Highway Engineering-I Er: Moti Ram Chaudhary

Chapter: 1

Highway engineering

The science which covers designing, maintenance and operation of the roads, for the convenience of the
road traffic, is called the “High way engineering”.

Introduction:

Highway is a term used to denote the standard width of a road way where all kind of traffic/vehicles are
allowed to transport all necessary goods needed for human beings. Transportation plays a vital role for
the economic development of any region as well as industrial, social and cultural development of any
country. Since, the product like food, clothing and medicines needs transportation at all stages from
production (for carrying raw materials such as seeds, coal, irons etc.) to distribution (from the
production Centre to marketing Centre and later to the retailers and consumers). While discussing the
general effects of good transportation system it may be said that the increased productivity and its
efficient transportation can lower the cost of population.

The science and technology dealing with the road engineering is called ‘Highway engineering’. The
subject highway engineering deals with the scope of various phases like development, planning, location
alignment, highway geometric design, traffic performance, construction and maintenance economic
condition, finance and administration.

Different modes of transportation:

Human beings are surrounded three basic mediums these are land, water and air, the modes of
transportation are connected these three modes.

⮚ Land way or Roadway or Highway.

It is the max m. flexible travel possible to provide door to door service.

⮚ Water way:

Slowest service, only possible part of sea route.

⮚ Air way:

Fastest service, comfortable only part of air route.

Other modes of transportation are:

- Space way. (Satellites, space ship, rockets etc.)

- Rail way.
- Rope way.
- Canal way. Etc.

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Road transport:

Among different modes of transportation, the road transport is most useful and flexible. It is necessary
to transport the passengers and goods firstly before reaching a rail way station, waterway station and
airway station. Road transport could serve the urban as well as remote areas.

Characteristics of the road transport:

● It provides door to door service.

● It saves time for short distance travel.
● Due to flexibility it is subjected to high degree of accidents.
● It requires a relatively small investment for construction.
● It is used by various means of transportation. (Pedestrian, vehicles, animals, drawn carts etc.)
● Local communication among the village and towns is only possible through roads. Other modes
of transportation cannot go from village to village.
● Road transport is the only mode of transportation that offers itself for the service of whole
community alike.

Advantages of road transport:

1) Door to door service.

- When we come out of the house, we get road which serves us to reach our destination.
2) Low capital investment.
- For construction of road it is cheap to construct and maintenance. It is possible to brought road
vehicle by public.
3) Flexibility.
- Road user can anywhere by parking his/her vehicles.
4) Large influential area.
- By development of road we found social, cultural, industrial and economic development of
community.
5) Wide geographical area.
- It is possible in city area as well as remote area.
6) Low cost.
- Vehicles are cheaper and the goods are transport from road transport is cheaper than other
modes of transportation.
7) Personalized travel and service.
- We can travel by driving the vehicle by own self the road.
8) Highest employment potential.
- Road transport provide employment during construction phase, (large no of labor and
technicians) and after construction large no. of people can do work by handling the vehicle.
9) Economy.
- In the process of construction and maintenance, road transport is cheaper than other
transportation system and road vehicles are also cheaper and maintenance cost is also less.

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10) Quick delivery.

- For short distance, we can deliver our good quick by road transport.
11) Safety.
- If unfortunately, road accident happens, less number of people will die.

Disadvantages of road transport:

1) Pollution.
- It takes environmental pollution due to the harm full gasses by vehicles and sound pollution by
horn of the vehicle.
2) Land coverage.
- 25m of land left both side of the centre line of the road, so it affects the land which is suitable
for agriculture.
3) Economy.
- For large distance travel it is less economical,
4) Energy consumption.
- Fuel being poor and carried by our foreign country.

Highway engineering and its scope:

Highway engineering is the branch of civil engineering which deals with the development, techniques of
planning, alignment, geometric design, construction and maintenance of the road. It also includes traffic
operation and control, design of intersection, sign and symbol and traffic control for safe and efficient
movement of vehicle.

The following are the phases of scope of highway engineering.

1) Development, planning and location:

- Historical background; basic for planning; master plan; engineering survey and highway
alignment.
2) Highway design; geometrics and structure:
- Road geometrics and their design; rigid and flexible pavement; design factors and thickness
design; design of drainage system.
3) Traffic performance and its control:
- Traffic study analysis; needs for new road links; traffic regulation and control; intersection design
and their control with signs and signals; island and markings.
4) Materials, construction and maintenance:
- Highway material and mix design; construction type of pavement of pavement; construction
technique; pavement failure; pavement evaluation; maintenance of pavement and drainage
structure.
5) Roadside development and land scoping:
- Plantation of trees; park construction and embankment protection etc.
6) Highway finance, economics and administration:
- Economics of road system; fund availability and expenditure; administration need for all levels.

