category, then

leave it out. Don't create things to fill in the spaces. You can be specific about your
level of participation in a project or activity, but try not to be misleading.
Personal Data
Give your full name. Make sure you can be reached at the address, telephone number and
e-mail address that you list. You should check each on a frequent basis. Include hospital
paging phone numbers, if appropriate. Indicate if there are certain dates where you can be
reached at other locations.

You may include some personal information, such as date of birth and marital status, at
the beginning of your CV, or you may summarize it all in one section if you choose to add it
at all. Keep in mind that by federal law, employers are prohibited from discriminating on the
basis of age, race, sex, religion, national origin, disability, or sexual orientation. Therefore,
you do not have to provide this information. Discrimination on the basis of sex includes
discrimination on the basis of child-rearing plans (i.e., number of children or plans to have
children).
Although the following items appear quite frequently, they are probably not necessary and
may be unwise to include them in a CV. These items include social security numbers,
licensure numbers and examination scores. If this information is pertinent to your candidacy,
it will be asked for on the application or at some later point in the application process.
Education
List in reverse chronological order, starting with your current place of learning. Include
the name of the institution, the degree sought or completed, and the date of completion or date
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of expected completion. Remember to include medical school, graduate education and

undergraduate education. Omit high school. Later, you will add separate categories for "Post-
graduate Training" (includes residencies and fellowships), "Practice Experience," "Academic
Appointments," and "Certification and Licensure."
Honours and Awards
Any academic, organizational or community awards are appropriate, but you must use
your own judgment as to whether an achievement that you value would be valuable to the
person reading your CV.
Professional Society Memberships
List any professional organizations to which you belong and the years of your
membership. Include leadership positions held, if any.
Employment Experience
List the position, organization and dates of employment for each work experience. Try
to confine this list to those experiences which are medically related (i.e., med tech, nurse's
aide, research assistant, etc.) or that show breadth in your work experience (i.e., high school
teacher, communications manager, etc.).
Extracurricular Activities
List your interests or extracurricular activities in this section. It will help to develop a
broader picture of your personality and character. Also, any special talents or qualifications
which have not been given due recognition in other parts of the CV should be highlighted
here or in a separate section. For example, you'll want to include things like fluency in other
languages, or a certification such as a private pilot's license.

Publications/Presentations

List any papers published or presented by title, place and date of publication or
presentation. If this list is very lengthy, you may want to append it separately or note
"Provided Upon Request."
References
You may be asked to provide both personal and professional references. These names
may be included in the CV, appended as part of a cover letter or application form, or noted
"Provided upon Request".
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Format of CV
PERSONAL DATA
 Name:
 Date of birth:
 Citizenship:
 Address:
 Mobile Phone:
 Residence:
 Email:
EDUCATION
WORK EXPERIENCE
SKILLS/LANGUAGE
EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
REFERENCE

What is a Curriculum Vita or CV?

A brief account of a person's education, qualifications, and previous occupations,
typically sent with a job application.
The Latin meaning of curriculum vitae is “the course of one’s life or career” (Jackson &
Geckeis, 2003).
 A CV is similar to and different from a resume.
 Resumes are limited 1 or 2 pages; CVs provide more comprehensive details about
your educational and work background, and do not have a page limit.
What is the Difference Between a Resume and a CV?
The primary differences between a resume and curriculum vitae (CV) are length, what
is included, and what each is used for. While both are used in job applications, a resume and a
CV are not always interchangeable.

What Is a Curriculum Vita?

Like a resume, curriculum vitae (CV) provide a summary of one’s experience and
skills. Typically, CVs are longer than resumes – at least two or three pages.
CV include information on one’s academic background, including teaching experience,
degrees, research, awards, publications, presentations, and other achievements. CVs are thus
much longer than resumes, and include more information, particularly related to academic
background.
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A curriculum vitae summary is a one-to-two-page, condensed version of full

curriculum vitae. A CV summary is a way to quickly and concisely convey one’s skills and
qualifications. Sometimes large organizations will ask for a one-page CV summary when they
expect a large pool of applicants.
What is a Resume?
A resume provides a summary of your education, work history, credentials, and other
accomplishments and skills. There are also optional sections, including a resume
objective and career summary statement. Resume is the most common document required in a
job application.
A resume should be as concise as possible. Typically, a resume is one page long,
although sometimes it can be as long as two pages. Often resume include bulleted lists to keep
information concise. Resumes come in a few types, including chronological, functional,
and combination formats. Select a format that best fits the type of job you are applying for.
When to Use a CV
CVs are used almost exclusively in countries outside of the United States. In Europe,
the Middle East, Africa, or Asia, employers may expect to receive curriculum vitae. Within
the United States, people in academia and medicine tend to use CVs rather than resumes. CVs
are thus used primarily when applying for international, academic, education,
scientific, medical or research positions or when applying for fellowships or grants.
When do I submit a CV instead of a resume?
• A CV could be requested in applications for graduate studies (masters or doctoral
programs), research funding or a job in management or post-secondary teaching.
• Uncertain whether a CV or resume is required? Ask.
How can I prepare in advance for writing a CV?
• Consider starting a CV master or working file now to record details about your academic
studies, work history and accomplishments (e.g., committee work, presentations,
publication).
• Then if asked for a CV, you’ll be prepared to develop customized CVs for different
purposes.
What do I include in my CV?
• Using the same CV or resume for all applications is generally less competitive than
submitting customized ones that highlight how you’ve demonstrated the specific criteria or
requirements.
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• Structure your CV with sections relevant to the requirements. Provide examples that
highlight your related knowledge, skills and abilities, attitudes, experience and other
accomplishments.
• Critically review CV examples and then write your own. Do not copy. A unique CV will
likely be more impressive.
5. How can I customize a CV to strengthen my application for a position?
• Review the specific requirements or criteria for the position.
• Circle the key words for the requirements and sort into categories.
• Name the categories and use each as a heading on your CV
• Under each heading, write statements describing how you’ve demonstrated the specific
requirements.
• When possible, provide specific examples and quantify results, for example: Analyzed
quantitative and qualitative data for 2 public opinion surveys. Academic projects: Survey
Title and Survey Title.
6 What are the sections or components of a CV?
• Each CV is unique. Use your judgment to decide what sections are important to include
given your background and goals. Order sections by importance, and add new ones as
needed.
The Purpose of a C.V

