JSPM’s

Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.

(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
website: www.jspmicoer.edu.in
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

RMT End Sem. Exam Solved Questions. (Unit 5)

Q. 1) Explain construction and working of PIN diode. State applications & characteristics of pin diode.
(6 Marks)
Answer:
Construction of PIN diode:

Fig. 1 Constructional Details of PIN diode

The PIN diode consists of two narrow, but highly doped semiconductor regions separated by thicker lightly
doped intrinsic region as shown in figure 1. As suggested in the name one of the heavily doped regions is p
type & another is of n type. The semiconductor material used for all three areas is silicon due to its good
power handling capability.
Working of PIN diode:
Zero bias:
 At zero bias the diffusion of the holes and electrons across the junction causes space charge region of
thickness inversely proportional to the impurity concentration.
 An ideal ‘i’ layer has no depletion region i.e. p layer has a fixed negative charge and n layer has a
fixed positive charge.
Reverse bias:
 As reverse bias is applied the space charge regions in the p and n layers will become thicker.
 The reverse resistance will be very high and almost constant.
Forward bias:
 With forward bias carrier will be injected into the I layer and p and n space charge regions will
become thinner.
 This increases the carrier concentration in the I layer above equilibrium. Thus resistivity decreases as
increase in forward bias. Therefore low resistance is offered in the forward direction.
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Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
website: www.jspmicoer.edu.in
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Characteristics of PIN diode:

 The capacitance of PIN diode is independent of bias level as the net charge is said to be very less in
the intrinsic layer
 PIN diode possesses very low reverse recovery time
 The Diode obeys the standard diode equation for all the low-frequency signals.
 This diode appears more like a resistor than any other non-linear device and is said to produce no
distortion or rectification.

Applications of PIN diode:

PIN diode can be used as;
1) Amplitude Modulator.
2) Switch.
3) Phase Shifter.
4) Limiter.
5) Attenuator.

Q. 2) Write a short note on IMPATT diode. (6 Marks)

Answer:
The process of having a delay between voltage and current, in avalanche together with transit time, through
the material is said to be Negative resistance. The devices that help to make a diode exhibit this property are
called as Avalanche transit time devices. The examples of the devices that come under this category are
IMPATT, TRAPATT and BARITT diodes.
IMPATT diode is a high-power semiconductor diode, used in high frequency microwave applications. The
full form IMPATT is IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit Time diode. In this diode there is combination
of delay involved in avalanche current multiplication and delay due to transit time through drift space, which
provides 180 degree phase difference between applied voltage & resulting current. The schematic of
IMPATT diode is as shown in figure 2.
A very high voltage (400 KV/cm) is applied to IMPATT diode which results in a very high current, which
causes flow of minority carriers across the junction. Application of a RF AC voltage if superimposed on a
high DC voltage, the increased velocity of holes and electrons results in additional holes and electrons by
thrashing them out of the crystal structure by Impact ionization. If the original DC field applied was at the
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threshold of developing this situation, then it leads to the avalanche current multiplication and this process
continues.

Fig. 2 Schematic of IMPATT diode

Due to this effect, the current pulse takes a phase shift of 90°. However, instead of being there, it moves
towards cathode due to the reverse bias applied. The time taken for the pulse to reach cathode depends upon
the thickness of n+ layer, which is adjusted to make it 90° phase shift. Now, a dynamic RF negative
resistance is proved to exist. Hence, IMPATT diode acts both as an oscillator and an amplifier.