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Chapter: 2

Highway development and planning:

Historical background of road:

Footpath was the oldest modes of travel. Animals were used to transport man and materials. After the
invention of wheel, simple animal drawn vehicles were developed which become popular for long
period. There was necessity of hard surface road which was existed in the period of 3500 B.C. The first
road of authentic record was Assyrian empire constructed about 1900 B.C. only during the Roman
Empire roads were constructed in large scale. Hence Romans were the pioneers of the road
construction.

Roman road:

Romans develop very elaborate system of roads mainly for the purpose of military movements (400B.C.
to 200A.D.). They constructed in all about one lakh kilometers of road, extending in whole of their
empire.

The main features of the roman roads are:

- Straight.
- Surface to be hard.
- Total thickness (0.75 to 1.20) m.
- Total width (2.20 to 2.50) m.

Fig: typical cross section of roman road.

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Construction procedure:

1) A trench of required width of about 2.2 to2.5m was dug along the straight path by removing the
loose soil until the hard stratum is reached.
2) On or two layer of large foundation stones (10 to20) cm was laid with lime mortar at the
bottom.
3) A layer of lime concrete with large size broken stone mixed in lime mortar was laid over the
bottom course up to thickness of 25 to 40 cm. This course is compacted.
4) Another layer of lime concrete with smallest size stone mixed in lime mortar was laid over the
previous layer to a thickness of 25cm to 40cm or even more if necessary.
5) The wearing course was provided at the top consisting large stone blocks bedded in lime mortar
the thickness of the block varies from 10-15cm.

Telford construction:

Thomas Telford (1757-1834) in early 19 thcentury. He believed in using heavy foundation stone above the
soil sub grade to keep the soil foundation firm. He provided a definite cross slope for top surface of the
pavement by varying the thickness of the foundation stones for cross drainage under foundation layer to
keep the sub grade in dry condition. He proposed provision of cross drains at interval of about 90 cm.

Fig: Telford Road

Construction procedure:

1. A level sub grade was prepared to designed width about 9 meters

2. A large foundation stone of thickness 17-22 cm were laid above sub grade soil. The stone of
lesser thickness 17 cm were laid towards the edge and stones of increasing thickness 22 cm
were laid towards the centre.

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3. The intersection between the foundation stones were filled with smaller stones and properly
beaten down.
4. The central portion was covered with two layers of angular broken stone to compacted
thickness of 10 cm and 5 cm to be compacted under the traffic and get consolidated by the rain.
5. A certain width of pavement towards the edge was constructed by compacted broken stones
about 15 cm.
6. A binding layer of wearing course 4 cm thick was constructed on the top using gravel. The finish
surface has a cross slope of about 1 in 45.
7. . Macadam construction:

John Macadam (1756-1836) developed a new technique of road construction as compared to all
previous methods. This method is fast method based on the scientific thinking. It is economic hence
becomes popular. The important modification in this method with respect to other methods is:

1. The importance of sub grade drainage and compaction were recognized and so the sub grade
was prepared with grade 1in 36.
2. He suggested no necessary of heavy foundation to be placed at bottom layer of construction.
3. The total thickness of construction was less than previous method.
4. The size of broken stones for the top layer was decided based on the stability under animal
drawn vehicles.

Fig: Typical cross section of Macadam construction

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Construction procedure:

1. Sub grade is compacted and prepared with a cross slope of 1 in 36 up to a desired width about 9
meter.
2. Broken stones of strong variety all passing through 5 cm sieve were compacted to a uniform
thickness of 10 cm up on a compacted sub grade.
3. The second layer of strong broken stones of size 3.75 cm was compacted to a thickness of 10
cm.
4. Top surface course is compacted with stones passing 1.9 cm sieve, to a thickness of 5 cm with
cross slope 1in 36.