The purpose of a CV is to provide a summary of your skills, abilities and accomplishments. It

is a quick advertisement of who you are. It is a "snapshot" of you with the intent of capturing
and emphasizing interests and secures you an interview. It is not an autobiography.
 A Marketing tool: Designed to capture attention and get you to the next stage in the
recruitment process. It presents in writing the skills, accomplishments and
qualifications that you bring to a potential employer.
 Key component: It is the first essential tool in the job search process. The resume is
the first introduction a hiring manager will have of you. You want them to feel drawn
in and motivated to invite you in for an interview.
 Written Inventory: CV is an inventory of your skills, accomplishments, experiences
and education to date. It should be customized and targeted for each individual
position.
 Getting an Interview: This is your ultimate goal with a CV, it tells the hiring manager
that you have the necessary experience, skills and education, what now needs to be
determined is will this person be a good fit for the department.
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Job Application
Tips on writing a Job Application
Your Job application is the first contact you will have with an employer. It is also
your chance to make a good first impression as the employer will use it to help decide if
you are suitable for the job and if they would like to give you an interview. It is most
important to take time and care with your application. Make sure that it looks professional,
has a clean layout, is spell checked and is easy to read. Make sure you use paper that is size
A4.
The Application Letter
There are many ways you can write a letter for a job, however, your address, phone
number and the date must be on the letter. Always address the letter to the person named in
the advertisement. If there is no name mentioned write Sir/Madam or phone the company
and get the correct name. When you write the letter put in the following information.
 Contents
 Refer to the job and where and when you saw it advertised.
 Put in any information about work you have done before.
 Give your telephone number in the letter.
 Close your letter by saying how suitable you are for the job.
 If your letter starts with Sir/Madam, always end with Yours faithfully. If you start
with a person's name end Yours sincerely.
 Sign your name and have your name printed underneath.
Things to Remember
 Before writing an application, research the job and find out as much as you can
about the company.
 Make a draft plan first with what you want to put in your application.
 Write it as many times as you want until you get it right.
 Always check spelling and watch your grammar. Get someone to proof read it for
mistakes before you send it.
 Write neatly, but get it typed if you can.
 Make sure you use clean A4 size paper.
 Tell the people who wrote you a reference you are being interviewed before you go.
 Make a number of copies of your résumé and send one off each time you apply for a
job.
 Keep your résumé up to date.
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Application letters

EXAMPLE A

Your name
Your address
Date..............

Name of Contact at Company

Company Name (ABC)
123 ABC St
City.............

Dear Sir/Madam, (person’s name if you know it)

Re: position applying for
I am writing to express my interest in the position you have advertised for a (name
position) and where advertised e.g., in The Courier Mail on (date you saw the
advertisement) e.g. 23 October 2006.
My previous experience in the (mention related experience from workplace) has given me
excellent workplace skills which would be an asset to (name company you are writing to).
I am honest, reliable, friendly and easy to get along with, as well as being a quick learner. I
possess excellent communication skills and I am well presented.
Due to my previous experience in the (name industry) I believe any employer would
strongly benefit from my employment.
Please find enclosed a copy of my current resume. I can be contacted on 0400 000, to
discuss this opportunity further.
Thank you for considering my application and I look forward to meeting with you soon.

Yours faithfully,
or
Yours sincerely

[Sign here]
Your name
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EXAMPLE B

Your name
Your address

Date.............

Name of person you are applying to

Company name
Address
Dear Sir / Madam
My name is ……………… and I am currently attending B.Sc (Ag.) at ABC College.
I am looking to commence a traineeship in the …………… industry as a school-based
apprentice.
I have been gathering my skills in the …………….. Industry through work experience and
casual employment as you will note in my resume. I can offer employer honesty and
reliability and a commitment to learning the necessary skills to succeed within this field of
work. I have very good communication skills and demonstrated my qualities as a valuable
employee through my past work placements. I am a (insert a quality you have) person and
would enjoy working in your company as part of a team, or in an autonomous role.
Please find attached my current resume that gives further details on my skills and
experience. I can be contacted on 0400 000 000 to arrange a suitable time for an interview.
Thank you for considering my application and I look forward to meeting with you soon.

Yours faithfully,
or
Yours sincerely

[Sign here]
Your name
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Synopsis
What is a synopsis?
Synopsis is the gist of your planned project submitted for approval from competent
authorities. It gives a panoramic view of your research for quick analysis by the reviewers.
Thus, a protocol or a synopsis forms an integral part of a research project or a thesis.
A synopsis is a brief outline, abstract, summary, or general overview of an article, essay,
story, book, or other work. A synopsis is a brief summary of the major points of a subject or
written work or story, either as prose or as a table; an abridgment or condensation of a work.
Synopsis is a summary of the article; its arguments and conclusion. Consequently, a
synopsis is very useful in helping you to decide if an article is relevant to your research, and if
it is worth reading. Synopsis is also an integral feature of conferences: presenters are required
to submit an abstract or synopsis of their papers, which conference delegates later receive.
This helps the delegates decide which presentation they will attend. As a student you may be
required to submit a synopsis to accompany a long essay or report. Your synopsis should
include an overview of your arguments and conclusions. Synopses are generally only one or
two paragraph.
Drafting the Synopsis
1. Write in third person.
2. Introduce your main characters and conflict at the beginning.
3. Summarize the main events of the plot.
4. End with resolution of the book.
5. Include only necessary information. ...
6. Demonstrate character development and emotion.
7. Avoid complimenting your own writing.

Format of Synopsis
Topic/ Title
The topic for research should be selected carefully. It should be specific and about the
general issues at national or international level.
Abstract
It should provide a brief description to explain the area of the proposed research work
by the researcher.
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Review of Literature
A review of the relevant literature is another very important part of the synopsis,
showing the work done previously in the area of proposed research is essential to plan further
research effectively and in a proper way. The information given in the review should be
supported by references.
Justification and Likely Benefits
It is important to provide justification for undertaking the proposed research, perhaps
in the light of previous work done. It should be possible in most cases to predict the specific
and general benefits likely to be achieved as a result of completion of the proposed research.
Main Objectives of the Study
Broad objectives to be achieved should be clearly mentioned and these should be
itemized. These objectives will indicate the major aspects of the study to be undertaken.
Hypothesis of Study
Hypothesis is statement which is to be tested for possible acceptance or rejection.
Hypothesis are of two types i.e. Null (Ho) and Alternative (H1). Null hypothesis is tested for
possible rejection, whereas alternative hypothesis is tested for possible acceptance.
Significance of Study
It emphasized on the significance/ importance of the research work/study i.e. why we
selected the topic under discussion.
Statement of Problem
The researcher has to clearly identify the problem/issue selected for thesis.
Plan of Work and Methodology
A plan of work describing the various aspects of the study in a logical sequence along
with the methodologies to be employed, are the most important cracks of any research plan. It
helps to demonstrate that the researcher has a fairly good idea about the nature of work likely
to be involved. In the case of social sciences what resource materials will be used; whether the
required information will be obtained from primary or secondary sources, etc.
Methodology includes the following:-
* Sources of data (Primary or Secondary)
Survey, questionnaires, interviews, focus group interviews, observation, case-studies,
diaries, critical incidents, portfolios, books, journals, periodicals, abstracts, indexes,
directories, research reports, conference papers, market reports, annual reports, internal
records of organizations, newspapers and magazines, CD-ROMs, on-line databases, Internet,
videos and broadcasts.
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 Sample size:
Sample size should be normal neither too small nor too large.
 Data Collection Techniques (Registration, Questionnaires, Interviews, Direct
Observations)
 Analysis of Data
References and Bibliography
Synopsis should contain at the end a list of references, and a bibliography if required.
These should be written on a standard pattern.
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INTERVIEWS
Interview is an interaction between two or more people. During an interview there is
usually an interviewee – a person who is supposed to answer the questions on one side. On
the other, there is an interviewing team – also known as interviewers that consists of one or
more person. An interview may differ from occasion to occasion as it is conducted to achieve
different objectives. Interviews are usually conducted by the employers to recruit and select
employees and by the media to know the opinions of intellectuals and well placed people on
various issues that affect us in one way or the other. Job interviews are the most common
method of recruitment and selection of candidates for different jobs.
Define interview? Explain the different types of interview.
An interview is a conversation where questions are asked and answers are given.
Interviews almost always involve spoken conversation between two or more parties, although
in some instances a "conversation" can happen between two persons who type questions and
answers back and forth.
Meaning of Interview: The word interview comes from Latin and middle French words
meaning to “see between” or “see each other”. Generally, interview means a private meeting
between people when questions are asked and answered. It suggests a meeting between two
persons for the purpose of getting a view of each other or for knowing each other. When we
normally think of an interview, we think a setting in which an employer tries to size up an
applicant for a job.
Types of Interviews: There are many types of interviews that an organization can arrange. It
depends on the objectives of taking the interview. Some important types of interviews are
stated below:
1. Personal Interview: Personal interviews include:
 Selection of the employees
 Promotion of the employees
 Retirement and resignation of the employees
2. Evaluation Interview: The interviews which take place annually to review the progress of
the interviewee are called the evaluation interviews. Naturally, it is occurring between
superiors and subordinates. The main objective of this interview is to find out the
strengths and weaknesses of the employees.
3. Persuasive Interview: This type of interview is designed to sell someone a product or an
idea. When a sales representative talk with a target buyer, persuasion takes the form of
convincing that the product or idea meets his need.
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4. Structured Interview: Structured interviews tend to follow formal procedures; the

