2nd Quarter Reviewer - ELEC 211

Aircraft engine instruments

- provides the pilot and maintenance crew the vital information regarding the health and
performance of the aircraft's engine(s)

Four-Stroke Cycle
● Intake
● Compression
● Power
● Exhaust

Engine Condition Indicators:

Oil Pressure Gauge

- provides the pilot with information about the oil pressure within the engine. Proper oil
pressure ensures that engine parts are adequately lubricated, which reduces wear and
prevents overheating or potential engine failures

Interpreting Oil Pressure Readings

• measured in pounds per square inch (psi).

• Aircraft manuals provide specific values that are considered "normal" or "acceptable" for that
particular engine.

• green (normal), yellow (caution), and red (danger) zones marked on the gauge. Note that
the yellow or red zones can be detrimental to the engine and need immediate attention.

Factors Affecting Oil Pressure

• Oil Viscosity: Oil thickens in cold temperatures and thins out in hot temperatures.

• Oil Quantity: Low oil levels can result in decreased oil pressure.

• Engine Wear: As engines age and parts wear out

• Oil Pump: If the oil pump is malfunctioning, it can lead to reduced or increased oil pressure.

Oil Temperature Gauge

 - provides the temperature of the engine oil as it functions optimally within a certain
temperature range.

Interpreting Oil Temperature Readings

• measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or degrees Fahrenheit (°F).

• The gauge will generally have markings to indicate the normal operating range for the
engine's oil temperature.

• “Some” aircraft will have green (normal), yellow (caution), and red (danger) zones marked
on the gauge.

Factors Affecting Oil Temperature

• Ambient Temperature: On very cold days, oil temperature may be lower until the engine
warms up. On very hot days, it may be higher.

• Engine Load: High engine loads can result in higher oil temperatures.

• Oil Quantity: Low oil levels can lead to increased oil temperature since there's less oil to
absorb the heat.

• Airflow: Reduced airflow around oil coolers or the engine can result in higher oil
temperatures.

Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge (CHT)

- monitors the temperature of an aircraft engine's cylinder heads.

Interpreting CHT Gauge

• measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or degrees Fahrenheit (°F).

• green (normal), yellow (caution), and red (overheat) zones marked.

• In aircraft with multiple cylinders, there might be multiple CHT readings or a selector switch
to view each cylinder's temperature.
Factors Affecting CHT
• Engine Load: Climbing or other high-power settings can increase CHT.

• Airflow: Reduced airflow due to blockages, dirty or damaged baffles, or high-angle of attack
can raise CHT.

• Combustion Efficiency: Lean or rich fuel mixtures can affect CHT. Leaning the mixture
typically increases CHT up to a point, while enriching decreases it.

Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) Gauge

- Measures the temperature of the exhaust gases as they exit the cylinders and the
combustion process inside the engine, and pilots use it primarily for leaning the engine
— that is, adjusting the fuel-air mixture for optimal performance and efficiency.

Interpreting EGT Gauge

• measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or degrees Fahrenheit (°F).

• often doesn't have colored "zones" (like green for normal or red for danger). Instead, pilots
look for changes in EGT values during various operations, especially when adjusting the
fuel-air mixture

Factors Affective EGT

• Fuel-Air Mixture: As the mixture is leaned (less fuel per unit of air), EGT will rise until it
reaches a peak temperature. As the mixture is leaned further past this peak, the EGT will
start to decrease.

• Engine Load: Changes in power settings can affect EGT.

• Altitude: The density of the air changes with altitude, which can impact EGT readings.

• Best Power: EGT slightly richer (more fuel) than the peak EGT.

• Best Economy: EGT slightly leaner (less fuel) than the peak EGT.

- High EGTs do not represent a threat to engine life. When adjusting power settings
and mixture, it is important to pay close attention to CHT because it is the best
representation of stress on the engine.
 Engine Performance Indicators
● Tachometer
● Manifold Pressure Gauge
● Fuel Flow Indicator

Tachometer
- measures the rotational speed of the engine's crankshaft in revolutions per minute
(RPM) and It is essential for monitoring engine performance.