Basic difference between the Macadam and Telford Construction:

Macadam Construction Telford Construction

1. Sub grade was given to a cross slope of 1 1. Sub grade was kept horizontal and
in 36 to facilitate sub grade drainage. drainage was kept 90 cm interval.
2. The sub grade course of broken stone 2. The sub grade course consists of heavy
passing from 5 cm sieve and compacted foundation stones with varying size about
properly to uniform thickness equal to 10 17 cm towards edge and 22 cm towards
cm. center with cross slope 1 in 45.
3. The base and surface course consist of 3. Two layers of broken stone were
broken stones passing from 3.75 cm 1.90 compacted over the foundation before
cm sieve with thickness 10 cm and 5 cm laying wearing course of 5 cm thick with
with cross slope 1 in 36. cross slope 1 in 45.
4. Total thickness of construction is reduced 4. Total thickness of construction varies
to 25cm. from35 cm at the edge and 41 cm at
center.
5. There is no construction towards edge 5. A certain width of pavement towards the
related to center. edge was constructed by compacting
broken stone with lime mortar.

Classification of road:

According to Nepal Road standard road are classified in to the following categories they are described
below:

a. National Highway (NH).

b. Feeder Roads (FR).
c. District Road (DR)/Panchayat Roads.
d. Urban Roads/City Roads.

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e. Village Roads.

a) National Highway (NH):

The road connecting East to West and North to South of the nation are called the National Highway. The
road connecting National Highway to Regional Headquarters shall also be classified as National Highway.
They serve directly the greater portion of the large distance travel. They provide higher level of service
in terms of travel, speed and bear the entire community mobile.

B) Feeder Roads (FR):

These are the important roads of localized nature. These serves the communities wide interest and
connect District Headquarters and/or Zonal Headquarters to National Highways. It should be structurally
sound and possess good surface finishing. These roads form main arteries of road transportation within
the regions.

C) District road (DR)

These are the roads which traverse each district. These roads serve area of production and market and
establish connection with National and Feeder Highways. It provides access to the one or more village to
the nearest market. These roads are considered main branch from National Highway and Feeder
Highways. The moderate travel speed is the typical on these roads. These roads should be at least one
lane wide and having modern type of surface finishing.

D) City Road (CR):

The roads within the urban limit of municipality boundary, except for the above classes, passing through
the city. These roads provide access to abutting residential, business and industrial places within the
city.
E) Village Roads (VR):

These roads are mainly meant for village use. They connect the villages with each other and also nearby
towns. These roads can be established earth roads, but if metaled surface is provided it can serve more
useful purpose.

Road patterns:

The following are the road patterns which can be adopted in planning of road system.

1. Rectangular pattern.
2. Radial or star and block pattern.
3. Radial or star and circular pattern.
4. Radial or star and grid pattern.
5. Hexagonal pattern.

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(see figure in page number 25 and 26 referring SK khanna and CEG justo)

Chapter 3

Highway Alignment and Surveys

Introduction:

The layout of center line of the highway on the surface of ground is known as the highway alignment. In
road alignment horizontal as well as vertical controls are to be exercised as both these controls play vital
role in road alignment. Horizontal deviations i.e. curve and straights etc. are considered under horizontal
control, while grades, vertical curves etc. are covered under vertical control if the alignment.

Requirement of good highway alignment:

The requirement of good highway alignment is SESE (Short, Easy, Safe and Economical)

⮚ Short:

It is desirable to have a short (or shortest) alignment between two terminal stations. A straight
alignment would be the shortest, through there may be practical consideration would cause deviation
from the shortest path.

⮚ Easy:

The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct and maintain the road with minimum
problems. Also the alignment should be easy for the operation of vehicles with easy gradients and
curves.

⮚ Safe:

The alignment should be safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view point of stability
of natural hill slopes, embankment and cut slopes and foundation of embankments. Also it should be
safe for the traffic operation with safe geometric features.

⮚ Economical:

The road alignment could be considered economical only if the total cost including initial cost,
maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost is lowest. All these factors should be given due to
consideration before working out the economics of each alignment.

Factors affecting highway alignment: (Factors which controls the highway selection of alignment):

Following are the factors which should be considered while aligning a new road.

1. Obligatory points. 5. Miscellaneous:

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2. Geometric features.
3. Traffic.
4. Economics.
1. Obligatory points:

There are the certain points governing the alignment of highways. These control points are classified
into two categories: -

a. Point through which the alignment is to pass.

It is the point from where road has to pass like bridge, intermediate towns or villages, commercial places
etc. If the road alignment passes by the side of the town, it should be connected with the main road
through link roads also the road bridge across a river can be located only at a place where the river has
straight and permanent path and where the bridge abutments and pier can be properly founded. When
it is necessary to cross a hill, the various alternatives are- to cut a tunnel or go round the hill or to
deviate until the hill pass is available. The stability of these alternatives depends upon the various
factors such as topography and site conditions.

b. Point through which the alignment should not pass.