interviewer follows a predetermined agenda or questions.
5. Unstructured Interview: When the interview does not follow the formal rules or
procedures. It is called an unstructured interview. The discussion will probably be free
flowing and may shift rapidly form one subject to another depending on the interests of
the interviewee and the interviewer.
6. Counselling Interview: This may be held to find out what has been troubling the workers
and why someone has not been working.
7. Disciplinary Interview: Disciplinary interviews are occurring when an employee has been
accused of breaching the organization’s rules and procedures.
8. Stress Interview: It is designed to place the interviewee in a stress situation in order to
observe the interviewee’s reaction.
9. Public Interview: These include political parties’ radio-television and newspaper.
10. Informal or Conversational Interview: In the conversational interview, no
predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable a possible
to the interviewee’s nature and priorities. During the interview the interviewer “goes
with the flow”.
11. Standardized or Open-Ended Interview: Here the same open-ended questions are asked
to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily
analyzed and compared.
12. The Telephone Interview: Often companies request an initial telephone interview before
inviting you in for a face to face meeting in order to get a better understanding of the type
of candidate you are. The one benefit of this is that you can have your notes out in front
of you. You should do just as much preparation as you would for a face to face interview,
and remember that your first impression is vital. Some people are better meeting in
person than on the phone, so make sure that you speak confidently, with good pace and
try to answer all the questions that are asked.
13. The Face-to-Face Interview: This can be a meeting between you and one member of
staff or even two members.

14. The Panel Interview: These interviews involve a number of people sitting as a panel
with one as chairperson. This type of interview is popular within the public sector.

16. The Group Interview: Several candidates are present at this type of interview. You will
be asked to interact with each other by usually a group discussion. You might even be
given a task to do as a team, so make sure you speak up and give your opinion.
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17. The Sequential Interview: These are several interviews in turn with a different
interviewer each time. Usually, each interviewer asks questions to test different sets of
competencies. However, if you are asked the same questions, just make sure you answer
each one as fully as the previous time.

18. The Lunch / Dinner Interview: This type of interview gives the employer a chance to
assess your communication and interpersonal skills as well as your table manners! So
make sure you order wisely (no spaghetti Bolognese) and make sure you don’t spill your
drink (non-alcoholic of course!). All these types of interviews can take on different
question formats, so once you’ve checked with your potential employer which type of
interview you’ll be attending, get preparing!

19. Competency Based Interview: These are structured to reflect the competencies the
employer is seeking for the particular job. These will usually be detailed in the job spec
so make sure you read it through, and have your answers ready for questions such as
“Give me an example of a time you worked as a team to achieve a common goal.” For
more examples of competency based questions click here.

20. Formal / Informal Interview: Some interviews may be very formal; others may be very
informal and seem like just a chat about your interests. However, it is important to
remember that you are still being assessed, and topics should be friendly and clean!

21. Portfolio Based Interview: In the design / digital or communications industry it is likely
that you will be asked to take your portfolio along or show it online. Make sure all your
work is up to date without too little or too much. Make sure that your images if in print are
big enough for the interviewer to see properly, and always test your online portfolio on all
Internet browsers before turning up.

