6.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Measures of Central Tendency:
In the study of a population with respect to one in which we
are interested we may get a large number of observations. It is not
possible to grasp any idea about the characteristic when we look at
all the observations. So it is better to get one number for one group.
That number must be a good representative one for all the
observations to give a clear picture of that characteristic. Such
representative number can be a central value for all these
observations. This central value is called a measure of central
tendency or an average or a measure of locations. There are five
averages. Among them mean, median and mode are called simple
averages and the other two averages geometric mean and harmonic
mean are called special averages.
The meaning of average is nicely given in the following definitions.
“A measure of central tendency is a typical value around which
other figures congregate.”
“An average stands for the whole group of which it forms a part
yet represents the whole.”
“One of the most widely used set of summary figures is known
as measures of location.”
Characteristics for a good or an ideal average :
The following properties should possess for an ideal average.
1. It should be rigidly defined.
2. It should be easy to understand and compute.
3. It should be based on all items in the data.
4. Its definition shall be in the form of a mathematical
formula.
5. It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.
6. It should have sampling stability.
7. It should be capable of being used in further statistical
computations or processing.

94
 Besides the above requisites, a good average should
represent maximum characteristics of the data, its value should be
nearest to the most items of the given series.
Arithmetic mean or mean :
Arithmetic mean or simply the mean of a variable is defined
as the sum of the observations divided by the number of
observations. If the variable x assumes n values x1, x2 …xn then the
mean, x, is given by
x + x + x + .... + xn
x= 1 2 3
n
n
1
= ∑ xi
n i =1
This formula is for the ungrouped or raw data.
Example 1 :
Calculate the mean for 2, 4, 6, 8, 10

Solution:
2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10
x=
5
30
= =6
5
Short-Cut method :
Under this method an assumed or an arbitrary average
(indicated by A) is used as the basis of calculation of deviations
from individual values. The formula is
∑d
x = A+
n
where, A = the assumed mean or any value in x
d = the deviation of each value from the assumed mean

Example 2 :
A student’ s marks in 5 subjects are 75, 68, 80, 92, 56. Find his
average mark.

95
Solution:
X d=x-A
75 7
A 68 0
80 12
92 24
56 -12
Total 31
∑d
x = A+
n
31
= 68 +
5
= 68 + 6.2
= 74.2
Grouped Data :
The mean for grouped data is obtained from the following formula:
∑ fx
x=
N
where x = the mid-point of individual class
f = the frequency of individual class
N = the sum of the frequencies or total frequencies.
Short-cut method :
∑ fd
x = A+ ×c
N
x− A
where d =
c
A = any value in x
N = total frequency
c = width of the class interval
Example 3:
Given the following frequency distribution, calculate the
arithmetic mean
Marks : 64 63 62 61 60 59
Number of
: 8 18 12 9 7 6
Students
96
Solution:
X F fx d=x-A fd
64 8 512 2 16
63 18 1134 1 18
62 12 744 0 0
61 9 549 −1 −9
60 7 420 −2 −14
59 6 354 −3 −18

60 3713 -7
Direct method
∑ fx 3713
x= = = 61.88
N 60
Short-cut method
∑ fd 7
x = A+ = 62 – = 61.88
N 60
Example 4 :
Following is the distribution of persons according to
different income groups. Calculate arithmetic mean.

Income 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70

Rs(100)
Number of 6 8 10 12 7 4 3
persons
Solution:
Income Number of Mid x−A Fd
C.I Persons (f) X d =
c
0-10 6 5 -3 -18
10-20 8 15 -2 -16
20-30 10 25 -1 -10
30-40 12 A 35 0 0
40-50 7 45 1 7
50-60 4 55 2 8
60-70 3 65 3 9
50 -20

