17/09/2024

EEE221 Circuit Theory I

Lecture Note 4

NODAL AND LOOP

ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mahmut Emin ÇELİK

Dr. Hıdır DÜZKAYA

NODAL AND LOOP ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

LEARNING GOALS
NODAL ANALYSIS
LOOP ANALYSIS

Develop systematic techniques to determine all the voltages

and currents in a circuit

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NODE ANALYSIS

• One of the systematic ways to

determine every voltage and
current in a circuit

The variables used to describe the circuit will be “Node Voltages”

-- The voltages of each node with respect to a pre-selected
reference node

IT IS INSTRUCTIVE TO START THE PRESENTATION WITH

A RECAP OF A PROBLEM SOLVED BEFORE USING SERIES/
PARALLEL RESISTOR COMBINATIONS

COMPUTE ALL THE VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS IN THIS CIRCUIT

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4k || 12k 12k

SECOND: “BACKTRACK” USING KVL, KCL OHM’S

6k
I3
Va KCL : I1  I 2  I 3  0
OHM' S : I 2 
6k
OHM' S : Vb  3k * I 3 …OTHER OPTIONS...
12
6k || 6k I4  I3
4  12
FIRST REDUCE TO A SINGLE LOOP CIRCUIT Vb  4k * I 4
KCL : I 5  I 4  I 3  0
OHM' S : VC  3k * I 5

12V
I1  3
12k Va  (12)
39 5

THE NODE ANALYSIS PERSPECTIVE

THERE ARE FIVE NODES.
VS  V1  V  V3  V  V5  V IF ONE NODE IS SELECTED AS
a b c
REFERENCE THEN THERE ARE
FOUR VOLTAGES WITH RESPECT
TO THE REFERENCE NODE
KVL KVL KVL

 Vc  V5  Vb 0 V5  Vb  Vc
REFERENCE
 VS  V1  Va  0  Va  V3  Vb  0 ONCE THE VOLTAGES ARE
KNOWN THE CURRENTS CAN
V1  VS  Va V3  Va  Vb WHAT IS THE PATTERN???
BE COMPUTED USING OHM’S
LAW

THEOREM: IF ALL NODE VOLTAGES WITH v R  vm  v N

RESPECT TO A COMMON REFERENCE NODE
ARE KNOWN THEN ONE CAN DETERMINE
ANY OTHER ELECTRICAL VARIABLE FOR
THE CIRCUIT

 vR 

A GENERAL VIEW 6

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THE REFERENCE DIRECTION FOR CURRENTS IS IRRELEVANT

 vR 

i'
 v R' 

USING THE LEFT-RIGHT REFERENCE DIRECTION

THE VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS THE RESISTOR MUST
HAVE THE POLARITY SHOWN
IF THE CURRENT REFERENCE DIRECTION IS
vm  v N
OHM'S LAW i  REVERSED ...
R THE PASSIVE SIGN CONVENTION WILL ASSIGN
THE REVERSE REFERENCE POLARITY TO THE
VOLTAGE ACROSS THE RESISTOR
i  i '
PASSIVE SIGN CONVENTION RULES!
v N  vm
OHM'S LAW i ' 
R

DEFINING THE REFERENCE NODE IS VITAL

 V12 



2V
4V



THE STATEMENT V1  4V IS MEANINGLESS

UNTIL THE REFERENCE POINT IS DEFINED
BY CONVENTION THE GROUND SYMBOL
SPECIFIES THE REFERENCE POINT.

ALL NODE VOLTAGES ARE MEASURED WITH

RESPECT TO THAT REFERENCE POINT

V12  6V
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THE STRATEGY FOR NODE ANALYSIS 1. IDENTIFY ALL NODES AND SELECT
VS Va Vb Vc A REFERENCE NODE

2. IDENTIFY KNOWN NODE VOLTAGES

3. AT EACH NODE WITH UNKNOWN

VOLTAGE WRITE A KCL EQUATION
(e.g.,SUM OF CURRENT LEAVING =0)
REFERENCE
4. REPLACE CURRENTS IN TERMS OF
@Va :  I1  I 2  I3  0 NODE VOLTAGES
Va  Vs Va Va  Vb
  0 AND GET ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS IN
9k 6k 3k THE NODE VOLTAGES ...

@Vb :  I3  I 4  I5  0
SHORTCUT: SKIP WRITING
Vb  Va Vb Vb  Vc
  0 THESE EQUATIONS...
3k 4k 9k
AND PRACTICE WRITING
@Vc :  I5  I 6  0
THESE DIRECTLY
Vc  Vb Vc
 0
9k 3k

WHEN WRITING A NODE EQUATION... Vb

AT EACH NODE ONE CAN CHOSE ARBITRARY
DIRECTIONS FOR THE CURRENTS
a R1 b R3 c
Va Vc
Vb I 3'
a R1 b R3 c
I1' R2
Va Vc I 2'
I3 Vd
I1 R2 d
I2
Vd
d  CURRENTS LEAVING  0
Vb  Va Vb  Vd Vc  Vb
I1'  I 2'  I 3'  0    0
AND SELECT ANY FORM OF KCL. R1 R2 R3
WHEN THE CURRENTS ARE REPLACED IN TERMS
OF THE NODE VOLTAGES THE NODE EQUATIONS
THAT RESULT ARE THE SAME OR EQUIVALENT  CURRENTS INTO NODE  0
Vb  Va Vb  Vd Vc  Vb
 CURRENTS LEAVING  0  I1'  I 2'  I 3'  0     0
R1 R2 R3
Va  Vb Vb  Vd Vb  Vc
 I1  I 2  I 3  0     0 WHEN WRITING THE NODE EQUATIONS
R1 R2 R3 WRITE THE EQUATION DIRECTLY IN TERMS

 CURRENTS INTO NODE  0 OF THE NODE VOLTAGES.

BY DEFAULT USE KCL IN THE FORM
Va  Vb Vb  Vd Vb  Vc SUM-OF-CURRENTS-LEAVING = 0
I1  I 2  I 3  0    0
R1 R2 R3 THE REFERENCE DIRECTION FOR THE
10
CURRENTS DOES NOT AFFECT THE NODE
EQUATION

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CIRCUITS WITH ONLY INDEPENDENT SOURCES

HINT: THE FORMAL MANIPULATION OF

EQUATIONS MAY BE SIMPLER IF ONE
USES CONDUCTANCES INSTEAD OF
RESISTANCES.