Characteristics of IMPATT diode:

 Efficiency : < 30%
 Operating Frequency : 1 to 300 GHz
 Pulsed Power = 4 KW
 Maximum Power Output : 5 W in X band, 0.5 W at 30 GHz

Applications of IMPATT diode:

 In transmission part of TV system.
 Used in TDM/FDM systems
 Used in RADAR
 Used as Microwave oscillator & amplifier
 Used as a Microwave source for experimental purpose.
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Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
website: www.jspmicoer.edu.in
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Q. 3) Write the comparison between following:

1) PN junction diode and Schottky diode.
2) Tunnel diode with PN junction diode.
3) IMAPTT with TRAPATT diode.
4) Microwave Transistor, FET & MESFET. (Each for 6 Marks)
Answer:
1) PN junction diode and Schottky diode.
Parameter PN Junction diode Schottky diode
Description In this diode, the junction is formed between In this diode, the junction is formed
the p-type and n-type semiconductors. between the n-type semiconductor and the
metal plate.
Circuit
Symbol
Polarity of PN junction diode is a bipolar device having Schottky diode is a unipolar device, i.e., has
device two types of charge carriers viz. electrons and only one type of charge carriers namely
holes. electrons.
Terminals In PN junction diode, P-region forms the anode In Schottky diode, the metal region forms
and N-region forms the cathode. the anode terminal and the semiconductor
region forms the cathode terminal.
Turn-on The turn on voltage of a PN junction diode is The turn on voltage for the Schottky diode
voltage relatively high, around 0.3 to 0.7 volts. is small, around 0.3 to 0.4 volts.
Forward In case of PN junction diode, the flow of In Schottky diode, the forward current
current forward current takes place due to movement flows due to majority charge carriers only
of both majority and minority charge carriers. which are free electrons emitted by the
metal.
Reverse PN junction diode has relatively less leakage For a Schottky diode, the leakage reverse
leakage current than a Schottky diode. current is comparatively much larger.
current
Depletion Depletion layer exists in a PN junction diode. Schottky diode has no depletion layer.
layer
Switching The switching speed of PN junction diode is The switching speed is extremely high for a
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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
speed comparatively less and is limited by Schottky diode.
recombination time of the charge carriers
Applications PN junction diodes are used in general Schottky diodes are used in switching
rectification and switching applications. power supplies and other high frequency
instrumentation.

2) PN junction diode & Tunnel diode

Parameter PN Junction diode Tunnel diode
Description In this diode, the junction is formed between Semiconductor diode that has effectively
the p-type and n-type semiconductors. "negative resistance" due to the quantum
mechanical effect called tunneling.
Circuit
Symbol

Depletion Wider depletion region exists in a PN junction Narrower depletion region.

region diode.
Negative Not shown by PN junction diode. Exhibits negative resistance.
Resistance
Doping Moderate Very High.
Level
Turn-in 0.6 to 0.7 volts for silicon. Less than 0.1 volts.
voltage
Applications PN junction diodes are used in general Tunnel diodes are used as local oscillators
rectification and switching applications. for UHF television tuners, trigger circuits in
oscilloscopes, high-speed counter circuits,
and very fast-rise time pulse generator
circuits.

3) IMAPTT with TRAPATT diode.

Parameter IMPATT diode TRAPATT diode
Long Form Impact Ionization Avalanche Transit Time Trapped Plasma Avalanche Triggered
diode. Transit diode
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Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
website: www.jspmicoer.edu.in
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
Circuit
Symbol

Operating 4 GHz to 200 GHz 1 to 3 GHz

Frequency
range
Output 1 W for contentious wave & > 400 W for 250 W at 3 GHz, 550 W at 1 GHz
Power pulsed wave
Efficiency 3% for contentious wave & 60% for pulsed 35% at 3 GHz, 60% at 1 GHz for pulsed
wave wave
Advantages High power capability High Efficiency.
Reliable output Low power dissipation.
Applications Used as/in; Used as/in;
Voltage controlled Impatt oscillator. Microwave beacons
Low powered radar systems. Instrument landing systems.
Injection locked amplifier. Radar.

4) Microwave Transistor, FET & MESFET.

BJT FET MESFET
Bipolar Junction Transistor. Field Effect Transistor. Metal Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor.

Current controlled device. Voltage controlled device. Voltage controlled device.