97
 ∑ fd
Mean = x = A +
N
20
50 × 10
= 35 –

= 35 – 4
= 31
Merits and demerits of Arithmetic mean :
Merits:
1. It is rigidly defined.
2. It is easy to understand and easy to calculate.
3. If the number of items is sufficiently large, it is more
accurate and more reliable.
4. It is a calculated value and is not based on its position in the
series.
5. It is possible to calculate even if some of the details of the
data are lacking.
6. Of all averages, it is affected least by fluctuations of
sampling.
7. It provides a good basis for comparison.
Demerits:
1. It cannot be obtained by inspection nor located through a
frequency graph.
2. It cannot be in the study of qualitative phenomena not
capable of numerical measurement i.e. Intelligence, beauty,
honesty etc.,
3. It can ignore any single item only at the risk of losing its
accuracy.
4. It is affected very much by extreme values.
5. It cannot be calculated for open-end classes.
6. It may lead to fallacious conclusions, if the details of the
data from which it is computed are not given.
Weighted Arithmetic mean :
For calculating simple mean, we suppose that all the values or
the sizes of items in the distribution have equal importance. But, in
practical life this may not be so. In case some items are more
98
important than others, a simple average computed is not
representative of the distribution. Proper weightage has to be given
to the various items. For example, to have an idea of the change in
cost of living of a certain group of persons, the simple average of
the prices of the commodities consumed by them will not do
because all the commodities are not equally important, e.g rice,
wheat and pulses are more important than tea, confectionery etc., It
is the weighted arithmetic average which helps in finding out the
average value of the series after giving proper weight to each
group.
Definition:
The average whose component items are being multiplied
by certain values known as “weights” and the aggregate of the
multiplied results are being divided by the total sum of their
“weight”.
If x1, x2…xn be the values of a variable x with respective
weights of w1, w2…wn assigned to them, then
w x + w2 x2 + .... + wn xn ∑ wi xi
Weighted A.M = x w = 1 1 =
w1 + w2 + .... + wn ∑ wi
Uses of the weighted mean:
Weighted arithmetic mean is used in:
a. Construction of index numbers.
b. Comparison of results of two or more universities where
number of students differ.
c. Computation of standardized death and birth rates.

Example 5:
Calculate weighted average from the following data
Designation Monthly salary Strength of
(in Rs) the cadre
Class 1 officers 1500 10
Class 2 officers 800 20
Subordinate staff 500 70
Clerical staff 250 100
Lower staff 100 150
99
Solution:

Designation Monthly Strength of wx

salary,x the cadre,w
Class 1 officer 1,500 10 15,000
Class 2 officer 800 20 16,000
Subordinate 500 70 35,000
staff
Clerical staff 250 100 25,000
Lower staff 100 150 15,000
350 1,06,000

∑ wx
Weighted average, x w =
∑w
106000
=
350
= Rs. 302.86

Harmonic mean (H.M) :

Harmonic mean of a set of observations is defined as
the reciprocal of the arithmetic average of the reciprocal of the
given values. If x1,x2…..xn are n observations,

n
H.M =
n
1
∑  
i =1  xi 

For a frequency distribution

N
. . =
HM n
 1 
∑ f  
i =1 xi 

Example 6:
From the given data calculate H.M 5,10,17,24,30
100
 X 1
x
5 0.2000
10 0.1000
17 0.0588
24 0.0417
30 0.0333
Total 0.4338

n
H.M =
1
∑ 
x
5
= = 11.526
0.4338
Example 7:
The marks secured by some students of a class are given
below. Calculate the harmonic mean.
Marks 20 21 22 23 24 25
Number of 4 2 7 1 3 1
Students
Solution:
Marks No of 1 1
X students ƒ( )
x x
f
20 4 0.0500 0.2000
21 2 0.0476 0.0952
22 7 0.0454 0.3178
23 1 0.0435 0.0435
24 3 0.0417 0.1251
25 1 0.0400 0.0400
18 0.8216

101
 N
H.M =
1
∑f 
x
18
= = 21.91
0.1968
Merits of H.M :
1. It is rigidly defined.
2. It is defined on all observations.
3. It is amenable to further algebraic treatment.
4. It is the most suitable average when it is desired to give
greater weight to smaller observations and less weight to the
larger ones.
Demerits of H.M :
1. It is not easily understood.
2. It is difficult to compute.
3. It is only a summary figure and may not be the actual item in
the series
4. It gives greater importance to small items and is therefore,
useful only when small items have to be given greater
weightage.
Geometric mean :
The geometric mean of a series containing n observations
th
is the n root of the product of the values. If x1,x2…,xn are
observations then
G.M = n x1. x2 ... xn
= (x1.x2 …xn)1/n
1
log GM = log(x1.x2 …xn)
n
1
= (logx1+logx2+…+logxn
n
∑ log xi
=
n
∑ log xi
GM = Antilog
n
102
For grouped data
 ∑ f log xi 
GM = Antilog  
 N 
Example 8:
Calculate the geometric mean of the following series of monthly
income of a batch of families 180,250,490,1400,1050

x logx
180 2.2553
250 2.3979
490 2.6902
1400 3.1461
1050 3.0212
13.5107
Antilog  ∑
 log x 
GM = 
 n 