Purpose of Tachometer

• In piston-engine aircraft, the tachometer helps pilots maintain RPM within specified limits
during different phases of flight, such as takeoff, cruise, and landing.

• It can also assist in identifying and troubleshooting engine-related problems. For

instance, a sudden drop in RPM might indicate an issue like a fouled spark plug or other
malfunction.

• For many aircraft, RPM is a primary determinant of power setting, especially when
combined with other measurements like manifold pressure in aircraft with a
constant-speed propeller.

Reading and Interpreting RPM Value

● Green Arc (Normal).
● Yellow Arc (Caution) - Operation should be avoided
● Red Radial Line: denotes the maximum allowable RPM, and exceeding this can result in
engine damage.

Manifold Pressure Gauge

- used primarily in piston-powered airplanes equipped with variable-pitch or
constant-speed propeller. It measures that intake manifold and is usually expressed in
inches of mercury (InHg) and provides an indication of the engine’s power output, in
conjunction with the tachometer.

Purpose of Manifold Pressure Gauge

Power Management: In aircraft with a constant-speed propeller, engine power is set using a
combination of the manifold pressure gauge and the tachometer. The throttle controls manifold
pressure (and thus the air/fuel mixture entering the cylinders), while the propeller control adjusts
RPM.
Engine Monitoring: Abnormal readings can indicate engine problems. For instance, if the
manifold pressure is unusually high for a given altitude or throttle setting, it might suggest an
issue with the induction system.

Reading and Interpreting Manifold Pressure Gauge

- typically has a circular dial with numbers representing inches of mercury (inHg) in the
U.S. or millibars in other parts of the world. There might be colored arcs or radial lines to
indicate operational limits.

Fuel Flow Meter

- measures the rate at which fuel is consumed by the engine and can also give indications
about the health or performance of the engine.

Purpose of Fuel Flow Meter

● Fuel Management: Pilots use the fuel flow indicator, along with the total fuel quantity
indicator, to manage their fuel, ensuring they have sufficient reserves for their flight .

● Performance & Efficiency: By monitoring fuel flow in different conditions and settings,
pilots can operate their aircraft in the most fuel-efficient manner.

● Engine Health: Sudden changes in fuel flow, or fuel flows that are inconsistent with
known values for certain power settings,
Aircraft Navigation

VOR(VHF omnidirectional range)

VHF(Very High Frequency)

● VOR-Type of radio navigation system used in aviation. It transmits signals that allow
aircraft to determine their position and stay on course by referencing specific radials from
the station.

● VOR stations operate within the VHF frequency range of 108.0 MHz to 117.95 MHz.
● 108.0 MHz to 111.95 MHz: Shared with Instrument Landing System (ILS) localizers
(even decimals are typically reserved for ILS).
● 112.0 MHz to 117.95 MHz: Exclusively used for VORs.

THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION CAN BE OBTAINED FROM THE VOR:

• The magnetic bearing of the aircraft FROM the VOR beacon;

• The magnetic bearing from the aircraft TO the VOR beacon;

• The position of the aircraft, that is port (Left) or starboard(Right) of a selected radial;

• When the aircraft is closing and when it is flying along a selected radial;

• When the aircraft passes over the VOR beacon.

How VOR Operates:

● Reference Signal: A constant, omnidirectional signal transmitted in all directions.

● Variable Signal: A directional signal that rotates 360° around the station, creating a
phase difference depending on the aircraft's position.
 How It Works:

● The VOR receiver in the aircraft compares the phase difference between the reference
and variable signals.
● This phase difference corresponds to a specific radial or direction from the station
(measured in degrees from magnetic north).
● The aircraft uses this information to determine its position relative to the VOR and
navigate accordingly.

DME (Distance Measuring Equipment): Some VORs are paired with DME to provide both
direction and distance information, referred to as VOR/DME.