Current flows due to both majority Current flows only due to Current flows only due to majority
& minority carriers and hence it is a majority carriers and hence it is carriers and hence it is a unipolar
bipolar device. a unipolar device. device.
CE, CB & CC configurations are Common Source, Common Common Source, Common drain
possible. drain & common gate & common gate configurations are
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Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
website: www.jspmicoer.edu.in
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
configurations are possible. possible.
Higher sensitivity for changes in Less sensitivity for changes in Less sensitivity for changes in
applied signals. applied signals. applied signals.
Linear relation between input & o/p. Non-linear relation between Non-linear relation between input
input & output. & output.
Mainly used in low noise Used in high noise applications. Used in high noise applications.
applications.

Q. 4) An IMPATT diode has a drift length of 2μm. Determine

i) The drift time of the carrier
ii) The operating frequency of the diode. (6 Marks)
Answer:
The operating frequency of the IMPATT diode is given as;
1 Vd
f  
2 * 2 * L
Here;
Vd  CarrierDriftVelocity
L  DriftLength
  DriftTime
L

Vd
WeAssumeVd  105 Cm / sec
2 *106

105
  2 *1011 sec
1 1
f    25GHz
2 * 2 * 2 *1011

Q. 5) Explain the operation of Varactor diode. Discuss the constructional details, equivalent circuit
and figure of merit. Mention its applications. (6 Marks)
Answer:
Varactor diodes or Varicap diodes are semiconductor devices that are widely used in the electronics industry.
Varactor diode is a type of diode whose internal capacitance varies with respect to the reverse voltage. It
always works in reverse bias conditions and is a voltage-dependent semiconductor device.
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Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
Construction:

Fig. 3 Constructional Details of Varactor diode

It consists of P type and N type semiconductor material which is made up of Silicon or Gallium arsenide
depending upon the application. Silicon is used for low frequency applications and Gallium arsenide is used
for high frequency applications.
These P type and N type material is placed on the Mesa table like structure. In the other type of diodes both
the materials are uniformly doped but in varactor diode near the PN junction the concentration of impurity is
less and gradually increases at the other side of the layer. The entire structure is covered by ceramic except
some portion of Molybdenum stud.
Operation:
It is a diode which behaves like variable capacitor, with PN junction functioning like dielectric material
between two plates of capacitor. When the varactor diode is forward biased as shown in figure 4; the
current starts to flow and thus the depletion region decreases. When the voltage is increased further the
depletion region completely disappears and charge cannot be stored. Thus the varactor diode does not
operate in forward biased condition.

Fig. 4 Varactor diode in forward bias condition

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(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
When the diode is reverse biased as shown in figure 5; and the reverse biased voltage is increased the size of
the depletion region increases. This depletion region acts like an insulator and prevents current to
flow. Respective charges get accumulated along the junction forming some capacitance which is called
junction capacitance. Varactor diode is designed in such a way to store these charges and thus it acts like the
capacitor.

Fig. 5 Varactor diode in reverse bias condition

Equivalent Circuit:
The equivalent circuit of varactor diode is as shown in figure 6; It consist of Cj (Junction Capacitance), Rj
(Junction Resistance), Rs (Series resistance including bulk resistance of wafer ohmic electrical leads). Cc is
capacitance of ceramic case, Cf is fringe capacitance.

Fig. 6 Equivalent Circuit of Varactor diode

Figure of Merit:
The Q factor, also known as the figure of merit and the quality factor, is an important parameter for a
varactor diode since it determines the frequency limit applicability for the diode. The higher the Q factor of
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(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
the varactor diode, the lower the energy dissipation and higher the operating frequency limit of the LC circuit
in which it is used.
Applications:
 It is used as frequency modulators in Radios and Television sets.
 It is used in Automatic Frequency Controllers.
 It is used in voltage controlled oscillators.
 It is used in RF filters for tuning purpose.