13.5107
= Antilog
5

= Antilog 2.7021 = 503.6

Example 9:
Calculate the average income per head from the data given
below .Use geometric mean.
Class of people Number of Monthly income
families per head (Rs)
Landlords 2 5000
Cultivators 100 400
Landless – labours 50 200
Money – lenders 4 3750
Office Assistants 6 3000
Shop keepers 8 750
Carpenters 6 600
Weavers 10 300
103
Solution:

Class of people Annual Number Log x f logx

income of
( Rs) X families
(f)
Landlords 5000 2 3.6990 7.398
Cultivators 400 100 2.6021 260.210
Landless – 200 50 2.3010 115.050
labours
Money – lenders 3750 4 3.5740 14.296
Office Assistants 3000 6 3.4771 20.863
Shop keepers 750 8 2.8751 23.2008
Carpenters 600 6 2.7782 16.669
Weavers 300 10 2.4771 24.771
186 482.257
GM = Antilog  ∑
 f log x 

 N 
 482.257 
= Antilog 
 186 
= Antilog (2.5928)
= Rs 391.50
Merits of Geometric mean :
1. It is rigidly defined
2. It is based on all items
3. It is very suitable for averaging ratios, rates and
percentages
4. It is capable of further mathematical treatment.
5. Unlike AM, it is not affected much by the presence of
extreme values
Demerits of Geometric mean:
1. It cannot be used when the values are negative or if any
of the observations is zero
2. It is difficult to calculate particularly when the items are
very large or when there is a frequency distribution.
104
 3. It brings out the property of the ratio of the change and
not the absolute difference of change as the case in
arithmetic mean.
4. The GM may not be the actual value of the series.
Combined mean :
If the arithmetic averages and the number of items in two or more
related groups are known, the combined or the composite mean of
the entire group can be obtained by
 n1 x1 + n 2 x 2 
Combined mean X =  
 n1 + n 2 

The advantage of combined arithmetic mean is that, we can

determine the over, all mean of the combined data without going
back to the original data.
Example 10:
Find the combined mean for the data given below
n1 = 20 , x1 = 4 , n2 = 30, x2 = 3
Solution:
 n1 x1 + n 2 x 2 
Combined mean X =  
 n1 + n 2 

 20 × 4 + 30 × 3 
=  
 20 + 30 
 80 + 90 
=  
 50 
170 
=   = 3.4
 50 
Positional Averages:
These averages are based on the position of the given
observation in a series, arranged in an ascending or descending
order. The magnitude or the size of the values does matter as was in
the case of arithmetic mean. It is because of the basic difference

105
that the median and mode are called the positional measures of an
average.
Median :
The median is that value of the variate which divides the
group into two equal parts, one part comprising all values greater,
and the other, all values less than median.
Ungrouped or Raw data :
Arrange the given values in the increasing or decreasing
order. If the number of values are odd, median is the middle value
.If the number of values are even, median is the mean of middle
two values.
By formula
 n + 1  th
Median = Md =   item.
 2 
Example 11:
When odd number of values are given. Find median for the
following data
25, 18, 27, 10, 8, 30, 42, 20, 53
Solution:
Arranging the data in the increasing order 8, 10, 18, 20, 25,
27, 30, 42, 53
The middle value is the 5th item i.e., 25 is the median
Using formula
 n + 1  th
Md =   item.
 2 

 9 +1 th
=   item.
 2 

 10 
=   th item
 2
= 5 th item
= 25
Example 12 :
106
 When even number of values are given. Find median for the
following data
5, 8, 12, 30, 18, 10, 2, 22
Solution:
Arranging the data in the increasing order 2, 5, 8, 10, 12,
18, 22, 30
Here median is the mean of the middle two items (ie)
mean of (10,12) ie
 10 + 12 
=   = 11
 2 