@ NODE 1
WITH CONDUCTANCES  i A  G1v1  G2 (v1  v2 )  0
v v v
USING RESISTANCE S  i A  1  1 2  0
R1 R2 REORDERING TERMS

@ NODE 2
REORDERING TERMS

THE MODEL FOR THE CIRCUIT IS A SYSTEM

OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS

THE MANIPULATION OF SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC

EQUATIONS CAN BE EFFICIENTLY DONE
USING MATRIX ANALYSIS
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EXAMPLE 1

WRITE THE KCL EQUATIONS

@ NODE 1 WE VISUALIZE THE CURRENTS

LEAVING AND WRITE THE KCL EQUATION

REPEAT THE PROCESS AT NODE 2 OR VISUALIZE CURRENTS GOING INTO NODE

v v v v
 i2  2 1  2 1  0
R4 R3

12

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EXAMPLE 2: WRITING NODE EQUATIONS

V
BB
MARK THE NODES
(TO INSURE THAT
NONE IS MISSING)
15mA
A
VA
8k 2k 8k 2k

C SELECT AS
REFERENCE

WRITE KCL AT EACH NODE IN TERMS OF VA VA

NODE VOLTAGES @A   15mA  0
2 k 8k
V V
@ B B  B  15mA  0
8k 2 k

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A MODEL IS SOLVED BY MANIPULATION OF NUMERICAL MODEL EXAMPLE 3

EQUATIONS AND USING MATRIX ANALYSIS

USE GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION

i A  12mA, iB  4mA
THE NODE EQUATIONS R1  12k, R2  R3  6k

ALTERNATIVE MANIPULATION
RIGHT HAND
THE MODEL SIDE IS
* / 12k VOLTS.
COEFFS ARE
NUMBERS
REPLACE VALUES AND SWITCH NOTATION * / 6k
TO UPPER CASE

3V1  2V2  12
 V1  2V2  24 * / 3 (and add equations)
ADD EQS 2V  12[V ]
4V2  60[V ] 14
1

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SOLUTION USING MATRIX ALGEBRA

PLACE IN MATRIX FORM

AND DO THE MATRIX ALGEBRA ...

USE MATRIX ANALYSIS TO SHOW SOLUTION

PERFORM THE MATRIX MANIPULATIONS

FOR THE ADJOINT REPLACE
Adj ( A) SAMPLE
 1 103  4  103 15
A1  EACH ELEMENT BY ITS
| A| COFACTOR V1  18k 2   
 3k 6k 

EXAMPLE 4 Rearranging terms ...

@v1

@ v2

COULD WRITE EQUATIONS BY INSPECTION

  CONDUCTANCES CONNECTED TO NODE

@ v3
  CONDUCTANCES BETWEEN 1 & 2
  CONDUCTANCES BETWEEN 1 & 3
  CONDUCTANCES BETWEEN 16
2& 3

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EXAMPLE 5: WRITING EQUATIONS “BY INSPECTION”

FOR CIRCUITS WITH ONLY INDEPENDENT
SOURCES THE MATRIX IS ALWAYS SYMMETRIC

THE DIAGONAL ELEMENTS ARE POSITIVE

THE OFF-DIAGONAL ELEMENTS ARE NEGATIVE

Conductances connected to node 1

Conductances between 1 and 2

Conductances between 1 and 3

Conductances between 2 and 3

VALID ONLY FOR CIRCUITS

WITHOUT DEPENDENT
SOURCES
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EXAMLE 6: LEARNING EXTENSION

V1 V1  V2 USING KCL
@V1 :  4mA  
6k 12k
V2 V2  V1
@V2 : 2mA   0
6k 12k
BY “INSPECTION”

 1 1  1
  V1  V2  4mA
 6k 12k  12k
1  1 1 
 V1    V2  2mA
12k  6k 12k 

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EXAMPLE 7: LEARNING EXTENSION

6mA

I3
I1
I2

Node analysis
V NODE EQS. BY INSPECTION
@ V1 : 1  2mA  6mA  0  V1  16V
2k 1
V V V1  0 V2  2  6 mA
@V :  6mA  2  2  0  V2  12V
2 2k
6k 3k
IN MOST CASES THERE
0V1   1  1 V2  6mA
 6k 3k 
ARE SEVERAL DIFFERENT
WAYS OF SOLVING A I 1  8mA
Once node voltages are known
PROBLEM 3k V1 V2 V2
I2  (6mA)  2mA I1  I2  I3 
3k  6k
2k 6k 3k
6k
I3  (6mA)  4mA
3k  6k

CURRENTS COULD BE COMPUTED DIRECTLY 19

USING KCL AND CURRENT DIVIDER!!

CIRCUITS WITH DEPENDENT SOURCES EXAMPLE 8

NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
CIRCUITS WITH DEPENDENT SOURCES CANNOT
BE MODELED BY INSPECTION. THE SYMMETRY
IS LOST.
A PROCEDURE FOR MODELING  1 1   2 1 
•WRITE THE NODE EQUATIONS USING DEPENDENT   v1    v2  0
SOURCES AS REGULAR SOURCES.
 12 k 6 k   3k 6 k
•FOR EACH DEPENDENT SOURCE WE ADD 1  1 1 
ONE EQUATION EXPRESSING THE CONTROLLING  v1    v2  2mA
VARIABLE IN TERMS OF THE NODE VOLTAGES
6k  12k 3k 

* / 4k

* / 6k

V1  2V2  0
 V1  3V2  12[V ]
v1 v1  v2 5V2  12[V ]
 io   0 REPLACE AND REARRANGE ADDING THE EQUATIONS
R1 R2  24
 1 1  1  V1   V
v v v   v1    v2  0
5
 iA  2  2 1  0  R1 R2   R3 R2 
R3 R2
1  1 1 
MODEL FOR  v1    v2  i A
CONTROLLING VARIABLE R2 R
 2 R3
v2
io  20
R3

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EXAMPLE 9: CIRCUIT WITH VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED CURRENT

REPLACE AND REARRANGE

CONTINUE WITH GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION...