22. The Second Interview: You’ve past the first interview and you’ve had the call to arrange
the second. Congratulations! But what else is there to prepare for? You did as much as
you could for the first interview! Now is the time to look back and review. You maybe
asked the same questions you were asked before, so review them and brush up your
answers. Review your research about the company; take a look at the ‘About Us’ section
on their website, get to know their client base, search the latest news on the company and
find out what the company is talking about.
23. The Screening Interview: The purpose of such interviews is to weed unqualified and
unsuitable candidates for a particular job. The interviewer here will be interested in
looking for the gaps in your employment history. He may ask you the reason for such
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gaps and what you did during this period. Obviously you have to sound convincing. The
interviewer usually looks for questionable matter in your bio-data. The purpose is to
disqualify you if your qualifications are not acceptable and convincing. The interviewer
will also examine your earlier experience and the new job fit.
Keep the following points in mind while participating in such interviews:
1. Give simple and direct answers.
2. Be ready to comment on your suitability for the job and difficult areas of your biodata.
3. Instead of quoting the exact figure for the salary your are expected to give your
employer the range, making his choice bigger. Do not raise the salary issue on your own,
let the interviewer talk about it.
4. Keep a note-card handy with important details when you are commenting on the
acceptability and recognition of your degrees and diplomas. You must possess relevant
documents in support of your statements.
24. The informational Interview: The informational interview is conducted by a company
keeping in mind the future requirements of employees. The immediate objective is not to
hire your but to keep you on the list of candidates who are likely to be called for interview
when the demand in your area of specialization arises. Here the interviewer is more
interested in knowing the details of your education and experience, your interests and your
future plans. Since the interviewer would be examining your prospective employment in
the company in future he is likely to ask questions to know your academic standard,
communicative competence and your approach to the issues being faced by the company
and even your approach to the issues being faced by the company and even problems
encountered by the public in general. Take care of the following while attending such
interviews:
25. The Stress Interview: The stress interview involves keeping the candidate in stress, in
order to know how a candidate would react or respond in difficult and stressful conditions.
You may be asked to wait for a very long period of time without any plausible reason. In
such an interview, you may face cold stares, jeering and guffaws at your cost. Someone
may choose to humiliate you about your persona, your personal beliefs, even your
academic performance. Again the purpose is to provoke you and to put you under stress
and then examine your reaction in. While tackling such an interview you must bear in
mind the following.
1. Remember that your calm and confident attitude is your best asset in this type of
interview.
2. Keep in mind that if you get provoked, you lose everything.
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3. Presence of mind and your wit and humour can save you from a typically difficult
situation.
26.The Screening Interview: The purpose of such interviews is to weed unqualified and
unsuitable candidates for a particular job. The interviewer here will be interested in
looking for the gaps in your employment history. He may ask you the reason for such
gaps and what you did during this period. Obviously you have to sound convincing. The
interviewer usually looks for questionable matter in your bio-data. The purpose is to
disqualify you if your qualifications are not acceptable and convincing. The interviewer
will also examine your earlier experience and the new job fit.
Keep the following points in mind while participating in such interviews:
1. Give simple and direct answers.
2. Be ready to comment on your suitability for the job and difficult areas of your biodata.
3. Instead of quoting the exact figure for the salary your are expected to give your
employer the range, making his choice bigger. Do not raise the salary issue on your own,
let the interviewer talk about it.
4. Keep a note-card handy with important details when you are commenting on the
acceptability and recognition of your degrees and diplomas. You must possess relevant
documents in support of your statements.
27. The Behavioural Interview: The company that wants to hire you would like to make a
detailed inquiry about your problems, day routines, opportunities and challenges,
competition from colleagues, over-all prevailing environment, etc.
1. Have a critical look at your bio-data to include the skills you used
2. Exclude from your bio -data what you think would be difficult to justify.
3. Prepare a story or an anecdote to explain a particular skill you practiced for solving a
problem.
4. Make a list of achievements in your previous job and the skills that helped you make
these achievements.
28. The Follow-up Interview: There is a possibility of your being called to second, third or
even fourth interview by the same company. A company chooses to call you for more
than one interaction for various reasons. If you are meeting the people you have met
earlier, use this opportunity to cement relationship and inquire about the goals of the
company.
1. On getting a call from the company where you have already been interviewed, revise
your facts, skills and aptitude carefully, keeping your earlier interaction in mind.
2. You may also try to obtain more knowledge about the company and its products
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3. If your are able to find somebody who has already worked in the organization and
your are able to collect first hand information, it would prove be an added advantage.
39. The Mealtime Interview: As the name suggest, mealtime interviews are conducted over
meals.
1. Stay controlled and observant throughout the interview.
2. Be guided by the eating habits and manners of your hosts as they may be representing
the company culture you are intending to work for.
3. Be polite and do not go for very expensive food items on the menu, in case your are
offered to make a choice.
4. Do not be very finicky to display your strange food habits. Try to accommodate with
your hosts.
5. Listen to each and every member carefully and do not mix business with personal talk.
6. It is always safer to reply to the interviewers’ questions on personal matters than
venturing on your interests without being asked to do so. However, one can always take
calculated risks on matters pertaining to office.
Preparing for the Interview:
* Prepare an update on your newly acquired skills, interests, values and accomplishments
* Show that you have really taken care of things and are well-prepared for the job at
hand.
* Do anticipate and practice elaborately the questions that are likely to be asked in the
interview. Both content and style matter.
* Your must have full information about the location and the available transport facilities
to reach the venue of the interview. You must reach the place at least half an hour early
before the scheduled time. Keep enough margins for transport delays.
*Decide in advance: a suitable dress for yourself to be worn on the occasion of interview.
* Keep a file in which you arrange the relevant pieces of information, articles, and
comments of the experts on matters related to your areas of study and interests.
* You can access the web site of the company or approach some of its past or present
employees.
* Do not forget to collect the business cards or the contact numbers of the experts. This
information could be of great help at a later stage.
*You must make your presence felt at the interview.
*Sharpen your communication skills by developing a perfect command of a suitable
vocabulary range and structures.
* Your answers must exhibit your creativity and the originality of your approach.
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* Project yourself, as a thorough professional who is going to be an asset to your

company. Your answers must reveal your profession.
* Think positively before and after the interview. Suppose you were not selected
somewhere, believe it was for the best.
*While leaving the venue do indicate to the panel that if position is offered you will
certainly join it.
* Finally, learn some calm down techniques. When you go to the interview venue and
feel very agitated, inhale and exhale deeply three times and you will feel some respite.
Body Language and Interview:
 Walk straight with confident steps after you have been called in.
 Politely greet the interviewer/interviewers, expressing your confidence and good
manners.
 If the interviewer holds out his hand, give him a firm handshake revealing your
interest and confidence.
 Do not shake your legs or hands while sitting in the chair. This reveals your
nervousness.
 Sit straight and look into the eyes of the person who wants to question you.
 You should smile confidently each time after a question has been thrown at your to
indicate that you have listened carefully and you are going to answer.
 Never interrupt your interviewer. Let him complete first.
 Use your hands to explain things. Movement of your hands should explain your
meaning. For example, do not spread your hand wide while you talk about small sizes.
 Speak your answers in a clear audible voice. Never mumble and fumble for words.
 Don’t forget to wish the people in the interview. Greet them when you enter and when
you leave, leave with a cheerful ‘Thank you’.
The sole aim of an interview should be to probe into the psyche of a person and bring out
surprising and unknown facts that the interviewee may not know. Physical appearance,
gestures and the very way you communicate count a lot in an employment interview.
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FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Figurative language is associated with literature—and with poetry in a particular. But
the fact is, whether we’re conscious of it or not, we use figures of speech every day in our
writing and conversations.
The Top Figures
1. Alliteration: Repetition of an initial consonance sound. In this way language
becomes musical.
Eg: How high his honour holds his haughty head.
2. Antithesis: The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases.
Eg: God made the country but man made the town United we stand divided we fall.
3. Apostrophe: Breaking off discourse to address some absent person or thing, some
abstract quality, an inanimate object, or a nonexistent character.
Eg: Wild west wind, thou breath of Autumns’ being.
4. Euphemism: The substitution of an inoffensive term of one considered offensively
explicit.
5. Hyperbole: An extravagant statement; the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose
of emphasis or heightened effect. Here is the smell of blood still; All perfumes of
Arabia will not sweeten this little hand.
6. Irony: The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. A statement
or situation where the meaning is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of
the idea.
Eg: He is an honourable man (in fact he is not)
7. Epigram: A brief pointed saying. Eg: The child is the father of man.
8. Metaphor: An implied comparison between two unlike things that actually have
something important in common.
Eg: The camel is the ship of the desert.
9. Metonymy: A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for
another with which it is closely associated; also, the rhetorical strategy of describing
something indirectly by referring to things around it.
Eg: The pen is mightier than sword.
10. Onomatopoeia: The formation or use of words that imitate the sounds associated
with the objects or action they refer to. The murmurous haunt of files in summer
evening.
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11. Oxymoron: a figure of speech in which incongruous or contradictory terms appear

side by side.
Eg: James I was the wisest fool in Christendom.
12. Personification: A figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is
endowed with human qualities or abilities.
Eg: Opportunity knocks at the door but once.
13. Pun: A play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and
sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words.
Eg: An ambassador is a gentleman who lies abroad for the good of his country.
14. Simile: A stated comparison (usually formed with “like” or” “as”) between two
fundamentally dissimilar things that have certain qualities in common.
Eg: The younger brother is as good as gold.
15. Synechdoche: A figure of speech is which a part is used to represent the whole, the
whole for a part, the specific for the general, the general for the specific, or the
material for the thing made from it.
Eg: Kalidhasa is the Shakespeare of India.
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Practical Class Outlines