Q. 6) Explain construction, working & VI characteristics of Schottky barrier diode. (6 Marks)

Answer:
The schottky diode is formed by the junction of a semiconductor with a metal; it is also called as hot-carrier
diode & low voltage diode. We know that in a PN junction diode, p-type and n-type semiconductors are
joined collectively to form a PN junction, but in Schottky diode the p-type semiconductor is replaced with
metals like aluminum & platinum.
Construction:

Fig. 7 Constructional Details of schottky barrier diode

In this type of diode a metal-semiconductor junction is formed creating a schottky barrier; the metal side is
act as anode and n-type semiconductor is act as cathode of diode. It consists of a metal base on which silicon
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(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
pellet is mounted and a spring loaded wire with a sharp point makes contact with polished surface of
semiconductor pallet. A ceramic housing is used as an enclosure for gold plated tungsten wire.
Working:
When the metal comes in contact with the semiconductor, a potential barrier, known as the Schottky barrier,
is created at the junction due to the difference in work functions between the metal and semiconductor. This
barrier prevents the flow of electrons from the metal into the semiconductor.
When a forward bias voltage is applied across the Schottky diode (anode connected to the metal side,
cathode connected to the semiconductor side), the applied voltage reduces the height of the Schottky barrier.
The lowered barrier allows electrons to easily flow from the metal into the semiconductor, resulting in a low
forward voltage drop (typically 0.2 to 0.4 volts for silicon Schottky diodes). This characteristic minimizes
power dissipation and makes the diode suitable for low-voltage applications.
In the reverse bias condition (positive voltage on the semiconductor side, negative voltage on the metal
side), the Schottky diode exhibits a small reverse leakage current due to thermionic emission of electrons
over the lowered Schottky barrier.
V-I Characteristics:

Fig. 8 V-I characteristics of schottky barrier diode

The V-I characteristics of Schottky diodes are very much similar to the PN junction diode. Current is the
dependent variable while voltage is the independent variable in the Schottky diode.
Forward Bias (F): When a forward bias voltage is applied across a Schottky diode (positive voltage on the
anode, negative voltage on the cathode), the V-I characteristics show that it conducts current very quickly
with a relatively low forward voltage drop. This rapid conduction is due to the low Schottky barrier at the
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metal-semiconductor junction. The forward current increases exponentially with voltage, similar to a
standard diode.
Reverse Bias (R): In the reverse bias condition (positive voltage on the cathode, negative voltage on the
anode), the V-I characteristics of a Schottky diode display a small reverse current, often referred to as the
leakage current.

Q. 7) Explain Gunn Effect using two valley model. (5 Marks)

Answer:

Fig. 9 Two valley model of electron energy for n type GaAs

The Gunn Effect can be explained on the basis of two valley theory, which indicated that the basic
mechanism is the transfer of electrons from lower conditions valley (L-valley) to upper subsidiary valley as
shown in figure 9. According to energy band theory of n type GaAs, a high mobility lower valley is separated
by energy of 0.36 eV from lower mobility upper valley as shown in above figure.
When applied electric field is lower than electric field of lower valley then there is no transfer of electrons to
the upper valley as shown in figure 10 (a). As we increased the applied electric field, the electrons gain
energy from it and move upward in the upper valley as described in figure 10 (b), at one point all the
electrons from lower valley are moved in upper valley (figure 10(c)), this condition is called as population
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inversion. As the electrons transfer to the upper valley, their mobility start decreasing and effective mass is
increasing, which results in decreasing current density and hence the negative differential conductivity.

Fig. 10 Transfer of electrons in various conditions

Q. 8) Explain the constructional detail and operation of Microwave transistor. (6 Marks)

Answer:
Construction:

Fig. 11 Constructional Details of microwave transistor

In microwave transistor, an n type epitaxial layer is grown on n+ substrate that constitutes the collector. On
this n region, a SiO2 layer is grown thermally. A p-base and heavily doped n-emitters are diffused into the
base. Openings are made in Oxide for Ohmic contacts. The surface geometry for such transistors categorized
as either inter-digitated, overlay, or matrix as shown in figure 12. Small signal transistors employ inter-
digitated surface geometry. Inter-digitated structure is suitable for small signal applications in the L, S, and C
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bands. The matrix geometry is sometimes called mesh or emitter grid. Overlay and Matrix structures are
useful as power devices in the UHF and VHF regions.