∴median = 11.
Using the formula
 n + 1  th
Median =   item.
 2 
2
 8 + 1  th
=   item.
 2 
9
=   th item = 4.5 th item
 2
1
= 4th item +   (5th item – 4th item)
 2
1
= 10 +   [12-10]
 2
1
= 10 +   × 2
 2
= 10 +1
= 11
Example 13:
The following table represents the marks obtained by a
batch of 10 students in certain class tests in statistics and
Accountancy.
Serial No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
107
Marks 53 55 52 32 30 60 47 46 35 28
(Statistics)
Marks 57 45 24 31 25 84 43 80 32 72
(Accountancy)
Indicate in which subject is the level of knowledge higher ?
Solution:
For such question, median is the most suitable measure of central
tendency. The mark in the two subjects are first arranged in
increasing order as follows:
Serial No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Marks in 28 30 32 35 46 47 52 53 55 60
Statistics
Marks in 24 25 31 32 43 45 57 72 80 84
Accountancy
 n + 1  th  10 + 1  th th
Median =   item =   item =5.5 item
 2   2 
Value of 5th item + value of 6th item
=
2
46 + 47
Md (Statistics) = = 46.5
2
43 + 45
Md (Accountancy) = = 44
2
There fore the level of knowledge in Statistics is higher than that in
Accountancy.
Grouped Data:
In a grouped distribution, values are associated with frequencies.
Grouping can be in the form of a discrete frequency distribution or
a continuous frequency distribution. Whatever may be the type of
distribution , cumulative frequencies have to be calculated to know
the total number of items.
Cumulative frequency : (cf)
Cumulative frequency of each class is the sum of the frequency of
the class and the frequencies of the pervious classes, ie adding the
frequencies successively, so that the last cumulative frequency
gives the total number of items.
108
Discrete Series:
Step1: Find cumulative frequencies.
 N +1
Step2: Find  
 2 
Step3: See in the cumulative frequencies the value just greater than
 N +1
 
 2 
Step4: Then the corresponding value of x is median.
Example 14:
The following data pertaining to the number of members in
a family. Find median size of the family.

Number of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
members x
Frequency 1 3 5 6 10 13 9 5 3 2 2 1
F

Solution:
X f cf
1 1 1
2 3 4
3 5 9
4 6 15
5 10 25
6 13 38
7 9 47
8 5 52
9 3 55
10 2 57
11 2 59
12 1 60
60
 N +1 th
Median = size of   item
 2 
109
  60 + 1  th
= size of   item
 2 
= 30.5th item
The cumulative frequencies just greater than 30.5 is 38.and the
value of x corresponding to 38 is 6.Hence the median size is 6
members per family.
Note:
It is an appropriate method because a fractional value given
by mean does not indicate the average number of members in a
family.
Continuous Series:
The steps given below are followed for the calculation of
median in continuous series.
Step1: Find cumulative frequencies.
N
Step2: Find  
2
Step3: See in the cumulative frequency the value first greater than
N
 2  , Then the corresponding class interval is called the Median
 
class. Then apply the formula
N
−m
Median = l + 2 ×c
f
Where l = Lower limit of the median class
m = cumulative frequency preceding the median
c = width of the median class
f =frequency in the median class.
N=Total frequency.
Note :
If the class intervals are given in inclusive type convert
them into exclusive type and call it as true class interval and
consider lower limit in this.
Example 15:

110
 The following table gives the frequency distribution of 325
workers of a factory, according to their average monthly income in
a certain year.
Income group (in Rs) Number of workers
Below 100 1
100-150 20
150-200 42
200-250 55
250-300 62
300-350 45
350-400 30
400-450 25
450-500 15
500-550 18
550-600 10
600 and above 2
325
Calculate median income
Solution:
Income group Number of Cumulative
(Class-interval) workers frequency
(Frequency) c.f
Below 100 1 1
100-150 20 21
150-200 42 63
200-250 55 118
250-300 62 180
300-350 45 225
350-400 30 255
400-450 25 280
450-500 15 295
500-550 18 313
550-600 10 323
600 and above 2 325
325

111
 N 325
= =162.5
2 2

Here l = 250, N = 325, f = 62, c = 50, m = 118

 162.5 − 118 
Md = 250+   × 50
 62 
= 250+35.89
= 285.89
Example 16:
Calculate median from the following data
Value 0-4 5-9 10-14 f 15-19
True class
20-24 c.f25-29 30-34 35-39
Frequency 5 8 Value
10 12 interval 7 6 3 2
0-4 5 0.5-4.5 5
5-9 8 4.5-9.5 13
10-14 10 9.5-14.5 23
15-19 12 14.5-19.5 35
20-24 7 19.5-24.5 42
25-29 6 24.5-29.5 48
30-34 3 29.5-34.5 51
35-39 2 34.5-39.5 53
53