WRITE NODE EQUATIONS. TREAT DEPENDENT
SOURCE AS REGULAR SOURCE

OR USE MATRIX ALGEBRA

EXPRESS CONTROLLING VARIABLE IN TERMS OF

NODE VOLTAGES

FOUR EQUATIONS IN OUR UNKNOWNS. SOLVE

USING FAVORITE TECHNIQUE 21

USING MATLAB TO SOLVE THE NODE EQUATIONS

R1  1k, R2  R3  2k,
R4  4k, i A  2mA , i B  4mA ,
  2[ A / V ]
» R1=1000;R2=2000;R3=2000;
DEFINE THE COMPONENTS OF THE CIRCUIT
R4=4000; %resistances in Ohm
» iA=0.002;iB=0.004; %sources in Amps
» alpha=2; %gain of dependent source
DEFINE THE MATRIX G » G=[(1/R1+1/R2), -1/R1, 0; %first row of the matrix
Entries in a row are -1/R1, (1/R1+alpha+1/R2), -(alpha+1/R2); %second row
separated by commas 0, -1/R2, (1/R2+1/R4)], %third row. End in comma to have the echo
(or plain spaces).
Rows are separated by G=
semi colon
0.0015 -0.0010 0
-0.0010 2.0015 -2.0005
0 -0.0005 0.0008
DEFINE RIGHT HAND SIDE VECTOR » I=[iA;-iA;iB]; %end in ";" to skip echo

» V=G\I % end with carriage return and get the echo

SOLVE LINEAR EQUATION V=
11.9940
15.9910 22
15.9940

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EXAMPLE 10: FIND NODE VOLTAGES

REARRANGE AND MULTIPLY BY 10k
2V1  V2  40[V ] * / 2 and add eqs.
V1  2V2  0

5V1  80V  V1  16V

V1
NODE EQUATIONS
V2    V2  8V
2
V1 V V
@V1 :  4mA  1 2  0
10k 10k
V2  V1 V
@V2 :  2 IO  2  0
10k 10k
CONTROLLING VARIABLE (IN TERMS ON NODE
VOLTAGES)
V1
IO 
10k
REPLACE
V1 V V
 4mA  1 2  0
10k 10k
V2  V1 V1 V
2  2 0
10k 10k 10k 23

FIND THE VOLTAGE VO EXAMPLE 11

NOTICE REPLACEMENT OF DEPENDENT SOURCE

NODE EQUATIONS IN TERMS OF NODE VOLTAGE
Vx Vx
 2mA    0 * / 6k
3k 6k
V V V
 x  O  O  0 * / 12k
6k 12k 12k

3Vx  12[V ]  Vx  4[V ]

2VO  2Vx  0  VO  4[V ]

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EXAMPLE 12: CIRCUITS WITH INDEPENDENT VOLTAGE SOURCES

3 nodes plus the reference. In

principle one needs 3 equations...

…but two nodes are connected to

the reference through voltage
sources. Hence those node
voltages are known!!!

…Only one KCL is necessary

V2 V2  V3 V2  V1
  0
Hint: Each voltage source 6k 12k 12k
connected to the reference V1  12[V ] THESE ARE THE REMAINING
node saves one node equation
V3  6[V ]
TWO NODE EQUATIONS

SOLVING THE EQUATIONS

2V2  (V2  V3 )  (V2  V1 )  0
One more example …. 4V2  6[V ]  V2  1.5[V ]
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EXAMPLE 13: Find V_0 R1 = 1k; R2 = 2k, R3 = 1k, R4 = 2k

Is1 =2mA, Is2 = 4mA, Is3 = 4mA,
V4 Vs = 12 V

R2 IS2 KNOWN NODE VOLTAGE

I S1 R1 V2 @V3 : V3  VVS  12[V ]
V3
V1
 VO  R3 V V V
@V1 :  I S1  1 2  1  0
+ R1 R4
R4 -

IS3 VS1 V1  V2 V1
 2[mA ]   0
IDENTIFY AND LABEL ALL NODES
1k 2k
V2  V1 V2  V3 V2  V4
WRITE THE NODE EQUATIONS @V2 :  I S 3    0
R1 R3 R2
NOW WE LOOK WHAT IS BEING V2  V1 V2  12 V2  V4
ASKED TO DECIDE THE SOLUTION  4[mA ]    0
STRATEGY. 1k 1k 2k
V4  V2
V0  V1 V2 @V4 : I S1  I S 2  0
R2
ONLY V1,V2 ARE NEEDED FOR VO
V4  V2
2[mA ]  4[mA ]  0
2k
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TO SOLVE BY HAND ELIMINATE DENOMINATORS

V1  V2 V1
 2[mA]   0
*/2k
3V1  2V2  4[V ] (1)
1k 2k
V  V V  12 V2  V4 */2k
 4[mA]  2 1  2  0  2V1  5V2  V4  32[V ] (2)
1k 1k 2k
V4  V2 */2k
2[mA]  4[mA]  0  V2  V4  4[V ] (3)
2k
Add 2+3  2V1  4V2  36[V ]
ALTERNATIVE: USE LINEAR ALGEBRA 3V1  2V2  4[V ] * / 2 and add
 3  2 0  V1   4  4V1  40[V ]  V1  10[V ]
 2 5  1 V   32
  2    4V2  56[V ]  V2  14[V ]
 0  1 1  V3   4 
FINALLY!! V0  V1  V2  4[V ]

So. What happens when sources are connected between two non
reference nodes?
27

EXAMPLE 14: THE SUPERNODE TECHNIQUE

We will use this example to introduce the concept of a SUPERNODE

SUPERNODE

IS

Efficient solution: enclose the

source, and all elements in
parallel, inside a surface.
Conventional node analysis
requires all currents at a node Apply KCL to the surface!!!

V1 V1 V2
@V_1  6mA   IS  0  6mA    4mA  0
6k 6k 12k
V The source current is interior
@V_2  I S  4mA  2  0 to the surface and is not required
12k
2 eqs, 3 unknowns...Panic!! We STILL need one more equation

V V  6[V ]
The current through the source is not
related to the voltage of the source 1 2
Math solution: add one equation Only 2 eqs in two unknowns!!!

V1 V2  6[V ] 28

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ALGEBRAIC DETAILS

The Equations
V1 V2
(1)   6mA  4mA  0
6k 12k
(2) V1  V2  6[V ]
Solution
1. Eliminate denominato rs in Eq(1). Multiply by ...