1. Effective Listening – Developing Listening Skills – Honing Listening skills

2. Listening to Short talks and Lectures from the cassettes of EFL University
3. Spoken English, Vowels, consonants, monophthongs, diphthongs.
4. Stress, intonation, phonetic transcription
5. Seminars, Conferences, preparation and demonstration
6. Oral Presentation by students, Articulation and delivery – Evaluation sheet
for oral presentation
7. Communication skills – Verbal communication, written communication
8. Telephonic conversation
9. Reading Skills, Skimming, Scanning, Extensive reading, Intensive reading
examples
10. Meeting, purpose, procedure, participation, physical arrangements
11. Presentation of reports by using power point & L.C.D
12. Interviews – Mock interviews
13. Debate and Group discussion
14. Vocabulary
15. Pronunciation practice
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Introducing Listening
Aural aspects of Communication play a role at least equal to oral elements in what
could viably be called oral-aural communication. Considering the pivotal role that listening
plays in all oral communication and the ubiquitous presence of oral communication in our
personal, professional, and academic lives, the relative neglect that listening receives in
education, when compared to other communicative endeavours like speaking, reading, and
writing, is surprising.
Introduction:
Language begins with the ear and lives on the lips and tongue of the speaker,
listening should precede speaking, and is the secret of effective beginning in language
learning. It is impossible to expect a student to produce a sound or a natural sentence of
the foreign language, which does not exist in mother-tongue, unless he has listens to a
model of the form is produced. Speaking comes in a natural sequence after listening. In
other words, speaking is built upon accurate listening. In this chapter, we shall consider
these two activities, that is, listening and speaking.
Basic Principles of Effective Listening
Shared responsibility:
Any communication places equal burdens and duties on listener and speaker. Like
effective speakers, effective listeners engage in as much prior preparation as possible, remain
focused and concentrated during communication, understand the responsibilities unique to
their roles as listeners in a given context, and practice continual self-evaluation and
improvement. Without such purposeful behaviour on the part of the listener, even the most
accomplished speaker can fail to communicate clearly. Our average listening comprehension
for any given message is around 25% with only small changes caused by increases in speaker
effectiveness (Nichols & Lewis, 1954, p.4). This data suggests, by pointing to a general
ceiling in communication comprehension regardless of the skill of the speaker, that individual
listening training could have just as much of an impact as corresponding education in
speaking. An effective listener can help an ineffective speaker in many ways. Proper attention
and nonverbal behaviours on the part of a listener encourages a more enthusiastic and
engaged speaker. A listener skilled in asking the right questions at the right time can assist a
speaker in clarifying and organizing thoughts.
Active attention.
Effective listening does not simply follow from a willingness to sit quietly and pay
attention to a speaker. Hearing, which provides the initial foundation for listening, denotes the
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physical reception of aural data. Listening involves mental activity, including cognitive and
affective processing of received information. Consequently, educators enhance listening
competence through diligent focus on the mental processes and skills involved in perceptive
listening, such as memory, sense making, and evaluation.
Complex, dynamic process.
Listening is a variable communication activity that differs according to: the purpose
and nature of the listener and the speaker, the content and style of the message, the channel of
communication, and the surrounding environment. As a variable activity, effective listening
does not issue from a monolithic, unchanging checklist that can be uniformly imposed on all
situations.
Listening is a key to all effective communication. Without the ability to listen
effectively, messages are easily misunderstood. If there is one communication skill you
should aim to master, then listening is it. Listening is so important that many top employers
provide listening skills training for their employees.
Language teachers discuss the importance of the listening skill. Listening is also
important because it: occupies a big chunk of the time we spend communicating in the
language. Think about the times you spend listening to others speak or listening to songs,
news, lectures, YouTube, etc.
Listening is the ability to identify and understand what others are saying. This
involves understanding a speaker's accent or pronunciation, his grammar and his vocabulary,
and grasping his meaning (Howatt and Dakin). An able listener is capable of doing these four
things simultaneously.
Types of listening skills?
The three main types of listening most common in interpersonal communication are:
1) Informational Listening (Listening to Learn)
2) Critical Listening (Listening to Evaluate and Analyse)
3) Therapeutic or Empathetic Listening (Listening to Understand Feeling and Emotion)
Here are four (of many) types of listening:
 Appreciative listening. Appreciative listening is exactly what the name implies —
listening to enjoy the story, music or information you hear.
 Critical listening. Relationship listening.
 Discriminative listening.
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The three main types of listening most common in interpersonal communication are:
Informational Listening (Listening to Learn) Critical Listening (Listening to Evaluate and
Analyse) Therapeutic or Empathetic Listening (Listening to Understand Feeling and Emotion)
What are the barriers to listening?
That can raise emotional barriers to communication, as judgments can mean that the listener
doesn't have complete understanding or respect for the speaker. In a sense, giving a person
your undivided attention while listening is the purest act of love you can offer.
Try these tips to overcome this habit:

1. Think before you speak, and don't speak if you have nothing important to contribute.
2. Practice self-control. ...
3. Avoid interrupting when the other person is speaking.
4. Be aware of indulging in useless talk for the sake of talking.
5. Be brief while conveying your thoughts.
Empathic listening (also called active listening or reflective listening) is a way of
listening and responding to another person that improves mutual understanding and trust.
Here are 8 strategies for practicing empathic listening:

1. Take the time. Active, empathic listening requires time.

2. Offer empathy, not sympathy.
3. Pay attention to body language.
4. Refrain from solutions.
5. Use open-ended, empathic, or dangling questions.
6. Ask for more.
7. Repeat a phrase or word.
8. Allow for silences.
Author Joseph DeVito has divided the listening process into five stages:
 Receiving,
 Understanding,
 Remembering,
 Evaluating,
 Responding.
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Improving Communication - Developing Effective Listening Skills

Effective communication skills are fundamental to success in many aspects of life. Many
jobs require strong communication skills and social people with improved communication
skills usually enjoy better interpersonal relationships with friends and family. Effective
communication is a key interpersonal skill and by learning how we can improve our
communication has many benefits.
Communication is a two way process so improving communication involves both how
we send and receive messages. When someone is communicating with you, they want to feel
like they’re talking to you, rather than at you, and that can only be done with a set of good
listening skills and an understanding of the principles of effective communication in general.
Learn how to become an empathetic, attentive, and active listener with the information that
follows.
Learn to Listen. Listening is not the same as hearing; learn to listen not only to the words
being spoken but how they are being spoken and the non-verbal messages sent with
them. Use the techniques of clarification and reflection to confirm what the other person has
said and avoid any confusion. Try not to think about what to say next while listening; instead
clear your mind and focus on the message being received. Your friends, colleagues and other
acquaintances will appreciate good listening skills.
Listen Actively. The difference between hearing and listening is as important as the
difference between seeing and observing. You can hear background noise but not think
anything of it. Or you can listen and realize that what sounded a minute ago like an owl
sounds an awful lot like a person trying to imitate an owl. Hearing is automatic and
involuntary. You may recall from science class, it’s sound waves bouncing off your ear
drums and causing them to vibrate and send messages to your brain. Listening is the active,
voluntary effort to receive a message, understand it, and respond to it.

Be Aware of Other People’s Emotions. Be sympathetic to other people's misfortunes and

congratulate their positive landmarks. To do this you need to be aware of what is going on in
other people’s lives. Make and maintain eye contact and use first names where
appropriate. Do not be afraid to ask others for their opinions as this will help to make them
feel valued.

Consider the emotional effect of what you are saying and communicate within the norms of
behaviour acceptable to the other person.
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Empathize. Empathy is trying to see things from the point-of-view of others. When
communicating with others, try not to be judgemental or biased by preconceived ideas or
beliefs - instead view situations and responses from the other person’s perspective. Stay in
tune with your own emotions to help enable you to understand the emotions of others.