N  53 
  =   = 26.5
2  2
N
−m
Md = l + 2 ×c
f

26.5 − 23
= 14.5 + ×5
12
= 14.5+1.46 = 15.96
Example 17:
Following are the daily wages of workers in a textile. Find
the median.
112
 Wages Number of
( in Rs.) workers
less than 100 5
less than 200 12
less than 300 20
less than 400 32
less than 500 40
less than 600 45
less than 700 52
less than 800 60
less than 900 68
less than 1000 75

Solution :
We are given upper limit and less than cumulative
frequencies. First find the class-intervals and the frequencies. Since
the values are increasing by 100, hence the width of the class
interval equal to 100.

Class f c.f
interval
0-100 5 5
100-200 7 12
200-300 8 20
300- 400 12 32
400-500 8 40
500-600 5 45
600-700 7 52
700-800 8 60
800-900 8 68
900-1000 7 75
75
N  75 
  =   = 37.5
2  2

113
 N 
 2 −m
Md = l +  × c
 f 
 
 37.5 − 32 
= 400 +   × 100 = 400 + 68.75 = 468.75
 8 
Example 18:
Find median for the data given below.
Marks Number of students
Greater than 10 70
Greater than 20 62
Greater than 30 50
Greater than 40 38
Greater than 50 30
Greater than 60 24
Greater than 70 17
Greater than 80 9
Greater than 90 4
Solution :
Here we are given lower limit and more than cumulative
frequencies.
Class interval f More than c.f Less than c.f
10-20 8 70 8
20-30 12 62 20
30-40 12 50 32
40-50 8 38 40
50-60 6 30 46
60-70 7 24 53
70-80 8 17 61
80-90 5 9 66
90-100 4 4 70
70
N  70 
  =   = 35
2  2

114
 N 
 2 −m 
Median = l +  xc 
 f 
 
 35 − 32 
= 40 +   × 10
 8 
= 40 +3.75
= 43.75
Example 19:
Compute median for the following data.

Mid-Value 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75
Frequency 7 10 15 17 8 4 6 7
Solution :
Here values in multiples of 10, so width of the class interval is 10.
Mid x C.I f c.f
5 0-10 7 7
15 10-20 10 17
25 20-30 15 32
35 30-40 17 49
45 40-50 8 57
55 50-60 4 61
65 60-70 6 67
75 70-80 7 74
74

N  74 
  =   = 37
2  2
N 
 − m
Median = l +   ×c
2
f

115
  37 − 32 
= 30 +   × 10
 17 
= 30 + 2.94
= 32.94
Graphic method for Location of median:
Median can be located with the help of the cumulative
frequency curve or ‘ ogive’ . The procedure for locating median in a
grouped data is as follows:
Step1: The class boundaries, where there are no gaps between
consecutive classes, are represented on the horizontal axis
(x-axis).
Step2: The cumulative frequency corresponding to different
classes is plotted on the vertical axis (y-axis) against the
upper limit of the class interval (or against the variate value
in the case of a discrete series.)
Step3: The curve obtained on joining the points by means of
freehand drawing is called the ‘ ogive’ . The ogive so drawn
may be either a (i) less than ogive or a (ii) more than ogive.
N N +1
Step4: The value of or is marked on the y-axis, where
2 2
N is the total frequency.
N
Step5: A horizontal straight line is drawn from the point or
2
N +1
on the y-axis parallel to x-axis to meet the ogive.
2
Step6: A vertical straight line is drawn from the point of
intersection perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
Step7: The point of intersection of the perpendicular to the x-axis
gives the value of the median.
Remarks :
1. From the point of intersection of ‘ less than’ and ‘ more than’
ogives, if a perpendicular is drawn on the x-axis, the point so
obtained on the horizontal axis gives the value of the median.
2. If ogive is drawn using cumulated percentage frequencies,
then we draw a straight line from the point intersecting 50
116
 percent cumulated frequency on the y-axis parallel to the x-
axis to intersect the ogive. A perpendicular drawn from this
point of intersection on the horizontal axis gives the value of
the median.
Example 20:
Draw an ogive of ‘ less than’ type on the data given below
and hence find median.
Weight(lbs) Number of
persons
100-109 8
110-119 15
120-129 21
130-139 34
140-149 45
150-159 26
160-169 20
170-179 15
180-189 10
190-199 6
Solution:

Class No of True class Less than

interval persons interval c.f
100-109 8 99.5-109.5 8
110-119 15 109.5-119.5 23
120-129 21 119.5-129.5 44
130-139 34 129.5-139.5 78
140-149 45 139.5-149.5 123
150-159 26 149.5-159.5 149
160-169 20 159.5-169.5 169
170-179 15 169.5-179.5 184
180-189 10 179.5-189.5 194
190-199 6 189.5-199.5 200

Y Less than Ogive X axis 1cm = 10 units

117 Y axis 1cm = 25 units
 225
200
175
150
125
N 100
2 75
50
25 Md
0
X
50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50
0
.5

9.

9.

9.

9.

9.

9.

9.

9.

9.

9.
99

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19
Example 21:
Draw an ogive for the following frequency distribution and
hence find median.

Marks Number of
students
0-10 5
10-20 4
20-30 8
30-40 12
40-50 16
50-60 25
60-70 10
70-80 8
80-90 5
90-100 2

118
Solution:

Class Cumulative Frequency

boundary Less than More than
0 0 95
10 5 90
20 9 86
30 17 78
40 29 66
50 45 50
60 70 25
70 80 15
80 88 7
90 93 2
100 95 0

X axis 1cm = 10units

Y axis 1cm = 10units
Y
Ogives
100
90
80
70
60
N
50
2
40
30
20
10 Md
0
X
101020 2030 304040 5050 6060 7070 8080 9090 100
100

119
Merits of Median :
1. Median is not influenced by extreme values because it is a
positional average.
2. Median can be calculated in case of distribution with open-
end intervals.
3. Median can be located even if the data are incomplete.
4. Median can be located even for qualitative factors such as
ability, honesty etc.
Demerits of Median :
1. A slight change in the series may bring drastic change in
median value.
2. In case of even number of items or continuous series,
median is an estimated value other than any value in the
series.
3. It is not suitable for further mathematical treatment except
its use in mean deviation.
4. It is not taken into account all the observations.
Quartiles :
The quartiles divide the distribution in four parts. There are
three quartiles. The second quartile divides the distribution into two
halves and therefore is the same as the median. The first (lower)
quartile (Q1) marks off the first one-fourth, the third (upper)
quartile (Q3) marks off the three-fourth.
Raw or ungrouped data:
First arrange the given data in the increasing order and use the
formula for Q1 and Q3 then quartile deviation, Q.D is given by
Q 3 - Q1
Q.D =
2
 n + 1  th  n + 1  th
Where Q1=   item and Q3 = 3   item
 4   4 
Example 22 :
Compute quartiles for the data given below 25,18,30, 8, 15,
5, 10, 35, 40, 45
Solution :
5, 8, 10, 15, 18,25, 30,35,40, 45

120
  n + 1  th
Q1 =   item
 4 
 10 + 1  th
=   item
 4 
= (2.75)th item
 3
= 2nd item +   (3rd item-2nd item)
 4
3
= 8+ (10-8)
4
3
= 8 + × 2
4
= 8 + 1.5
= 9.5
th
 n +1
Q3 = 3   item
 4 
= 3 × (2.75)th item
= (8.25)th item
1 th
= 8th item + [9 item-8th item]
4
1
= 35 + [40-35]
4
= 35+1.25=36.25
Discrete Series :
Step1: Find cumulative frequencies.
 N + 1
Step2: Find  
 4 
Step3: See in the cumulative frequencies , the value just greater
 N + 1
than   ,then the corresponding value of x is Q1
 4 
 N + 1
Step4: Find 3  
 4 

121
Step5: See in the cumulative frequencies, the value just greater
 N + 1
than 3   ,then the corresponding value of x is Q3
 4 
Example 23:
Compute quartiles for the data given bellow.

X 5 8 12 15 19 24 30
f 4 3 2 4 5 2 4
Solution:
x f c.f
5 4 4
8 3 7
12 2 9
15 4 13
19 5 18
24 2 20
30 4 24
Total 24
th
 N +1  24 + 1   25 
Q1 =   item =   =   = 6.25th item
 4   4   4
th
 N +1  24 + 1 
 =18.75 item ∴Q1= 8; Q3=24
th
Q3 = 3   item = 3 
 4   4 
Continuous series :
Step1: Find cumulative frequencies
N
Step2: Find  
4
Step3: See in the cumulative frequencies, the value just greater
N
than   , then the corresponding class interval is called
4
first quartile class.