2V1  V2  24[V ]
V1  V2  6[V ]
2. Add equations to eliminate V2
3V1  30[V ]  V1  10[V ]
3. Use Eq(2) to compute V2
V2  V1  6[V ]  4[V ]

29

Is2
FIND THE NODE VOLTAGES
AND THE POWER SUPPLIED
BY THE VOLTAGE SOURCE
R3 I
V1 V
V2 EXAMPLE 15


R1 VS I s1
R2

R1  R2  10k, R3  4k
VS  20[V ], I s1  10[mA], I s 2  6[mA]

V2 V1  20  V1  V2  20[V ]

V1 V2 * /10k  V1  V2  100[V ]
  10mA  0
10k 10k adding : V2  60[V ]
V1  100  V2  40[V ]
TO COMPUTE THE POWER SUPPLIED BY VOLTAGE SOURCE
WE MUST KNOW THE CURRENT THROUGH IT
V1 V  V2
IV   6mA  1  8mA
10k 10k P  20[V ]  8[mA]  160mW
BASED ON PASSIVE SIGN CONVENTION THE
POWER IS RECEIVED BY THE SOURCE!! 30

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EXAMPLE 16
SUPERNODE

V1  6V SOURCES CONNECTED TO THE

REFERENCE
V4  4V
CONSTRAINT EQUATION V3  V2  12V
KCL @ SUPERNODE
V2  6 V2 V3 V3  (4)
    0 * / 2k
2k 1k 2k 2k
V2 IS NOT NEEDED FOR IO 3V2  2V3  2V
 V2  V3  12V * / 3 and add
5V3  38V
V
OHM' S LAW I O  3  3.8mA
2k
31

WRITE THE NODE EQUATIONS Supernodes can be more complex

supernode
V3 V3  V2 V3  V4 V3
V2 R4 KCL@V_3   0
R4 R5 R7
R1
+
-
R5 KCL @SUPERNODE
R2
V4 (Careful not to omit any current)
V1 R7
+ -
V2  V1 V5  V1 V5 V4 V4  V3 V2  V3
V5      0
+
-
R3 R6 R1 R2 R3 R6 R5 R4
CONSTRAINTS DUE TO VOLTAGE SOURCES

V1  VS1
Identify all nodes, select a
reference and label nodes V2  V5  VS 2
Nodes connected to reference through
a voltage source V5  V4  VS 3
Voltage sources in between nodes 5 EQUATIONS IN FIVE UNKNOWNS.
and possible supernodes

EQUATION BOOKKEEPING:
KCL@ V_3, KCL@ supernode,
2 constraints equations
and one known node

32

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CIRCUITS WITH DEPENDENT SOURCES

PRESENT NO SIGNIFICANT ADDITIONAL
COMPLEXITY. THE DEPENDENT SOURCES
ARE TREATED AS REGULAR SOURCES

WE MUST ADD ONE EQUATION FOR EACH

CONTROLLING VARIABLE

33

EXAMPLE 17

FIND IO

VOLTAGE SOURCE CONNECTED TO REFERENCE

V1  3V
V2  V1 V2 REPLACE
KCL@ V2 :   2I x  0
3k 6k
CONTROLLING VARIABLE IN V2
TERMS OF NODE VOLTAGES
Ix 
6k
V2  V1 V2 V
  2 2  0 * / 6k
3k 6k 6k
V2  2V1  0  V2  6V
V1  V2
IO   1mA 34
3k

17
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EXAMPLE 18:
SUPER NODE WITH DEPENDENT
SOURCE

VOLTAGE SOURCE CONNECTED TO REFERENCE

V3  6V
SUPERNODE CONSTRAINT V1  V2  2Vx
CONTROLLING VARIABLE IN TERMS OF NODES
KCL AT SUPERNODE Vx  V2  V1  3V2

* / 12k
2(V1  6)  V1  2V2  V2  6  0
3V1  3V2  18  4V1  18

35

EXAMPLE 19:
CURRENT CONTROLLED
VOLTAGE SOURCE

CONSTRAINT DUE TO SOURCE V2  V1  2kI x

CONTROLLING VARIABLE IN TERMS OF NODES

 V1  2kI x  V2  2V1 V1
Ix 
2k
KCL AT SUPERNODE V V
 4mA  1  2mA  2  0
2k 2k
V1  V2  4[V ] * / 2 and add
 2V1  V2  0
3V2  8[V ]
V2 4
IO   mA
2k 3

36

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EXAMPLE 20: An example with dependent sources

2k VX 3k V2
V1

 
2k 6k
VS  
1000 aI x
Ix ‘a’ has units of [Volt/Amp]
IDENTIFY AND LABEL NODES
REPLACE Ix IN V2
2 nodes are connected to the 1k * aV X aV X
reference through voltage sources V2  V2 
V1  VS 2k 2
V2  1000aI X REPLACE V2 IN KCL
KCL @ Vx
3(VX  VS )  3VX  2(VX  aVX / 2)  0
V X  VS V X V X  v 2
  0 (8  a )VX  3VS
2k 2k 3k
EXPRESS CONTROLLING VARIABLE IN What happens when a=8?
TERMS OF NODE VOLTAGES

VX
IX  37
2k

EXAMPLE 21: FIND THE VOLTAGE Vo

@V4 : V4  4V
AT SUPER NODE
V1  V2  2VX
V2 V2  V3 V1  V3 V1  4V
1k  2mA  1k  1k  1k  1k  0

1k  @V :  2mA  V  V  V  V  0
3 2 3 1
3
1k 1k
CONTROLLING VARIABLE VX  V2
SOLVE EQUATIONS NOW
V1  3VX
2V1  2VX  V3  6V
V1  VX  2V3  2V
VARIABLE OF INTEREST VO  V1  V3
38

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EXAMPLE 22: Find the current Io

@V2 : V2  12V
@V3 : V3  2VX
@ super node:
V4  V1  6V (constraint eq.)
V1  V2 V1  V3 V  V3 V4  V5 V4
  2I X  4   0
1k 1k 1k 1k 1k
V5  V4 V5
FIND NODES – AND SUPER NODES @V5 :  2 I X   0
1k 1k
CONTROLLING VARIABLES
VX  V1  V2
V4
IX  7 eqs in 7 variables
1k

V5
VARIABLE OF INTEREST IO 
1k

39

Example 23: Last Year Midterm Exam

40

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Example 23: Last Year Midterm Exam

41

LOOP ANALYSIS

The second systematic technique

to determine all currents and
voltages in a circuit
IT IS DUAL TO NODE ANALYSIS - IT FIRST DETERMINES ALL CURRENTS IN A CIRCUIT
AND THEN IT USES OHM’S LAW TO COMPUTE NECESSARY VOLTAGES