Accuracy: VOR provides high accuracy, typically within ±1°.

VOR INDICATOR/COURSE DEVIATION INDICATOR (CDI)

VOR
RADIAL AERONAUTICAL CHART

COM/NAV USED FOR VOR

STACK NAV/COM

Broadcast VOR (BVOR)

● A standard VOR that transmits signals to provide bearing information.

● Used for general navigation over longer distances.

2. Doppler VOR (DVOR)

● An improved VOR system that reduces signal distortion caused by terrain.

● Uses Doppler effect principles by rotating antennas to enhance accuracy and reliability.
● More common in modern systems compared to conventional VOR.

3. Terminal VOR (TVOR)

 ● Designed for terminal areas near airports.
● Short-range (usually up to 25 nautical miles).
● Provides navigation guidance for departures, arrivals, and approaches.

4. VHF Omni-directional Test (VOT)

● A ground-based test facility used to check the accuracy of VOR receivers in aircraft.
● Emits a test signal that should indicate either 360° (TO) or 180° (FROM) on the aircraft's
VOR indicator.

5. Co-Located VOR and TACAN Beacons (VORTAC)

● Combines a civilian VOR with a military TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation) system.
● Provides both bearing (VOR) and distance (TACAN or DME) information.
● Used by both civil and military aircraft.

ADF (Automatic Direction Finder) is a radio navigation system used by aircraft to determine
the direction to a specific radio station or beacon.

How ADF Works:

1. Receives Signals: The ADF receiver in the aircraft picks up signals from NDBs
(Non-Directional Beacons) or AM radio stations.
2. Determines Bearing: It points the needle of an instrument, called the Radio Magnetic
Indicator (RMI), toward the source of the signal.
3. Navigation: The pilot uses the information to navigate directly to or from the station or
maintain a specific bearing relative to it.
Key Characteristics:

● Operates in the Low Frequency (LF) and Medium Frequency (MF) bands, typically
between 190 kHz and 1750 kHz. (KiloHertz)
● Simpler than VOR systems but more prone to interference from weather, terrain, or
electrical sources.

Applications:

● Commonly used for en-route navigation, approaches, or as a backup navigation aid.

● Pilots must compensate for wind to stay on course when using ADF.

DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) is a radio navigation system used by aircraft to

measure the distance to a ground-based station.

How DME Works:

1. Interrogation Signal: The aircraft sends out a high-frequency radio signal to the DME
ground station.
2. Response Signal: The station receives the signal and sends back a reply after a fixed
time delay.
 3. Distance Calculation: The DME receiver in the aircraft measures the time delay between
the sent and received signals, then calculates the distance using the speed of radio
waves.

Key Features:

● Provides slant range (the direct line distance to the station, not ground distance).
● Operates in the UHF(Ultra High Frequency) frequency range between 962 MHz and
1213 MHz.
● The range is typically up to 200-300 nautical miles, depending on altitude and terrain.

● An airplane’s DME interrogator uses frequencies from 1025 to 1150 MHz. DME
transponders transmit on a channel in the 962 to 1213 MHz range and receive on a
corresponding channel between 1025 to 1150 MHz. The band is divided into 126
channels for interrogation and 126 channels for reply. The interrogation and reply
frequencies always differ by 63 MHz.

Applications:

● Often paired with VOR to create a VOR/DME system for both direction and distance.
● Used for en-route navigation, approaches, and departures.

DIRECTION MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

The DME system consists of three basic components which are:

• DME antenna on the aircraft body (Interrogator).

• DME navigation display unit in the aircraft cockpit.

• DME Ground station (Transponder)

 ● DME distance: 50.8nm (Nautical Miles)
● Ground Speed: 100kt (Knots)
● Time to Station: 30min (30 minimum distance or minimum slant range)

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

HISTORY OF ILS

• Until the mid-1950’s, only visual landing procedures were possible

• 1958-First IFR(Instrument Flight Rules) landing system developed

• 1966-First ILS system developed and tested at Edwards AFB in Mojave, CA

• 1968-First ILS applications installed at major airports.