It is the point from which road cannot pass i.e. road deviate from these points in the form of curve or
any other shape. The obligatory points which should be avoided while aligning a road include religious
places, very costly structures, unsuitable land and waterlogged area. However, if the road has to be
constructed through such areas it will prove very costly in its initial construction due to special
technique to be adopted during construction and also maintenance.

2. Geometric features:

The geometric features such as gradient, radius of curve and sight distance also would govern the
highway alignment. If straight alignment is aimed at, often it may be necessary to provide very steep
gradient. As far as possible while aligning a new road, the gradient should be flat and less than the ruling
or design gradient. Thus it may be necessary to change the alignment in the view of speed, maximum
allowable super elevation and coefficient of lateral friction. For horizontal alignment the radius of curve
should minimum.

3. Traffic:

Before fixing any alignment, traffic and economic study should be carried out. This study gives an idea
about goods and passengers traffic, expected on the proposed road. The alignment should suitable for
traffic requirement. During alignment of new road desire lines, traffic flow pattern and future trend
should be kept in view.

4. Economics:

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The alignment should be finalized based on the above should be economical. In working out the
economics, the construction cost, maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost can be decreased by
avoiding the high cutting and filling. The alignment should be chosen in the manner to balance the high
embankment and deep cutting.

5. Miscellaneous:

The various other factors which govern the highway alignment like hydrological, political, monotony, soil
characteristics, drainage consideration, environment etc. also considered.

In spite of above following special considerations are also taken while road in hilly areas: -

a. Stability.
b. Drainage.
c. Resisting length.
d. Geometric standard of hill road etc.
a. Stability:
Alignment of hill road should be on that side of the hill which is sound and solid. There should be no
inclined fissure in the hill side as they may bring sub soil water to the road side. A common problem
in hill road is land slide which can be controlled by avoiding high filling and deep cutting.
b. Drainage:
Numerous hill side drains should be provided for adequate drainage facility across the road. As
cross drainage construction is costly, alignment should be selected in such a manner that the cross
drainage should be minimum.
c. Resisting length:
The resisting length of a road may be calculated from the total work to be done to move the load
along the route taking the horizontal length, the actual difference in levels between the two stations
and sum the sum of in effective rise and fall in excess of floating gradient.
d. Geometric standard of hill road:
Different sets of geometric standards are followed in the hill road with reference to gradient, radius
of curves, straight distance, speed and other related features. The route should enable the ruling
gradient to be attends in most of the length, minimizing steep gradients, hair pin bends and
needless rise and fall.

Engineering survey for highway location:

Before highway alignment is finalized, various engineering surveys are required to be done. The survey
work is done in following four stages.

1. Map study,
2. Reconnaissance survey,
3. Preliminary survey and
4. Final location and detailed survey.

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1. Map study:

It is office work. From the map study the main features like rivers, hills, valleys etc. can be studied. It
provides an idea of one or more possible alternative route. The alignment can be marked, keeping in
view the topographical features and obligatory points to be touched by the road. From map study it is
also possible to drop certain routes because of undesirable ground or other unavoidable obstructions in
route. In map study it should be insured that proposed routes do not exceed ruling gradient anywhere.
Map study thus gives a rough idea about various possible routes which require further survey work.

2. Reconnaissance survey:

Very simple instruments like abney level, tangent clinometers, barrow meter etc. are used by
reconnaissance partly to collect additional details which are not available in map. Some of details to be
collected in the reconnaissance survey are: -

- Topographical features like valley, lake, pond, ridge, hill, permanent structures and other
obstruction along the route, which are not available in map.
- Gradient, length of gradient and radius of curves of alternate alignment.
- Numbers of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and natural ground water table
along the probable routes.
- Soil type for field identification test and observation of geological features.
- Sources of construction materials and water etc.

3. Preliminary survey:

This survey is conducted along all the alignments or routes recommended after reconnaissance survey.
This survey is done with following objectives.

- To collect detail about gradient, sight distance, radius of curve, cross drainage work and types of
soils along all the proposed routes.
- To work out quantities of earth work, construction materials etc. along all the proposed routes.
- To compare different routes with respect to the cost of construction and maintenance and also
in regard to the requirements of a good alignment.
- To finalize the best alignment from all considerations is lastly finalized.

Preliminary survey may be done either by conventional methods of surveying using surveying
instruments like chain, plain table, level, compass etc. or by taking aerial photographs.

The procedure of the conventional method of preliminary survey is given in following steps: -

⮚ Fixing of preliminary traverse.