THERE ARE SITUATION WHERE NODE ANALYSIS IS NOT AN EFFICIENT TECHNIQUE

AND WHERE THE NUMBER OF EQUATIONS REQUIRED BY THIS NEW METHOD IS
SIGNIFICANTLY SMALLER

42

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Apply node analysis to this circuit

There are 4 non reference nodes
V1  VR1 V2
 VR2  V3
There is one super node
R1 R2 There is one node connected to the
+
-
I +
- 18V reference through a voltage source
12V R3
V4 We need three equations to compute
 VR3  all node voltages

…BUT THERE IS ONLY ONE CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH ALL COMPONENTS AND IF
THAT CURRENT IS DETERMINED ALL VOLTAGES CAN BE COMPUTED WITH OHM’S LAW

 12[V ]  VR1  VR 2  18[V ]  VR3  0

STRATEGY:
1. Apply KVL
(sum of voltage drops =0)

Skip this equation

2. Use Ohm’s Law to express
voltages in terms of the “loop current.”

 12[V ]  R1I  R2 I  18[V ]  R3 I  0 Write this one

directly
RESULT IS ONE EQUATION IN THE LOOP CURRENT!!!
SHORTCUT

43

LOOPS, MESHES AND LOOP CURRENTS CLAIM: IN A CIRCUIT, THE CURRENT THROUGH
ANY COMPONENT CAN BE EXPRESSED IN TERMS
2 b 3 c OF THE LOOP CURRENTS
a
EACH COMPONENT EXAMPLES THE DIRECTION OF THE LOOP
IS CHARACTERIZED CURRENTS IS SIGNIFICANT
1 I1 7 I2 4 BY ITS VOLTAGE I a f   I1  I 3
ACROSS AND ITS I b e  I1  I 2
CURRENT THROUGH
f 6 e 5 d
Ib c  I 2  I3
A BASIC3 ICIRCUIT
FACT: NOT EVERY LOOP CURRENT IS REQUIRED
A LOOP IS A CLOSED PATH THAT DOES NOT TO COMPUTE ALL THE CURRENTS THROUGH
GO TWICE OVER ANY NODE. COMPONENTS
THIS CIRCUIT HAS THREE LOOPS USING TWO
2 b 3 c
a LOOP CURRENTS
fabef ebcde 123456
  
A MESH IS A LOOP THAT DOES NOT ENCLOSE
1
I1 7 4 Ia f   I 1  I3
ANY OTHER LOOP. 
fabef, ebcde ARE MESHES
f 6 e 5 d Ib e  I 1
A BASIC CIRCUIT  
A LOOP CURRENT IS A (FICTICIOUS) CURRENT I3
THAT IS ASSUMED TO FLOW AROUND A LOOP Ib c  I 3
I1 , I 2 , I3 ARE LOOP CURRENTS FOR EVERY CIRCUIT THERE IS A MINIMUM
A MESH CURRENT IS A LOOP CURRENT NUMBER OF LOOP CURRENTS THAT ARE
ASSOCIATED TO A MESH. I1, I2 ARE MESH NECESSARY TO COMPUTE EVERY CURRENT
CURRENTS IN THE CIRCUIT.
SUCH A COLLECTION IS CALLED A MINIMAL
44
SET (OF LOOP CURRENTS).

22
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DETERMINATION OF LOOP CURRENTS

FOR A GIVEN CIRCUIT LET
B NUMBER OF BRANCHES KVL ON LEFT MESH
N NUMBER OF NODES
THE MINIMUM REQUIRED NUMBER OF
LOOP CURRENTS IS
KVL ON RIGHT MESH
L  B  ( N  1)
v S 2  v4  v5  v 3  0
MESH CURRENTS ARE ALWAYS INDEPENDENT
USING OHM’S LAW
AN EXAMPLE v1  i1 R1 , v 2  i1 R2 , v 3  ( i1  i2 ) R3
v4  i2 R4 , v5  i2 R5
REPLACING AND REARRANGING

IN MATRIX FORM
TWO LOOP CURRENTS ARE  R1  R2  R3  R3   i1   v S 1 
B7  
R3  R4  R5   i2    v S 2 
REQUIRED.
THE CURRENTS SHOWN ARE   R3
N 6 MESH CURRENTS. HENCE
THESE ARE LOOP EQUATIONS FOR THE
L  7  (6  1)  2 THEY ARE INDEPENDENT AND
CIRCUIT
FORM A MINIMAL SET 45

EXAMPLE 1: WRITE THE MESH EQUATIONS

 v R1   i1R1
BOOKKEEPING
BRANCHES = 8
NODES = 7
LOOP CURRENTS NEEDED = 2

AND WE ARE TOLD TO

USE MESH CURRENTS!  v R2   (i1  i2 ) R2
THIS DEFINES THE LOOP  v R 5  i2 R5
CURRENTS TO BE USED v R 3  i2 R3


 v R4   i2 R4
IDENTIFY ALL VOLTAGE DROPS
WRITE KVL ON EACH MESH
TOP MESH :  v S1  v R1  v S 2  v R2  0
BOTTOM:  v R2  v R5  v R4  v S 3  v R3  0

USE OHM’S LAW

46

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DEVELOPING A SHORTCUT
WRITE THE MESH EQUATIONS
V2 WHENEVER AN ELEMENT
R1 HAS MORE THAN ONE
+ - LOOP CURRENT FLOWING
THROUGH IT WE COMPUTE
I1 NET CURRENT IN THE
V1 + R2 R3
- I2 DIRECTION OF TRAVEL

R5 R4

DRAW THE MESH CURRENTS. ORIENTATION

CAN BE ARBITRARY. BUT BY CONVENTION
THEY ARE DEFINED CLOCKWISE

NOW WRITE KVL FOR EACH MESH AND APPLY

OHM’S LAW TO EVERY RESISTOR.

AT EACH LOOP FOLLOW THE PASSIVE SIGN

CONVENTION USING LOOP CURRENT REFERENCE
DIRECTION

 V1  I1R1  ( I1  I 2 ) R2  I1R5  0
V2  I 2 R3  I 2 R4  ( I 2  I1) R2  0
47

EXAMPLE 2: FIND Io USING LOOP ANALYSIS

AN ALTERNATIVE SELECTION OF LOOP CURRENTS

SHORTCUT: POLARITIES ARE NOT NEEDED.