If appropriate, offer your personal viewpoint clearly and honestly to avoid confusion. Bear in
mind that some subjects might be taboo or too emotionally stressful for others to discuss.

Encourage. Offer words and actions of encouragement, as well as praise, to others. Make
other people feel welcome, wanted, valued and appreciated in your communications. If you
let others know that they are valued, they are much more likely to give you their best. Try to
ensure that everyone involved in an interaction or communication is included through
effective body language and the use of open questions.
The Five Types of Listening
You can become a better listener by understanding the four types of listening:
 Passive:
 Selective
 Competitive
 Active
 Reflective
Passive listening is one-way communication in which you do not provide feedback and may
or may not understand the message. This kind of listening often takes place in a classroom or
meeting when most people don’t respond. Listening to the TV, radio, or a speaker who
doesn’t take questions is passive listening.
Selective listening is the act of hearing and interpreting only parts of a message that seem
relevant to you, while ignoring or devaluing the rest. Often, selective listeners will form
arguments before they’ve heard the full story, making them not only poor listeners, but poor
speakers too!
Competitive listening takes place when you’re not really listening closely—you listen long
enough to hear what you think is the necessary information (and you may or may not be right
about this), and you’re already thinking about what you’re going to say in reply. You can
hardly wait for a break in the conversation so you can jump in. This is what happens when
people talk past each other in an argument, neither one listening to what the other is trying to
say.
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Active listening, on the other hand, is a genuine two-way communication. You are listening
intently, thinking about the information to make sure you understand it, and providing
feedback to the speaker to clarify what you don’t understand.
Reflective listening goes a step further—you are not only actively listening, but are
concentrating on the speaker’s feeling, which the speaker might express through word choice
or body language. You reflect not only on what the speaker said, but on what the speaker
feels about it. A good counsellor engages in this kind of listening.

Again, as the sender, it’s your job to make sure the receiver heard and understood your
message the way you meant it. As an active listener, you help the sender by thinking about
the message, providing feedback, and seeking clarification. Don’t depend on the sender to do
it all. Listen actively and confirm that you understand the message.
Listen for meaning
Listening for meaning is a form of active listening. Active and attentive listeners not
only pay attention to words, they also focus on the intent of each word – the message a word
is intended to communicate. To decipher messages, first determine the central idea being
communicated. Then pay close attention to anecdotes, explanations, and other details meant to
clarify meaning. While you work to improve listening skills, always pay close attention to the
central focus of what is being relayed.
While you're listening, and after the listening task has ended, check your
comprehension. Did what you learn to make sense within the context of the topic or central
idea being communicated? Monitoring and checking comprehension makes sure that your
active listening strategy is working.
Focus on what's important
One of the keys of effective listening is the ability to concentrate on central idea. In
other words, effective listeners focus on the stories or ideas behind the facts. They then are
able to pick up on the supporting fact, details and evidence for the main concepts, ideals and
topics being discussed.

Choose to be interested
Many people tune out lectures because they are not interested. As a result, they neglect
to take notes on the concepts. Effective listeners become interested in the subject material, so
that they can process the information and pay attention to classroom lectures
Distractions
 Many noises or conversations grabbing your attention at one time, or any other close-by
dominant noise such as television or music.
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 Physical appearances can certainly be distracting if they evoke extreme emotions of

pleasure or displeasure.
 Disinterest causes boredom.
 Personal habits such as fiddling with your hair, fingers, or a pen. It also includes
daydreaming.
 Unmet needs such as illness, tiredness, hunger, thirst, or needing to use the toilet.
 Personal issues keep us preoccupied.
Biases
 Facts take precedence over empathy.
 Feeling sorry for someone, rather than empathizing.
 Personal prejudices such as race, gender, age, religion, accent, or any aspect of personal
appearance; and/or past experiences, preconceived ideas or biases which make you
perceive the other as unintelligent or incredible.
 Having a closed mind and being unable to get past your own beliefs to see the other’s
viewpoint.
Break Down the Barriers
Now it is the time to look at 10 ways of teaching effective listening skills with all your
students. As you employ them in your practices, be sure to take your kids along for the ride
by listening, observing, and telling them what you are doing where appropriate and
comfortable.
1. Stop talking: If you are talking, you are not listening. Quiet your responses, and your
interjections. Be open and available to what is being sought by the other person through your
listening.
2. Get into your listening mode: Quiet the environment. Mentally open your mind to hearing
by getting comfortable and engaging in eye contact.
3. Make the speaker feel comfortable: Examples of this might be nodding or using gestures.
Seating is also important. Decide if the speaker will feel more comfortable if you stay behind
your desk, or if you took a chair beside them. For smaller children, get at their eye level
instead of towering over them.
4. Remove distractions: This is something you might not think of at first. It means things
like clearing the room, quieting screens, and silencing your phone; if the speaker requests
privacy, honour that by closing the door or asking others to give you a few minutes in private.
5. Empathize: At the very least, try “learning instead to embrace and wonder at their
“otherness.”
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6. Be comfortable with silence: Some people really need time to formulate a thoughtful
response. Rushing them through, or suggesting what they want to say, robs them of the
opportunity to communicate honestly.
7. Put aside personal prejudice: This is also quite difficult, as our experiences form who we
are. Putting all those experiences aside is a skill which requires help and practice.
8. Heed the tone: Sometimes the tone can hide the meaning of the words, and sometimes the
tone enhances the meaning of the words. Know which is which.
9. Listen for underlying meanings, not words: Listen first for comprehension, and then a
second time for ideas.
10. Pay attention to non-verbal communication: People communicate through body
language and facial expressions. This is why eye contact is necessary.

Tips and techniques to become a better communicator

The art of listening has a famous mascot – Richard Branson. Yes, the flamboyant
founder of the Virgin Group is a huge votary of ‘listening’.
“Nobody ever learnt anything by hearing themselves speak,” says Branson, adding that
successful people often lose the ability to listen because they are “very fond of their own
voices“.
Branson says some of the most successful entrepreneurs he has met are good listeners,
underlining the importance of this talent as a core communication and leadership skill.
There is no underestimating about the value of effective listening skills. From grievances and
complaints, to suggestions, opinions and ideas, or just free-wheeling conversation at work,
there is a wealth of information and insights you can gain by simply keeping your ears open.
Effective listening skills lead to better customer satisfaction, raises productivity,
reduces errors and facilitates the sharing and exchange of information, which in turn enhances
creativity and drives innovation.
India’s Harsh Goenka, chairperson of the RPG Group, believes Indians have an edge
in listening skills due to their culture. Indians are raised to be good listeners since they ‘listen’
and do not talk back to their parents and teachers, he points out. Goenka says he places a
premium on listening, especially because it helped him learn the business quickly as he was
inducted at a very early age.
Shishir Joshipura, Managing Director of SKF India, has honed this skill to an art. He
offers an unusual tip. Joshipura believes that for a conversation to yield valuable insights, one
must engage in free-flowing conversation on the other person’s home ground. “This creates
context, and the quality of the conversation is much better,” he says.
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Tips to Become a Good Listener