How ILS Works:

ILS provides both horizontal and vertical guidance to ensure the aircraft stays on the correct
path during the approach:

1. Localizer (L):
○ Provides horizontal guidance by determining if the aircraft is to the left or right
of the runway centerline.
○ The localizer transmits a signal along the runway's centerline, and the aircraft’s
receiver compares it to determine the lateral position.
2. Glide Slope (G):
○ Provides vertical guidance by helping the pilot follow the correct descent path
toward the runway.
○ The glide slope signal typically sets a descent angle of 3 degrees and ensures
the aircraft doesn't descend too steeply or too shallow.
3. Marker Beacons:
 ○ These beacons provide additional reference points during the approach.
○ The Outer Marker (OM) indicates when the aircraft is about 4-7 miles from the
runway.
○ The Middle Marker (MM) indicates when the aircraft is at the decision height
(DH) for a landing.
○ The Inner Marker (IM) is located closer to the runway and marks the final phase
of the approach.

Key Components:

● Localizer: Horizontal navigation, typically aligned with the runway.

● Glide Slope: Vertical navigation, usually positioned 1,000 feet from the runway
threshold.
● Marker Beacons: Provide distance information along the approach path.

RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)

How RADAR Works:

1. Transmission: A RADAR system sends out a pulse of radio waves from a transmitter.
2. Reflection: These radio waves travel through the air until they hit an object (such as an
aircraft, weather pattern, or terrain).
3. Reception: The waves bounce back (echo) and are received by the RADAR antenna.
4. Processing: The system calculates the time it took for the radio waves to return and
determines the object's distance. By measuring the time delay and analyzing the
returned signal, RADAR can also provide information about the object's speed, size, and
direction.

Types of RADAR in Aviation:

1. Primary RADAR (PSR):

○ Basic form of RADAR that only detects the presence and position of objects.
○ Sends out radio waves and listens for the reflections.
○ No need for the object (e.g., aircraft) to transmit any signal.
○ Used for air traffic control, detecting aircraft, weather systems, and obstacles.
2. Secondary RADAR (SSR):
○ Used for aircraft identification and position tracking.
○ Aircraft have a transponder that responds to the RADAR's signal by sending
back specific information like identity, altitude, and location.
○ Commonly used for air traffic control because it provides more detailed
information about the aircraft, such as altitude (via Mode C) or flight identification.
3. Weather RADAR:
 ○
Specifically designed to detect weather patterns like storms, precipitation, and
turbulence.
○ Helps pilots avoid severe weather conditions such as thunderstorms.
4. Ground Surveillance RADAR:
○ Used for airport ground control to track the movement of aircraft on the ground
(taxiing, takeoff, and landing).
○ It can also monitor vehicles, obstacles, and runways for safety.

Key Features of RADAR:

● Range: The distance the radar can detect an object, which can vary from a few miles to
several hundred miles, depending on the system.
● Resolution: The ability to distinguish between two closely spaced objects.
● Tracking: Continuous monitoring of an object's movement and position.

TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System) is an onboard safety system that helps pilots
avoid mid-air collisions by detecting nearby aircraft and providing alerts or recommendations for
maneuvering.

How TCAS Works:

1. Detection: TCAS uses a radar-like system to detect nearby aircraft equipped with
transponders (secondary radar signals). It receives information about the position,
altitude, and direction of these aircraft.
2. Traffic Advisory (TA): If an aircraft is detected to be at a potentially unsafe distance, the
system issues a Traffic Advisory. This alerts the pilot to the nearby traffic, indicating the
direction (e.g., "above," "below," or "to the left") and relative distance.
3. Resolution Advisory (RA): If the system detects a more imminent risk of collision, it
issues a Resolution Advisory. The RA provides specific instructions on how to avoid
the other aircraft, typically telling the pilot to either climb, descend, or adjust course to
avoid a collision.
4. Communication: TCAS is capable of providing visual and audible warnings to the
pilots, including:
○ Climb: "Climb, climb now" to increase altitude.
○ Descend: "Descend, descend now" to lower altitude.
○ Monitor Vertical Speed: A warning to adjust the vertical speed for separation.