APPLY OHM’S LAW TO EACH ELEMENT AS KVL
IS BEING WRITTEN
KVL @ I1
KVL @ I1

KVL @ I2 KVL @ I2  12  6k ( I1  I 2 )  3kI2  3  0

REARRANGE 12kI1  6kI 2  12 NOW IO  I1

THIS SELECTION IS MORE EFFICIENT
 6kI1  9kI 2  3 * / 2 and add
12kI 2  6  I 2  0.5mA REARRANGE 12kI1  6kI 2  12 * / 3
5 6kI1  9kI 2  9 * / 2 and substract
12kI1  12  6kI 2  I1  mA
4 3
EXPRESS VARIABLE OF INTEREST AS FUNCTION
24kI1  18  I1  mA
4
OF LOOP CURRENTS 48
IO  I1  I 2

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IF THE CIRCUIT CONTAINS ONLY INDEPENDENT EXAMPLE 3

SOURCE THE MESH EQUATIONS CAN BE WRITTEN
“BY INSPECTION”
MUST HAVE ALL MESH CURRENTS WITH THE
SAME ORIENTATION

LOOP 1 coefficient of I1  4k  6k
coefficient of I 2  0
IN LOOP K
coefficient of I3  6k RHS  6[V ]
THE COEFFICENT OF Ik IS THE SUM OF
RESISTANCES AROUND THE LOOP.
THE RIGHT HAND SIDE IS THE ALGEBRAIC SUM
OF VOLTAGE SOURCES AROUND THE LOOP
(VOLTAGE RISES - VOLTAGE DROPS) LOOP 2 coefficient of I1  0
coefficient of I 2  9k  3k
THE COEFFICIENT OF Ij IS THE SUM OF
RESISTANCES COMMON TO BOTH k AND j AND coefficient of I3  3k RHS  6[V ]
WITH A NEGATIVE SIGN.
LOOP 1 12kI1  6kI 2  12
LOOP 2  6kI1  9kI 2  3 Loop 3 (6k ) I1  (3k ) I 2  (3k  6k  12k49) I 3  0

EXAMPLE 4

1. DRAW THE MESH CURRENTS

I1 I2

2. WRITE MESH EQUATIONS

MESH 1 (2k  4k  2k ) I1  2kI 2  3[V ]
DIVIDE BY 1k. GET NUMBERS FOR COEFFICIENTS
MESH 2  2kI1  (2k  6k ) I 2  (6V  3V ) ON THE LEFT AND mA ON THE RHS

3. SOLVE EQUATIONS
8 I1  2 I 2  3[mA ]
 2 I1  8 I 2  9[mA ] * / 4 and add
30 I 2  33[mA] 33
VO  6kI 2  [V ]
5
50

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EXAMPLE 5 WRITE THE MESH EQUATIONS


I2 1. DRAW MESH CURRENTS
I4
12V  4k
4k
12k I1 2k

6k 9V
I3 

BOOKKEEPING: B = 7, N = 4

2. WRITE MESH EQUATIONS. USE KVL

MESH 1 : 12kI1  12V  6k ( I1  I3 )  0

MESH 2 :  12V  4k ( I 2  I 4 )  4k ( I 2  I3 )  0
MESH 3 :  9V  6k ( I3  I1)  4k ( I3  I 2 )  0
MESH 4 : 9V  4k ( I 4  I 2 )  2kI 4  0
EQUATIONS BY INSPECTION

CHOOSE YOUR FAVORITE TECHNIQUE 18kI1  6kI3  12V

TO SOLVE THE SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS 8kI 2  4kI3  4kI 4  12V
 6kI1  4kI 2  10kI3  9V
 4kI2  6kI 4  9V

51

EXAMPLE 6: CIRCUITS WITH INDEPENDENT CURRENT SOURCES

KVL

THERE IS NO RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN V1 AND

THE SOURCE CURRENT! HOWEVER ... CURRENT SOURCES THAT ARE NOT SHARED
BY OTHER MESHES (OR LOOPS) SERVE TO
MESH 1 CURRENT IS CONSTRAINED DEFINE A MESH (LOOP) CURRENT AND
REDUCE THE NUMBER OF REQUIRED EQUATIONS
MESH 1 EQUATION I1  2mA
MESH 2 TO OBTAIN V1 APPLY KVL TO ANY CLOSED
PATH THAT INCLUDES V1
“BY INSPECTION”  2kI1  8kI 2  2V
2k  (2mA )  2V 3 9
I2   mA  VO  6kI 2  [V ] 52
8k 4 2

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EXAMPLE 7 COMPUTE VO USING MESH ANALYSIS

KVL FOR Vo

TWO MESH CURRENTS ARE DEFINED BY CURRENT

SOURCES
I1  4mA I 2  2mA MESH 3

“BY INSPECTION”  2kI1  4kI2  12kI3  3V

3V  2k (4mA )  4k (2mA ) 1
I3   mA
12k 4
USE KVL TO
53
COMPUTE Vo

EXAMPLE 8

I2
I2
I1 I1

WE ACTUALLY NEED THE CURRENT ON THE

RIGHT MESH. HENCE, USE MESH ANALYSIS

MESH 1: I1  4mA MESH 1: I1  4mA

MESH 2: 5[V ]  4k ( I 2  I1)  6kI 2  0 MESH 2:  4kI1  12kI 2  0
16 4
10 I 2  5mA  4  4mA  11mA I2   mA
12 3
33
VO  6kI 2  [V ] VO  6kI 2  8[V ]
5

54

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Problem
EXAMPLE3.46
9 (6th Ed) 2. Write loop equations.

Determine VO Loop 1 I1  I S
+ Loop 2  VS  4k ( I 2  I 3 )  2k ( I 2  I1 )  0
VS +
-
I2 4k Loop 3 4k ( I 3  I 2 )  6kI3  2k ( I 3  I1 )  0
VO Since we need to compute Vo it is
I3 6k efficient to solve for I3 only.
2k
HINT: Divide the loop equations by 1k. Coefficients
IS 2k become numbers and voltage source becomes mA.
I1 _
We use the fact that I1 = Is

Loop 2 VS
IS = 2mA, VS = 6V 6 I 2  4 I3   2 I1  (6  4)[mA ] * / 2
1k
SELECTING THE SOLUTION METHOD Loop 3  4 I 2  12I3  2 I S  4mA * / 3 and add eqs
3 non-reference nodes. 3 meshes 32
One current source, one super node
28 I 3  10  2  4  3  I 3  mA
28
BOTH APPROACHES SEEM COMPARABLE. CHOOSE
LOOP ANALYSIS 48
1. Select loop currents. VO  6kI 3  V
7
In this case we use meshes.
We note that the current source 55
could define one mesh.