Fig. 12 Surface geometry of n-p-n microwave transistors (a) Inter-digiated (b) Overlay (c) Matrix
Working:
In a microwave transistor, initially the emitter-base and collector-base junctions are reverse biased. On the
application of a microwave signal, the emitter-base junction becomes forward biased. If a p-n-p transistor is
considered, the application of positive peak of signal forward biases the emitter-base junction, making the
holes to drift to the thin negative base. The holes further accelerate to the negative terminal of the bias
voltage between the collector and the base terminals. A load connected at the collector, receives a current
pulse.

Q. 9) Define negative differential resistivity. Explain the V-I characteristics of Gunn diode using two
valley theorem. (6 Marks)
Answer:
Negative differential resistivity, is a property of some electrical devices, including Gunn diodes, where an
increase in voltage across the device causes a decrease in current.
For description of two valley theorem refer question number 7.
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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

V-I Characteristics of Gunn diode:

Fig. 13 V-I Characteristics of Gunn diode

 As forward bias is applied, a current is produced, which rises quickly to its peak value (Ip) when
applied voltage reaches to (Vp) (Point A).
 When forward bias is increased further diode current start decreasing till it achieve its minimum value
called valley current (Iv) related to valley voltage (Vv) (Point B).
 For voltage greater than (Vv), again current start increasing as in normal p-n junction diode.
 Between peak point A & valley point B, current decreases with increase in applied voltage, i.e. it
possesses a negative resistance.
 Instead of absorbing power a negative resistance produces power; hence gunn diode is used as a very
high frequency oscillator.

Q. 10) What are the avalanche transit time devices? Explain the working principle of TRAPATT
diode. (6 Marks)
Answer:
The process of having a delay between voltage and current, in avalanche together with transit time, through
the material is said to be Negative resistance. The devices that help to make a diode exhibit this property are
called as Avalanche transit time devices.
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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

TRAPATT diode:

Fig. 14 Arrangement in TRAPATT diode

Fig. 15 Characteristics of TRAPATT diode

The full form of TRAPATT diode is TRApped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit diode. These are
high peak power diodes usually n+- p-p+ or p+-n-n+ structures with n-type depletion region, as shown in
figure 14. The electrons and holes trapped in low field region behind the zone which is made to fill the
depletion region in the diode. This is done by a high field avalanche region which propagates through the
diode. The figure 15 shows a graph in which AB shows charging, BC shows plasma formation, DE shows
plasma extraction, EF shows residual extraction, and FG shows charging.
A-B: At this point, the magnitude of the electric field increases. When a sufficient number of carriers are
generated, the electric field is depressed throughout the depletion region causing the voltage to decrease from
B to C.
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C: This charge helps the avalanche to continue and dense plasma of electrons and holes is created. The field
is further depressed so as not to let the electrons or holes out of the depletion layer, and traps the remaining
plasma.
D: The voltage decreases at point D. A long time is required to clear the plasma as the total plasma charge is
large compared to the charge per unit time in the external current.
E: At point E, the plasma is removed. Residual charges of holes and electrons remain each at one end of the
deflection layer.
E to F: The voltage increases as the residual charge is removed.
F: At point F, all the charge generated internally is removed.
F to G: The diode charges like a capacitor.
G: At point G, the diode current comes to zero for half a period. The voltage remains constant as shown in
the graph above. This state continues until the current comes back on and the cycle repeats.

Q. 11) Explain the operation of PIN diode as a) Amplitude Modulator b) Switch. (6 Marks)
Answer:
1) PIN diode as Modulator

Fig. 16 PIN diode as modulator

Amplitude modulation is a method of modulating a carrier signal's amplitude with the information signal (i.e.
modulating signal) to transmit data. When PIN diode is forward biased, it is acts as variable resistor. This
feature is used to achieve AM by varying forward bias of PIN diode according to the modulating signal.
Resistance depends on magnitude of current flowing through diode. A high current results into low resistance
and low current results into high resistance. This property is utilized in AM modulator circuit. In this circuit,
modulating signal is used to vary forward bias current through the PIN diode. This results into generation of
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amplitude modulated (AM) signal. The key advantage of using a PIN diode as a modulator is its fast
response time which allows high-speed amplitude modulation.