Most people like to think they are good listeners but that could be pure narcissism
talking. If you want to know whether you need to improve your listening skills, here are 8
things that could help you decide.
1. Shush!
When someone else is talking, say at a meeting, group discussion or brainstorming
secession, never interrupt, never talk over them and wait your turn to speak.
Some experts believe that the mark of a good leader is to employ the 80-20 rule – speak only
20 per cent of the time.
2. Eliminate Distractions
There is a world of difference between ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’. While hearing
implies that you have physically heard what someone is saying, it doesn’t necessarily mean
that you have truly listened to them.
To honestly listen to the speaker, shut out all mental distractions and focus entirely on what
the speaker is saying.
3. Actively Listen
This means concentrating fully on what the speaker is saying and letting them know
that you are. When you are seen to be listening, it is very encouraging for the speaker.
You can use non-verbal cues such as smiling occasionally, nodding and maintaining eye
contact to demonstrate interest. You can also use verbal cues such as saying ‘Mm-hm’ or
‘yes’, from time to time. Once the speaker is at ease and knows you are listening, the quality
of communication will improve.
4. Demonstrate Empathy
Empathy means putting yourself in the shoes of the speaker, which is darn difficult to
do. That’s because each of us comes to the table with baggage, biases and prejudices, aimed
either at the individual speaking or at what he or she is saying.
Guard against reacting and focus, instead, on the value of what is being discussed. A good
listener always looks at things from the other person’s perspective.
5. Non-Verbal Cues
We never listen only with our ears. There are many non-verbal cues that people send
out when speaking. So watch for posture; tone of voice, pitch and volume; and whether the
speaker is nervously shuffling from one foot to the other.
Non-verbal cues will tell you whether the speaker is lying or exaggerating, whether
they are nervous or uncomfortable as well as a host of personality traits that provide context
for what the person is saying.
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6. Don’t Be Judgemental
When listening to someone speak, be aware of whether you are reacting to cues such
as the speaker’s ethnicity, gender, mannerisms or even to the emotional colour what they are
saying. So, don’t take sides or form opinions.
When you react emotionally, you are likely to miss out on bits of the content and
possible creative ideas that might have otherwise struck you. In other words, even when you
don’t like what you are hearing or who is saying it, listen anyway!
7. Clarifying
Occasionally ask the speaker a question or two. This confirms that you have been
listening to the speaker and reassures him or her that you are genuinely interested in what they
have to say.
8. Reflecting
While using this technique, you essentially mirror what the speaker is saying, by
paraphrasing or repeating key words. In the complex world of business today, CEOs and other
honchos in leadership roles cannot escape the fact that listening comes with the territory. The
world is fast changing, consumer tastes and preferences are rapidly evolving, technology is
morphing as we speak, and employee expectations too are changing. Therefore, listening
skills come into play way beyond Monday morning meetings and the occasional
brainstorming session. Leaders have to listen to much larger conversations – where the
industry is headed, what the competition is up to, what innovations their peers are pushing and
the state of the economy in general.
Why would listening skills be important to a teacher in the classroom?
Despite this, genuine communication between teacher and student can only occur by
showing a willingness to try to understand the students' feelings. Empathic listening in
the classroom: ... Promotes honest communication and builds trust and confidence. Gives
the teacher time to clarify his/her thinking
Public Speaking and Conversation
1. Introduction: Speaking is an act of making vocal sounds. We can say that speaking means
to converse, or express one's thoughts and feelings in spoken language. These skills allow the
speaker, to convey his message in a passionate, thoughtful, and convincing manner while
public speaking and conversation share many similarities, they are in fact two very different
forms of communication.
Differentiate between public speaking and conversation
 Public speaking is the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate
manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners.
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 Conversation is a form of interactive, spontaneous communication between two or more

people who are following rules of etiquette.
 There are three key differences that set public speaking apart from conversation: organizational
structure, use of formalized language, and method of delivery.
 Speeches involve thoughts that are logically organized and structured, whereas conversations
may wander around subjects.
 Speeches use formalized language, while conversation may use slang, profanity, or poor
grammar.
 Speeches are often delivered in deliberate, intentional settings and contexts, whereas
conversations may arise spontaneously.
Difference with Conversation
It may seem rather simple: isn't public speaking just a form of conversation with
an audience? At the most basic level, that might seem true. But under closer inspection, public
speaking and conversation are, in fact, two very different things.
Public speaking is defined as "the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured,
deliberate manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners." Conversation, on the
other hand, "is a form of interactive, spontaneous communication between two or more people
who are following rules of etiquette."You may already notice the similarities: both conversation
and public speaking involve speakers and audiences, as well as messages exchanged between the
two parties. Depending on to whom you are speaking, you will adjust your message based on
both your audience and the context of your speech or conversation. And of course, a good
conversation and a good speech both share elements of compelling and engaging storytelling.
There are three key differences that set public speaking apart from conversation:
organizational structure, use of formalized language, and method of delivery.
Organizational Structure
Speeches and public addresses are far more organized than everyday conversation. A public
speaker organizes his or her thoughts in a speech by using three basic structural elements:
an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Conversations can wander and meander without ever
coming to a point. Speeches are deliberately structured and organized, whereas conversations are
not.
Use of Formalized Language
When you sit down and have a conversation with a close friend, either face-to-face or via text
message or chat, you might find that your language and tone are far more casual than if you were
to sit down and have a conversation with, say, your doctor. Public speaking formalizes language
that much more. When speeches are designed to "inform, influence, or entertain," they require a
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certain formality of speaking compared to a casual conversation between friends. Slang,

profanity, and poor grammar might be accepted between friends but are definitely not appropriate
for any kind of public address or speech.
Method of Delivery
You hear the phrase "strike up a conversation" more than you hear "strike up a speech" because
conversations are far more spontaneous than public speeches. And don't
let extemporaneous speaking fool you: extemporaneous speeches merely involve speaking about
a subject with no written notes and are not to be considered truly spontaneous. Conversations can
spring up anywhere. Public speaking is often organized into events and venues with a set time
and location. Public speeches may also fall within certain time constraints, whereas conversations
can be as brief or as long as those involved are willing to participate.
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SEMINARS AND CONFERENCES

In earlier times seminars and conferences were limited to the academic world where the
students presented their own research work through oral or written reports; now these have
become common in the professional world also. But life in this century has become highly
competitive owing to unprecedented advances in science and technology. So there is the
increasing need for proper utilization of materials as well as manpower. These, in turn
demand deep thinking and planning, which can be best done by a group and not by an
individual.