EXAMPLE 10: CURRENT SOURCES SHARED BY LOOPS - THE SUPERMESH APPROACH

2. WRITE CONSTRAINT EQUATION DUE TO
MESH CURRENTS SHARING CURRENT SOURCES
I 2  I3  4mA
3. WRITE EQUATIONS FOR THE OTHER MESHES

I1  2mA
4. DEFINE A SUPERMESH BY (MENTALLY)
REMOVING THE SHARED CURRENT SOURCE

5. WRITE KVL FOR THE SUPERMESH

1. SELECT MESH CURRENTS  6  1kI3  2kI 2  2k ( I 2  I1)  1k ( I3  I1)  0

NOW WE HAVE THREE EQUATIONS IN THREE
SUPERMESH
UNKNOWNS. THE MODEL IS COMPLETE

56

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CURRENT SOURCES SHARED BY MESHES - THE GENERAL LOOP APPROACH

THE STRATEGY IS TO DEFINE LOOP CURRENTS THE LOOP EQUATIONS FOR THE LOOPS WITH
THAT DO NOT SHARE CURRENT SOURCES - CURRENT SOURCES ARE
EVEN IF IT MEANS ABANDONING MESHES I1  2mA
FOR CONVENIENCE START USING MESH CURRENTS
I 2  4mA
UNTIL REACHING A SHARED SOURCE. AT THAT
POINT DEFINE A NEW LOOP. THE LOOP EQUATION FOR THE THIRD LOOP IS
 6[V ]  1kI3  2k ( I3  I 2 )  2k ( I3  I 2  I1)  1k ( I3  I1)  0
IN ORDER TO GUARANTEE THAT IT GIVES AN
INDEPENDENT EQUATION ONE MUST MAKE SURE THE MESH CURRENTS OBTAINED WITH THIS
THAT THE LOOP INCLUDES COMPONENTS THAT METHOD ARE DIFFERENT FROM THE ONES
ARE NOT PART OF PREVIOUSLY DEFINED LOOPS OBTAINED WITH A SUPERMESH. EVEN FOR
THOSE DEFINED USING MESHES.
A POSSIBLE STRATEGY IS TO CREATE A LOOP 57
BY OPENING THE CURRENT SOURCE

FIND VOLTAGES ACROSS RESISTORS Now we need a loop current that does
not go over any current source and
 passes through all unused components.
I1 V
I2 HINT: IF ALL CURRENT SOURCES ARE REMOVED
R2
I S1 
2
IS2 THERE IS ONLY ONE LOOP LEFT
R1  V3  MESH EQUATIONS FOR LOOPS WITH
CURRENT SOURCES
 V1  R3

V4 R4
I3
-
+ I1  I s1 I2  IS 2
I S3 I
 4 VS I3  I S 3

VS  R3 ( I 4  I 2 )  R1( I 4  I3  I1)  R4 ( I 4  I3 )  0
For loop analysis we notice...
SOLVE FOR THE CURRENT I4.
Three independent current sources. USE OHM’S LAW TO C0MPUTE REQUIRED
Four meshes. VOLTAGES
One current source shared by two
meshes. V1  R1( I1  I3  I 4 )
Careful choice of loop currents V2  R2 ( I 2  I1)
should make only one loop equation
necessary. Three loop currents can V3  R3 ( I 2  I 4 )
be chosen using meshes and not V4  R4 ( I3  I 4 ) 58
sharing any source.

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A COMMENT ON METHOD SELECTION

The same problem can be solved by node analysis
but it requires 3 equations

V1
V2  VS
V1  V3
R2  I S1  I S 2  0
IS2 R2
I S1
R1 V3 V3  V2 V3  V1 V3  V4
V4  IS3    0
V2 R3 R2 R1
R3
V4 V4  V1
R4
-  I S1   0
+ R1 R1
I S3
VS

59

EXAMPLE 11 Treat the dependent source as though

CIRCUITS WITH DEPENDENT SOURCES it were independent.
Add one equation for the controlling
variable

COMBINE EQUATIONS. DIVIDE BY 1k

I1  4
I1  I 2  I 3  0
I 2  3I3  2 I 4  8
 I 2  I 3  2 I 4  12

MESH CURRENTS
DETERMINED BY SOURCES
I1  4mA
VX
I2 
2k
MESH 3 :  1kI x  2k ( I3  I1)  1k ( I3  I 4 )  0
MESH 4 : 1k ( I 4  I3 )  1k ( I 4  I 2 )  12V  0
CONTROLLING VARIABLES 60
I x  I4  I2 Vx  2k ( I3  I1 )

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DEFINE THE MATRIX

SOLVE USING MATLAB
» R=[1,0,0,0; %FIRST ROW
I1  4 Since we divided by 1,1, -1, 0; %SECOND ROW
1k the RHS is mA and 0,1,3,-2; %THIRD ROW
I1  I 2  I 3  0 all the coefficients 0,-1,-1,2] %FOURTH ROW
are numbers
I 2  3I3  2 I 4  8 R=
 I 2  I 3  2 I 4  12 1 0 0 0
1 1 -1 0
PUT IN MATRIX FORM 0 1 3 -2
0 -1 -1 2
DEFINE THE RIGHT HAND SIDE VECTOR
1 0 0 0   I1   4 
1 1  1 0   I   0  » V=[4;0;8;12]
  2     V=
0 1 3  2   I 3   8 
     4
0  1  1 2   I 4   12 0
8
>> is the MATLAB prompt. What -12
follows is the command entered
SOLVE AND GET THE ANSWER » I=R\V

The answers are in mA I=

4
-6
-2
-10 61

EXAMPLE 12:Dependent S ources Find Vo

USING MESH CURRENTS USING LOOP CURRENTS

We treat the dependent source as one more voltage source

MESH 1  2Vx  2kI1  4k ( I1  I 2 )  0 LOOP 1  2Vx  2k ( I1  I 2 )  4kI1  0

MESH 2  3  6kI 2  4k ( I 2  I1)  0 LOOP 2  2Vx  2k ( I1  I 2 )  3  6kI 2  0
NOW WE EXPRESS THE CONTROLLING VARIABLE IN TERMS OF THE LOOP CURRENTS
Vx  4k ( I1  I 2 ) and solve... Vx  4kI1
 2kI1  4kI 2  0 REPLACE AND REARRANGE  6kI1  6kI 2  0
 4kI1  10kI 2  3  6kI1  8kI 2  3
I1  3mA, I 2  1.5mA SOLUTIONS I1  1.5mA, I 2  1.5mA
VO  6kI 2  9[V ]
NOTICE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MESH The selection of loop currents
CURRENT I1 AND LOOP CURRENT I1 EVEN simplifies expression for
62 Vx
THOUGH THEY ARE ASSOCIATED TO THE
SAME PATH
and computation of Vo.