122
 N
Step4: Find 3   See in the cumulative frequencies the value
4
N
just greater than 3   then the corresponding class interval
4
rd
is called 3 quartile class. Then apply the respective
formulae
N
− m1
Q1 = l1 + 4 × c1
f1
 N
3   − m3
Q3 = l3 +  
4
× c3
f3
Where l1 = lower limit of the first quartile class
f1 = frequency of the first quartile class
c1 = width of the first quartile class
m1 = c.f. preceding the first quartile class
l3 = 1ower limit of the 3rd quartile class
f3 = frequency of the 3rd quartile class
c3 = width of the 3rd quartile class
m3 = c.f. preceding the 3rd quartile class
Example 24:
The following series relates to the marks secured by
students in an examination.
Marks No. of students
0-10 11
10-20 18
20-30 25
30-40 28
40-50 30
50-60 33
60-70 22
70-80 15
80-90 12
90-100 10
123
Find the quartiles
Solution :

C.I. f cf
0-10 11 11
10-20 18 29
20-30 25 54
30-40 28 82
40-50 30 112
50-60 33 145
60-70 22 167
70-80 15 182
80-90 12 194
90-100 10 204
204

N  204  N

  =  = 51 3  = 153
4  4  4
N
− m1
Q1 = l1 + 4 × c1
f1
51 − 29
= 20 + × 10 = 20 + 8.8 = 28.8
25
 N
3   − m3
= l3 +  
4
Q3 × c3
f3

153 − 145
= 60 + × 12 = 60 +4.36 = 64.36
22
Deciles :
These are the values, which divide the total number of
observation into 10 equal parts. These are 9 deciles D1, D2…D9.
These are all called first decile, second decile…
etc.,

124
Deciles for Raw data or ungrouped data
Example 25:
Compute D5 for the data given below
5, 24, 36, 12, 20, 8
Solution :
Arranging the given values in the increasing order
5, 8, 12, 20, 24, 36
th
 5( n + 1) 
D5 =   observation
 10 
th
 5(6 + 1) 
=  observation
 10 

= (3.5)th observation
1
= 3rd item + [ 4th item – 3rd item]
2
1
= 12 + [20 – 12] = 12+ 4 = 16
2
Deciles for Grouped data :
Example 26:
Calculate D3 and D7 for the data given below
Class 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Interval
Frequency : 5 7 12 16 10 8 4
Solution :
C.I f c.f
0-10 5 5
10-20 7 12
20-30 12 24
30-40 16 40
40-50 10 50
50-60 8 58
60-70 4 62
62
125
 th
 3N 
D3 item =   item
 10 
th
 3 × 62 
=   item
 10 
= (18.6)th item
which lies in the interval 20-30
N
3  − m
∴ D3 = l +  
10
× c
f
18.6 -12
= 20 + × 10
12
= 20 + 5.5 = 25.5
th
 7× N 
D7 item =   item
 10 
th
 7 × 62 
=  item
 10 
th
 434  th
=  item = (43.4) item
 10 
which lies in the interval(40-50)
 7N 
 10  − m
D7 = l +   × c
f
43.4 − 40
= 40 + × 10
10
= 40 + 3.4 = 43.4
Percentiles :
The percentile values divide the distribution into 100 parts
each containing 1 percent of the cases. The percentile (Pk) is that
value of the variable up to which lie exactly k% of the total number
of observations.
126
 Relationship :
P25 = Q1 ; P50 = D5 = Q2 = Median and P75 = Q3
Percentile for Raw Data or Ungrouped Data :
Example 27:
Calculate P15 for the data given below:
5, 24 , 36 , 12 , 20 , 8
Arranging the given values in the increasing order.
5, 8, 12, 20, 24, 36
th
 15(n + 1) 
P15 =   item
 100 
th
 15 × 7 
=  item
 100 
= (1.05)th item
= 1st item + 0.05 (2nd item – 1st item)
= 5 + 0.05 (8-5)
= 5 + 0.15 = 5.15
Percentile for grouped data :
Example 28:
Find P53 for the following frequency distribution.
Class 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40
interval

Frequency 5 8 12 16 20 10 4 3
Solution:
Class Interval Frequency C.f
0-5 5 5
5-10 8 13
10-15 12 25
15-20 16 41
20-25 20 61
25-30 10 71
30-35 4 75
35-40 3 78
Total 78