Seminar: This refers to a discussion in a small group in which the result of original research
or advanced study is presented through oral or written report. It may also be organized for
cross-fertilization of ideas. Generally, one person presents a paper incorporating his findings
and then there is in -depth discussion on the material presented.
The other members are knowledgeable and take active part in the discussion. They
closely interact with the lead speaker by expressing their views as seen from the individual’s
angle. The doubts, if any, are sought to be clarified by putting specific questions. The main
purpose of seminar is to share knowledge and to get the viewpoints of the people who are
equally well-informed persons.
Symposium: In a Symposium, a small group of experts or well informed persons discuss
different aspects a problem for the benefit or audience. Each speaker is allotted a certain
amount of time for his presentation. Speakers follow each other in turn until all have been
heard. The audience may participate in the discussion. Though the symposium is formal, an
element of spontaneity is introduced through audience participation. It is generally suited to
programmes presented to a large audience.
Panel Discussion: Each member speaks on the announced topic, which is worded as question
instead of delivering a series of speeches on different aspects of the problem. The members in
a panel discussion are usual experts in dealing with the problem selected for discussion. The
panel discussion is a kind of cooperative thinking. This panel discussion may be followed by
question session where the listener may put forth their questions to the panel members. This
type of panel discussion is best suited to public discussion programmes on radio and T.V.
Conference: Another type of meeting is conference. The name conference indicates to confer
with persons having the same interest and to collect their experiences and opinions. The
discussion usually results in the end with a set of suggestions or recommendations on the
central theme of the subject. The participants as well as the subject matters are wider when
compared to symposia or seminars. Different groups hold discussion on different aspects of
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the conference theme simultaneously at the venue. Formal lectures, audiovisual presentation,
exhibitions are also arranged on this occasion.
The conference is a closed group discussion and the participants have to register their names
for attending.
Colloquium: Colloquium is an organized conference or seminar on some subject, involving a
number of scholars of experts.
Convention: Convention is a fellowship meeting of a closely linked fraternal group. It is
more vigorously structured than a conference and only matters of professional interest are
discussed. Thus the term is applied to professional of gathering held by companies,
association, societies, etc., and applied to the assembly of the delegates of a political party.
There are certain generalized rules applicable to all oral communication situations. Body
language plays a significant role in oral communication through which speech can be
regulated.
Regulating Speech: There are six elements of communication namely pitch, volume, rate,
quality, animation and pause.
1) Pitch: Pitch is the tone of sounds depending upon the rate of vibration of vocal chords.
When we speak, there is continuous variation in the levels at which your voice is pitched.
2) Volume: Refers to the power of the sound and it ranges form very loud to very soft.
3) Soft: Is the degree of speed at which you speak words.
4) Quality: The characteristic tone of voice is its quality. Sometimes a voice may be termed
as creaky or jarring to the ears or it may be termed as pleasant.
5) Animation: The liveliness of speech is known as animation.
6) Pause: Refers to junctures in speech.
If one wants to be a successful speaker one should exploit fully the potential of all the
six vocal elements. For self improvement we may tape record our speech and critically
examine it and in subsequent efforts try to suitably amend in the light of self-analysis.
Personal appearance: The first impact on the audience is created by the personal
appearance of the speaker. Even before the speaker utters the first syllable we begin to form
an opinion and visualize the way he is going to talk.
Posture: Posture conveys a wealth of meaning in an economical way. It is an important part
of body language and refers to the way one stands and walks. The movement of the body, the
position of hands and legs and other parts of the body reveal an individual’s personality-
whether he is vibrant, alive, dynamic, nervous and self assured etc., A good speaker stands
tall, feet together with the weight directly over the instep keeping his chin on a line parallel to
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the floor or at right angles to the backbone. Standing in this posture before a group is in fact
one of the first essentials for success in speaking.
Eye contact: Eye contact with the listener is the most important aspect of the body
language. It has been rightly said that eye is an extension of the brain and window of the soul.
Stress is laid on continuous eye contact because it tells whether the speaker is sincere and also
whether the listener is interested. Eye contact is a means of gaining feedback, enabling the
communicator to alert, adjust and reframe his message while transmitting it. Very often this
process is automatic and interaction through eyes between the speaker and the listener takes
place unconsciously. Studies have shown that better eye contact leads to more effective
communication. A good speaker looks at all sections of audience and not on the ground, the
ceiling or at the door.
Voice: A good voice is a gift of nature but anyone can improve the quality of his speech with
proper training. The three most mobile speech organs are the lips, jaws and the tongue. They
also need exercise. For this purpose, specifically read loud every day for a few minutes. You
will soon discover the rich variety and resources of your vocal organs. Record your speech on
a tape, if possible and listen to it for any flaws. Also mark how effective speakers vary the
pitch of their voice to match the thought, idea or feeling they convey. The important points
are:
Variation in pitch and tempo of the voice is essential to convey your message. A speech
delivered in monotone makes the audience to sleep.
Fast delivery betrays a lack of confidence. Normally you should speak 125 to 150 words/mt.
Pronounce the words properly, putting stress at the right places.
Speak with enough volume so that everyone in the audience can hear you clearly.
Avoid nasalization and vocalized pauses such as ‘er’ ‘um’ etc.
Take care not to use phrases ‘you see’, ‘I mean ’, ‘is it clear?’ etc.,
Audience: Before you begin your talk, size up your listeners – their age, sex, background
and interest.
Choose a suitable approach to your audience. In most cases if you speak directly, you
will be listened to. Each listener should feel free that you are talking to him individually. If
the subject is not interesting, give it a personal touch. If necessary dramatize certain ideas to
break the barriers of communication. However, do not be too dogmatic, instead give the
impression that you wish to share your views and ideas with audience. Another way to
awaken the audience is to relate a joke. Humour arising from personal anecdotes is perhaps
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the best. Some in the audience may have had similar experience and they will quickly identify
with you, when you relate such a joke.
Preparation: The art of speaking is the reward of persistent effort. There is no magic
formula to make you an effective speaker. Adequate planning and preparation are essential for
successful presentation. In fact thorough preparation is the antidote for nervousness. Don’t
read out a written speech word for word. A written speech seldom sounds fresh or vigorous.
Face to Face interaction demand thinking and speaking and not a mere repetition of what you
have learnt by rote.
Visual aids: Visual aids can make your presentation more effective. The listeners feel
stimulated and take more interest in what is being presented. Your explanation with the use of
an aid can become more vivid and easily understandable. For example maps, pictures, charts,
motion pictures, slides and overhead projectors and a black board. But remember that, too
many aids may cripple the effect.
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Reference Books:
1. N. Krishnaswamy and T. Sriraman, Current English for Colleges, Macmillan India
Limited.
2. George Orwell, War Minus the shooting - The sporting spirit.
3. Wren and Martin, High School English Grammar & Composition, S. Chand and Co.
Publication.
4. SP Robbin, Organizational Behaviour, Pearson Prentice Hall.
5. Nichols, J.N. (1980). Using paragraph frames to help remedial high school students with
written assignment. Journal of Reading, 24, 228-31.
6. Arnold, M.T. (1981). Teaching theme, thesis, topic sentences and clinchers as related
concepts. Journal of Reading, 24, 373-376.
7 Thomson A. J. and A.V. Martinet, A Practical English Grammar, Oxford University Press,
1986
8 R. Fernández Carmona, English Grammar… with exercises, Longman, 2000
9 R. Murphy, English Grammar in Use, Cambridge University Press 1990
10. Harrison, Grammar Spectrum 2, Oxford University Press, 1996
11 Knapp, M.L. & Hall, J.A. (2001). Nonverbal communication in human action. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth.
12 Guerrero, L., Devito, J.A., & Hecht, M.L. (1999). The nonverbal communication reader:
Classic and contemporary readings. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland
13 GeorgeOrwell: ‘The Sporting Spirit’ First published: Tribune. — GB, London. —
December 1945.
14 Krishna Mohan and Meera Banerjee 1990. Developing Communication Skills,
Macmillan India Ltd. New Delhi.
15 Sharma R C and Krishna Mohan 1978. Business Correspondence, Tata Mc Graw Hill
publishing Company, New Delhi
16 Krishnaswamy,. N and Sriraman, T. 1995. Current English for Colleges, Macmillan
India Ltd. Madress
17 Narayanaswamy V R 1979. Strengthen your writing, Orient Longman, New Delhi
18 Balasubrmanyam M. 1985. Business Communication, Vani Educational Books, New
Delhi
19 http://www.listen.org).