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EXAMPLE 13: CURRENT SOURCES NOT SHARED BY MESHES

WE ARE ASKED FOR Vo. WE ONLY NEED
TO SOLVE FOR I3

REPLACE AND REARRANGE

V x  2kI1 
  I1  2 I 2  4mA
V x  4k ( I1  I 2 )
11
8kI 3  3  2kI 2  I 3  mA
8
We treat the dependent source as a
33
conventional source VO  6kI 3  [V ]
4
Equations for meshes with current sources

Then KVL on the remaining loop(s)

And express the controlling variable,

Vx, in terms of loop currents
63

EXAMPLE 14

I1
I2

DRAW MESH CURRENTS REPLACE AND REARRANGE

WRITE MESH EQUATIONS. 6kI1  6kI 2  0

MESH 1 :  2kI x  2kI1  4k ( I1  I 2 )  0  4kI1  6kI 2  12

MESH 2 :  12  2kI 2  4k ( I 2  I1)  0 SOLVE FOR I2

2kI 2  12  I 2  6mA
CONTROLLING VARIABLE IN TERMS OF
LOOP CURRENTS
VO  2kI 2  12[V ]
I x  I2
64

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In the following we shall solve using loop

analysis two circuits that had previously been
solved using node analysis

This is one circuit.

we recap first the node analysis
approach and then we solve using
loop analysis

65

EXAMPLE 15 FIND THE VOLTAGE Vo RECAP OF NODE ANALYSIS

@V4 : V4  4V
AT SUPER NODE
V1  V2  2VX
V2 V2  V3 V1  V3 V1  4V
1k  2mA  1k  1k  1k  1k  0

1k  @V :  2mA  V  V  V  V  0
3 2 3 1
3
1k 1k
CONTROLLING VARIABLE VX  V2
SOLVE EQUATIONS NOW
V1  3VX
2V1  2VX  V3  6V
V1  VX  2V3  2V
VARIABLE OF INTEREST VO  V1  V3
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EXAMPLE 15 DETERMINE Vo USING LOOP ANALYSIS

Write loop equations

Loop 1 : I1  2mA
Loop 3 : I 3  2mA
Loop 2 :  2VX  1kI 2  1k ( I 2  I 3 )  0
Loop 4 : 4V  1k ( I 4  I 3  I1 )  2VX  1kI 4  0
Controlling variable: VX  1k ( I1  I 3  I 4 )

2kI 2  2kI 4  6 
  I 2  1mA, I 4  2mA
4kI 4  8 
I1
I2 I4 Variable of Interest VO  1kI 2

I3
START SELECTION USING MESHES
SELECT A GENERAL LOOP TO AVOID 67
SHARING A CURRENT SOURCE

EXAMPLE 16 Find the current Io RECAP OF NODE ANALYSIS

@V2 : V2  12V
@V3 : V3  2VX
@ super node:
V4  V1  6V (constraint eq.)
V1  V2 V1  V3 V  V3 V4  V5 V4
  2I X  4   0
1k 1k 1k 1k 1k
V5  V4 V5
@V5 :  2 I X   0
1k 1k
CONTROLLING VARIABLES
VX  V1  V2
V4
IX  7 eqs in 7 variables
1k

V5
VARIABLE OF INTEREST IO 
1k

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EXAMPLE 16 Find the current Io using mesh analysis

Write loop/mesh equations

Loop1: 1kI1  1k ( I1  I 2 )  1k ( I1  I 4 )  0
Loop 2: 1k ( I 2  I1 )  6V  1k ( I 2  I 5 )  0
Loop 3: I 3  2 I X
Loop 4:  12V  1k ( I 4  I1 )  2VX  0
Loop 5: 1k ( I 5  I 2 )  1k ( I 5  I 6 )  2VX  0
Loop 6: 1k ( I 6  I 3 )  1kI 6  1k ( I 6  I 5 )  0
Select mesh currents Controlling variables
VX  1kI1
I X  I5  I6 8 eqs in 8 unknowns

Variable of interest: IO  I6

69

APPLICATION – MANUAL SPEED CONTROL FOR DC MOTOR

Battery Speed is proportional

i0 to applied voltage, VM

Potentiometer Assumption i  (no

0 load)
Arm is movable and allows to
change R1 and R2 keeping their
Vspeed  Vbattery
sum constant: Potentiometer is not affected
R2   Rpot by connection to amplifier

Circuit diagram [rpm]  K MVM  4K MVspeed

[rpm]   4 K MVbattery  

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http://www.wiley.com/college/irwin/0470128690/animations/swf/3-23.swf

VO2 Vs  VO 
2

P 
R2 R1
I1  100  A
Standard= Off-the-self – available only in certain values

Model using node analysis
V1  3V
 VO VO  VS I O  100 A, VO  5V , VS  8V
IO   0
R2 R1 Find R1 , R2
3 R2
e . g . : R1  Resistors values should be high
5  I O R2 Why not use very large values?
3V
R1   30k 
100 A 5 Use trial and error. Pick
or : R2 
3 Highest possible R1, determine
 IO R2 and analyze resulting circuit
R1 5
R1  27 k   450k
Design equations 3 / R1  I O
Closest R 2  430k 
Analysis of solution
Are there other factors that we
R V  R1 R2 I O V  4.98V should consider; e.g., is Io
VO  2 S O really constant?, tolerances?
R1  R2 71

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EXERCISE PROBLMES

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EXERCISE PROBLMES

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EXERCISE PROBLMES

75

EXERCISE PROBLMES

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