⮚ Collection of topographic and other details.
⮚ Leveling along all the proposed alignment.
⮚ Collection of drainage and hydrological data.
⮚ Soil survey.

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As the road traverse is open traverse is open traverse, adjustment of error is impossible and hence angle
should be measured accurately by trigonometry or by good and accurate chaining.

All geographical and manmade features along the traverse for a certain width on either side are
surveyed and plotted. The absolute minimum width should be kept the lane width of proposed
alignment.

Leveling work is carried out to give the centerline profile and typical cross-section. The leveling work in
the preliminary survey is kept to a minimum just sufficient to obtain approximate earthwork.

The hydrological data are collected to estimate type, number and approximate size of cross drainage
structures. The vertical alignment of highway and the grade line is decided based on hydrological and
drainage data.

Stability of proposed location is finally based on soil survey. It also helps in working out details of earth
works, slopes, stability of materials, subsurface drainage requirements, pavement type and approximate
thickness.

4. Final location and detail survey:

Location: -

Final location means fixing in center line of the highway from finalized alignment of map to the surface
of the ground. The location of the center line should follow, as closely as practicable, the alignment
finalized after the preliminary surveys. In the center line location, pegs are driven at suitable interval
about 30m interval in ruling area, 20m interval in hilly area and 50m interval in plain areas, checking the
geometric design requirements. However, modification in the final location should be made in the field,
if found essential.

Detailed survey: -

In the detailed survey physical data are collected which are necessary for the preparation of complete
construction plans, profiles, cross section and road structures. During detailed survey the following
works are performed:

● Fixing of TBM. (Generally fixed at an interval of about 250m-500m).

● Centre line leveling. (Levels along the final center line should be taken at all staked points
precisely).
● Cross-sections. (Cross-sections are taken at close intervals with a view to assess earth work
quantities).
● Temporary water courses and stream details. (All the river crossings, valleys, bridge sites, etc.
should be surveyed in details for substantial distances on U/S and D/S sides).
● Material site survey. (The road alignment should run in such places where the construction
materials are easily available).

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● Special site survey. (All the topographical features like village, town, valley, hill, river, lake, etc.
are also surveyed. Sufficient hydrological data for cross drainage works, H.F.L, L.W.L should be
collected and recorded. Soil investigation is also done in details).

Chapter: - 4

Highway Geometric Design

Introduction:
The geometric design of highways is that stage of highway design which deals with the dimensions of the road
and layout of visible features of the highway. It is majorly concerned with the design of the road elements and
does not include pavement design, structural and drainage components. The geometrics of highway should be
designed to provide optimum efficiency in traffic with maximum safety at the reasonable cost. The design of
such features is highly influenced by traffic, driver behavior and psychology and vehicle characteristics.
The features normally considered under the geometric design of roads are grouped as:
ELEMENTS OF CROSS SECTION
o Traffic lane, Carriageway, Shoulder, Median strips, Right of the way, Side slope.
o Camber
o Super elevation
o Extra widening of pavement
o Sight distance across the road

ELEMENTS OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

o Deflection angle, Horizontal curve radius and length
o Transition curve
o Sight distance along the road plan

ELEMENTS OF VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

o Grade
o Vertical curves
o Sight distance along the road profile

BASIC DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA FOR DESIGN

The basic factors influencing(affecting) the design are as follows:
o Design speed
o Design vehicle
o Topography
o Traffic volume and composition
o Traffic capacity

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o Road user behavior

o Environmental and other factors

DESIGN SPEED
It is the most important consideration in geometric design. It influences sight distance, extra widening, super
elevation, the length of vertical curves and horizontal curves.
Design speed is defined as the highest continuous speed at which individual vehicles can travel safely on the
highway when weather conditions are conducive, traffic volumes are low and the design features of the highway
are the factors governing safety. The design speed is different from the legal speed limit or the desired speed
because the legal speed limit is imposed to curb a common tendency of drivers to travel beyond an accepted
safe speed and desired speed is the maximum speed at which driver would travel when unconstrained by either
traffic or local geometry.
The main factors that affect the choice of design speed are the type of highway, topography, traffic conditions
and its volume, the cost of land, vehicle characteristics, individual psychology aesthetic features, economy, etc.
Table: Values of design speed for different terrain conditions

The design speed is seen to be reduced for terrains with steep slopes due to substantial cutting and filling
implying exorbitant costs as well as safety concern due to unstable slopes. It can also be seen that design speed
required for highways is much greater than other roads.

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