2) PIN diode as Switch

Fig. 17 PIN diode as switch

When diode is in forward bias then switch is on and it offers short circuit. When it is in reverse bias and
switch is off and all energy is reflected back and no power is flowing through load. When diode is turned on
the signal path has low resistance whereas, for off condition of diode it offers high resistance. The bias
provided to the circuit can be changed using bias control. For pin diode can be act as switch it can be
connected either in series or shunt.

Q. 12) Explain the following modes in the Gunn Oscillator:

i) Transit time domain mode.
ii) Delayed or Inhibited domain mode.
iii) Quenched domain mode.
iv) Limited space charge Accumulation LSA mode. (6 Marks)
Answer:
The criteria for successful modes of operation in Gunn Effect diode is;
1) The product of doping concentration (n0) and device length (L) must be greater than 1.19*1012 per cm2.
2) The drift velocity of electron (vd = f*L) is 107 cm/sec.
Since the electron drift velocity varies with the electric field there are four possible domain modes for Gunn
diode as follows;
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1) Transit time Gunn domain mode: (vd = vs = f*L = 107 cm/sec)

In this mode vd = vs = f*L = 107 cm/sec (drift velocity of electron is equal to sustaining velocity vs), at this
condition the oscillation period is equal to the transit time as shown in figure 18 (a). It is a low power and
low efficiency mode.

Fig. 18 Gunn domain modes

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2) Delayed domain mode: (106 < f*L < 107 cm/sec)

In this mode the domain is collected by the anode when E < Eth and the new domain formation gets delayed
until the rise of the field to above threshold. The oscillation period is greater than the transit time as shown in
Figure 18 (b). The oscillations occur at the frequency of the resonant circuit which is tuned to a value below
that of the Gunn mode. The dipole domain will arrive at the anode will in time but the formation of a new
dipole domain will be delayed until the oscillation voltage increases above the threshold value. The
efficiency of this mode is about 20%.
3) Quenched domain mode: (f*L > 2*107 cm/sec)
While the domain is travelling, the bias field drops to a value less than Es. Esus during negative half cycle
quenching the domain. A new one cannot form until the field again rises above the Eth.

resonant circuit is tuned to a value slightly above that of the TT mode, the dipole domain will be quenched
before it arrives at the above by the negative swing of the oscillation voltage but the Gunn diode will operate
mostly like Gunn mode.
frequency as shown in Figure 18 (c).

pper frequency limit for this mode is determined by the speed of quenching.

4) Limited Space-charge Accumulation (LSA) mode: (f*L > 2*107 cm/sec)

This mode is very useful for Gunn oscillator because of its high efficiency at more power. In this mode
domain is not formed as frequency of the field never approach to peak value. Hence this mode is suitable for
high operating voltage without avalanche breakdown. In this mode a large portion of the device exhibits a
uniform field resulting in efficient power generation at the circuit controlled frequency. This mode is suitable
to generate short pulses of high peak power. LSA mode of operation can produced several watts of power
with minimum efficiencies of 20%.

Q. 13) Explain principle of operation, IV characteristics and equivalent circuit of microwave tunnel
diode. (6 Marks)
Answer:
 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
website: www.jspmicoer.edu.in
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Working of Tunnel diode:

In tunnel diode the width of the depletion region is very thin (because tunnel diode is very highly doped
semiconductor device), thus when low voltage is applied across the terminal in forward biasing electron
moves across the depletion from n-type semiconductor towards p-type semiconductor.
Case 1: Unbiased Condition

Fig. 19 Unbiased Tunnel diode

At unbiased condition means when no voltage is applied band of n-type is overlapped with the p-type
semiconductor material, due to heavy doping. Because of overlapping the electron of conduction band of n-
type and the hole of valence band of p-type are nearly at same level. thus when temperature increase some
electron tunnel from conduction band of n-type to valence band of p-type and some hole tunnel from valence
band p-type to conduction band n-type semiconductor material, but the current flow is zero because the
number of tunneled electron and holes are same but in opposite direction.
Case 2: Forward bias Condition