Key Features:

● Range: TCAS typically detects aircraft within a range of 5 to 40 nautical miles,

depending on the system's capabilities.
● Altitude: The system monitors both horizontal and vertical position, providing alerts for
aircraft that are above or below the aircraft.
 ● Two-Mode Operation:
○ TCAS I: Provides only Traffic Advisories (TA) without Resolution Advisories (RA).
○ TCAS II: Provides both Traffic and Resolution Advisories (TA and RA) and is
more commonly used in commercial aircraft.

Applications:

● Collision Avoidance: TCAS is a vital tool for preventing mid-air collisions by

automatically detecting nearby aircraft and giving pilots timely warnings.
● Air Traffic Control (ATC): Helps ATC maintain safe separation between aircraft,
particularly in congested airspace.

Limitations:

● No Control of Other Aircraft: TCAS cannot directly control the behavior of other
aircraft. It relies on pilots to follow the system's advisories.
● Depends on Transponders: TCAS only works with aircraft that have transponders, so it
won’t detect non-transponder-equipped aircraft.
● False Alerts: In some cases, TCAS may generate false alerts due to signal interference
or other factors.
ATC (Air Traffic Control) is a service provided by ground-based controllers who manage the
movement of aircraft both in the air and on the ground to ensure safe and efficient flight
operations. ATC's main goal is to prevent collisions between aircraft, provide guidance during
flight, and ensure that air traffic flows smoothly through controlled airspace.

Key Functions of ATC:

1. Separation of Aircraft: ATC ensures that aircraft maintain a safe distance from each
other, both horizontally and vertically, to prevent collisions. This is especially crucial in
busy airspace and during takeoffs and landings.
2. Flight Guidance and Instructions: ATC provides pilots with clear instructions for
routing, altitude changes, and approach procedures to help them reach their destination
safely. This guidance is based on factors such as airspace traffic, weather conditions,
and aircraft performance.
3. Airport and Ground Control: ATC also oversees aircraft on the ground, managing their
movements during taxiing, takeoffs, and landings. This ensures that planes do not collide
on runways or taxiways.
4. Emergency Assistance: If an aircraft faces an emergency, ATC coordinates with other
aircraft and ground services to provide the necessary assistance. This may include
providing priority landing, diverting traffic, or clearing airspace.

Types of ATC Services:

1. Area Control (ACC):

○ Manages high-altitude flights, often in large sectors of airspace, and ensures
aircraft are separated and safely guided through en-route segments.
○ Handles aircraft traveling long distances between airports.
2. Approach Control (APP):
○ Manages aircraft as they approach an airport for landing.
 ○Provides altitude and sequencing instructions to ensure safe and orderly arrivals,
particularly when multiple aircraft are inbound to the same airport.
3. Tower Control (TWR):
○ Manages aircraft operations at the airport itself, including takeoff, landing, and
taxiing on the runways and taxiways.
○ Coordinates with approach and ground control to ensure safe operations at the
airport.
4. Ground Control (GND):
○ Responsible for managing aircraft movements on the ground, such as taxiing
from the gate to the runway, or from the runway to the gate, while avoiding other
aircraft and obstacles.

GPWS (Ground Proximity Warning System) is a safety system installed in aircraft to warn
pilots of an impending collision with the ground, terrain, or an obstacle, helping to prevent
controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) accidents. It provides real-time alerts to pilots when they are
getting dangerously close to the ground or an obstruction, particularly in conditions where visual
reference is poor, such as low visibility or poor weather.

How GPWS Works:

GPWS uses a combination of sensors, databases, and aircraft systems to monitor the aircraft's
altitude, speed, position, and terrain data. Based on this information, the system calculates the
risk of a collision and provides appropriate alerts.