127
 53N
− m
P53 = l + 100 ×c
f

41.34 − 41
= 20 + ×5
20
= 20 + 0.085 = 20.085.
Mode :
The mode refers to that value in a distribution, which
occur most frequently. It is an actual value, which has the highest
concentration of items in and around it.
According to Croxton and Cowden “ The mode of a
distribution is the value at the point around which the items tend to
be most heavily concentrated. It may be regarded at the most
typical of a series of values”.
It shows the centre of concentration of the frequency in around a
given value. Therefore, where the purpose is to know the point of
the highest concentration it is preferred. It is, thus, a positional
measure.
Its importance is very great in marketing studies where a
manager is interested in knowing about the size, which has the
highest concentration of items. For example, in placing an order for
shoes or ready-made garments the modal size helps because this
sizes and other sizes around in common demand.
Computation of the mode:
Ungrouped or Raw Data:
For ungrouped data or a series of individual observations,
mode is often found by mere inspection.
Example 29:
2 , 7, 10, 15, 10, 17, 8, 10, 2
∴ Mode = M0 =10
In some cases the mode may be absent while in some cases
there may be more than one mode.

128
Example 30:
1. 12, 10, 15, 24, 30 (no mode)
2. 7, 10, 15, 12, 7, 14, 24, 10, 7, 20, 10
∴ the modes are 7 and 10

Grouped Data:
For Discrete distribution, see the highest frequency and
corresponding value of X is mode.

Continuous distribution :
See the highest frequency then the corresponding value of class
interval is called the modal class. Then apply the formula.
1
Mode = M 0 = l + ×C
1 + 2

l = Lower limit of the model class

1 = f1-f0
2 =f1-f2
f1 = frequency of the modal class
f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class
f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class
The above formula can also be written as
f1 -f 0
Mode = l + ×c
2f1 - f 0 - f 2
Remarks :
1. If (2f1-f0-f2) comes out to be zero, then mode is obtained
by the following formula taking absolute differences
within vertical lines.
( f1 − f 0 )
2. M0= l + ×c
| f1 − f 0 | + | f1 − f 2 |
3. If mode lies in the first class interval, then f0 is taken as
zero.

129
 4. The computation of mode poses no problem in
distributions with open-end classes, unless the modal
value lies in the open-end class.
Example 31:
Calculate mode for the following :

C- I f
0-50 5
50-100 14
100-150 40
150-200 91
200-250 150
250-300 87
300-350 60
350-400 38
400 and above 15

Solution:
The highest frequency is 150 and corresponding class interval is
200 – 250, which is the modal class.
Here l=200,f1=150,f0=91, f2=87, C=50

f1 -f 0
Mode = M0 = l + ×c
2f1 - f 0 - f 2

150-91
= 200 + × 50
2 × 150 − 91 − 87

2950
= 200 +
122
= 200 + 24.18 = 224.18
Determination of Modal class :
For a frequency distribution modal class corresponds to the
maximum frequency. But in any one (or more) of the following
cases
130
 i.If the maximum frequency is repeated
ii.If the maximum frequency occurs in the beginning or at the
end of the distribution
iii.If there are irregularities in the distribution, the modal class
is determined by the method of grouping.
Steps for Calculation :
We prepare a grouping table with 6 columns
1. In column I, we write down the given frequencies.
2. Column II is obtained by combining the frequencies two
by two.
3. Leave the 1st frequency and combine the remaining
frequencies two by two and write in column III
4. Column IV is obtained by combining the frequencies
three by three.
5. Leave the 1st frequency and combine the remaining
frequencies three by three and write in column V
6. Leave the 1st and 2nd frequencies and combine the
remaining frequencies three by three and write in
column VI
Mark the highest frequency in each column. Then form an
analysis table to find the modal class. After finding the modal class
use the formula to calculate the modal value.
Example 32:
Calculate mode for the following frequency distribution.
Class 0- 5- 10- 15- 20- 25- 30- 35-
interval 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Frequency 9 12 15 16 17 15 10 13
Grouping Table
CI f 2 3 4 5 6
0- 5 9 21
5-10 12 27
36
10-15 15 31 43
15-20 16 33 48
20-25 17 32 48
25-30 15 25 42 38
30-35 10 23
35-40 13
131