Fig. 20 Forward biased Tunnel diode

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
website: www.jspmicoer.edu.in
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
When a small positive voltage is applied less than the potential of the depletion region. In this condition
some of the electron of conduction band of n-type tunnel in empty valence band of p-type, this creates a
small current flow through the diode.
Case 3: Voltage is increased further

Fig. 21 V=Vp for tunnel diode

When voltage is increased a large number of free electron at n-side and holes at p-side generates. Because of
the increase in voltage the over lapping is increased. Energy level of conduction band of n-type is exactly
equal to the energy level of valence band at p-type result maximum tunnel current flow.
Case 4: V > Vp

Fig. 22 V-I characteristics of Tunnel diode

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
website: www.jspmicoer.edu.in
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

When we further increase the voltage more than the peak voltage, the energy level of conduction band at n-
side and the valence band at p-side misalign, due to this misalignment tunneling of charge carrier decreases,
as result decrease in tunnel current. If the applied voltage is increased largely then the tunnel diode behaves
like an ordinary diode, and show zero tunnel current and maximum diode current. If the applied voltage is
greater than the voltage of the depletion layer the tunnel current start decreasing till the valley voltage level
after that current increase exponentially.
Equivalent Circuit of Tunnel diode:

Fig. 23 Equivalent circuit of Tunnel diode

 (C) is junction diffusion capacitance of (1 to 10 pF).
 (-RN) is negative resistance.
 Inductor (Ls) is due to terminal leads In range of (0.1 to 4 nH).
 (Rs) is due to leads, ohmic contacts, & semiconductor materials (1-5Ω).
 These factors limits the frequency at which diode may be used.

Q. 14) with suitable expression explain power frequency limitations of microwave transistors. How to
overcome these limitations. (6 Marks)
Answer:
Similar to conventional microwave tubes, transistors are also suffers from high frequency limitations as
follows:
1) Inter-electrode Capacitance (IEC) effect.
2) Lead Inductance (LI) effect.
3) Transit Time (TT) effect.
4) Power losses.
 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
website: www.jspmicoer.edu.in
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

1) Inter-electrode Capacitance (IEC) effect.

Fig. 24 IEC & LI effect at high frequency

At frequencies above 1 GHz microwave transistors are impaired by parasitic circuit reactance because the
parasitic capacitance (Cpk) which is given as,
1
Xc 
2 *  * fc
which leads in complex value of the 𝛼 and β for transistor. To overcome the IEC effect the physical size of
electrodes of microwave transistors are made small as well as distance between electrodes is increased.
2) Lead Inductance (LI) effect.
At higher frequencies transistors are suffered by parasitic circuit inductance because the parasitic inductance
(Lk, Lp, Lg) as shown in figure 24 and which is given as,
XL  2 *  * fL
LI have undesirable effect as in tubes but less effect in transistors as the leads of transistor are small in size.
Ideally IEC & LI effect must be kept minimum by proper choice of geometry & packaging of transistor.
3) Transit Time (TT) effect.
At low frequencies transit time is negligible, but at higher frequencies, the transit time 'T' is appreciable
which reduces the output. To minimize transit time ’d’ the separation between electrodes can be decreased
and the plate to cathode potential 'V' can be increased
 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat. No. 720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
website: www.jspmicoer.edu.in
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

4) Power losses
The use of transistors at higher frequencies also increases in power losses resulting from skin effect, I2R
losses resulting from capacitance charging currents, losses due to radiation from the circuit and dielectric
losses.

Q. 15) In a Gunn diode with active length of 20 micro meter, the drift velocity of electron is 2*107
cm/sec. Calculate natural frequency of the diode & its critical voltage. (5 Marks)
Answer:
The natural frequency of Gunn diode is given as;
Vd
fn 
L
WeAssumeVd  2 *107 Cm / sec
2 *107
fn   100GHz
20 *106
The critical voltage of Gunn diode is given as;
Vc  L * Ec
WeAssume; Ec  3.3 *103 ; CriticalFieldforGaAsdiode
Vc  20 *106 * 3.3 *103
Vc  6.60Kvolt