1. Terrain Database: GPWS uses a digital database that contains information about the
terrain (e.g., mountains, hills, and buildings) around the aircraft's flight path.
2. Altitude and Position Sensors: The system continuously measures the aircraft's
altitude and compares it to the terrain height below. If the aircraft is descending too
rapidly or too close to the ground, the system activates warnings.
3. Warning Levels: GPWS provides different levels of alerts based on the severity of the
situation:
○ Caution Alert: A warning that the aircraft is approaching terrain but is not yet in
immediate danger. The pilot should be aware and take action if necessary.
○ Alert Warning: A more urgent warning indicating that the aircraft is descending
too quickly or is too close to the ground.
○ Warning (or "Pull Up"): The most critical alert, telling the pilot to take immediate
action to prevent a crash, usually by increasing altitude (pulling up).
The system generates alerts only between 50ft and 2500 ft AGL (Above Ground Level).
Six alert

modes are established with defined danger envelopes:

Mode 1: excessive sink rate

Mode 2: excessive terrain closure rate

Mode 3: descent after take-off

Mode 4: inadvertent proximity to terrain with landing gear or flaps not in landing configuration

(terrain clearance)

Mode 5: descent below ILS glideslope

Mode 6: descent below minimums

SATNAV (Satellite Navigation) is a system that uses satellites to provide location and time
information to receivers on Earth. It's commonly used for navigation in vehicles, ships, aircraft,
and personal devices. SATNAV is essential for determining a precise location anywhere on
Earth, typically using signals from multiple satellites.

Key Points:

● Global Positioning System (GPS) is the most widely used form of SATNAV, but there
are other systems like GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (Europe), and BeiDou (China).
● Working Principle: SATNAV systems work by triangulating the signals from at least
three (but preferably four) satellites. By measuring the time it takes for the signals to
reach the receiver, the system calculates the distance from each satellite and determines
the exact position.
● Applications: SATNAV is used in various fields, including:
○ Aviation: Helps pilots navigate in the air, especially in regions where there are no
ground-based navigation aids.
○ Automotive: Used in GPS systems in cars to provide directions and real-time
traffic updates.
○ Marine: Assists in navigation at sea by providing coordinates and routes.
○ Personal Devices: Many smartphones use SATNAV for location services like
maps, ride-sharing apps, and geotagging.

How it Works:

1. Satellite Signals: Satellites continuously broadcast signals with information about their
location and the current time.
 2. Receiver: A SATNAV receiver (in a phone, car, or aircraft) picks up signals from at least
three to four satellites. The receiver calculates how long it took for the signal to travel
from each satellite to the receiver.
3. Triangulation: By comparing the time delay of each signal, the receiver determines the
distance from each satellite. Using multiple satellite signals, it then calculates the exact
location (latitude, longitude, and altitude).

GPS (Global Positioning System)

How GPS Works:

GPS relies on a network of at least 24 satellites orbiting the Earth. These satellites send
signals to GPS receivers on the ground, allowing the receiver to determine its precise location
by calculating the time it took for the signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver.

Key Steps in GPS Function:

1. Satellites: GPS satellites orbit Earth and continuously broadcast a signal that contains
the satellite's location and the exact time the signal was sent.
2. Receiver: A GPS receiver (found in devices like smartphones, car navigation systems,
or aircraft) picks up signals from at least four satellites.
3. Time Calculation: The receiver measures how long it took for the signals to reach it,
allowing it to calculate the distance from each satellite.
4. Triangulation: Using the information from multiple satellites (at least three for 2D and
four for 3D positioning), the receiver uses trilateration to determine the user’s exact
position (latitude, longitude, and altitude).

Components of GPS:

1. Space Segment: The satellites that orbit the Earth and send signals to the GPS
receivers.
2. Control Segment: A network of ground-based stations that track and monitor the
satellites, ensuring their proper operation.
3. User Segment: The GPS receivers that pick up the satellite signals and calculate
location.