Download the full version of the ebook at

https://ebookgate.com

Network Protocols Handbook Javvin

Technologies

https://ebookgate.com/product/network-protocols-
handbook-javvin-technologies/

Explore and download more ebook at https://ebookgate.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

Next generation network services technologies and

strategies 1st Edition Neill Wilkinson

https://ebookgate.com/product/next-generation-network-services-
technologies-and-strategies-1st-edition-neill-wilkinson/

ebookgate.com

Network Security Administration and Management Advancing

Technologies and Practice 1st Edition Dulal Chandra Kar

https://ebookgate.com/product/network-security-administration-and-
management-advancing-technologies-and-practice-1st-edition-dulal-
chandra-kar/
ebookgate.com

Handbook of surveillance technologies 3rd Edition J.K.

Petersen

https://ebookgate.com/product/handbook-of-surveillance-
technologies-3rd-edition-j-k-petersen/

ebookgate.com

Internetworking technologies handbook 4th ed Edition Cisco

Systems Inc.

https://ebookgate.com/product/internetworking-technologies-
handbook-4th-ed-edition-cisco-systems-inc/

ebookgate.com
Handbook of Silicon Based MEMS Materials and Technologies
Veikko Lindroos

https://ebookgate.com/product/handbook-of-silicon-based-mems-
materials-and-technologies-veikko-lindroos/

ebookgate.com

Handbook of Laser Welding Technologies 1st Edition S.

Katayama (Eds.)

https://ebookgate.com/product/handbook-of-laser-welding-
technologies-1st-edition-s-katayama-eds/

ebookgate.com

Attacking Network Protocols A Hacker s Guide to Capture

Analysis and Exploitation 1st Edition James Forshaw

https://ebookgate.com/product/attacking-network-protocols-a-hacker-s-
guide-to-capture-analysis-and-exploitation-1st-edition-james-forshaw/

ebookgate.com

Implementing NAP and NAC Security Technologies The

Complete Guide to Network Access Control 1st Edition
Daniel V. Hoffman
https://ebookgate.com/product/implementing-nap-and-nac-security-
technologies-the-complete-guide-to-network-access-control-1st-edition-
daniel-v-hoffman/
ebookgate.com

Hazardous and Radioactive Waste Treatment Technologies

Handbook Handbook Series for Mechanical Engineering 1st
Edition Chang H. Oh
https://ebookgate.com/product/hazardous-and-radioactive-waste-
treatment-technologies-handbook-handbook-series-for-mechanical-
engineering-1st-edition-chang-h-oh/
ebookgate.com
Second Edition

Network
Protocols
Handbook

I P M N t y S O
/ T A r i I
C P A L u
T e c F
t N S E T
n e A P I M
e r W I B
h O E I
y V E
Et e l a 7 IE o
R / C s c
e 7 N C i t
m S A of
a S L s
Fr N V SI c r o
L A N N i
A A M
W S l
T l e e l
AN P N U
-
p p o v
M V I T A N
Javvin Technologies, Inc.
Network Protocols Handbook

Network Protocols Handbook

2nd Edition.

Copyright © 2004 - 2005 Javvin Technologies Inc. All rights

reserved.

13485 Old Oak Road

Saratoga CA 95070 USA
408-872-3881
[email protected]

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced

or transmitted in any form or by any means electronically or
mechanically.

Warning and Disclaimer

This book is designed to provied information about the

current network communication protocols. Best effort
has been made to make this book as complete and ac-
curate as possible, but no warranty or fitness is implied.
The infomation is provided on an “as is” basis. The author,
publisher and distributor shall not have liability nor respon-
sibility to anyone or group with respect to any loss arising
from the information contained in this book and associated
materials.
I
Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Network Communication Architecture and Protocols••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••1

OSI Network Architecture 7 Layers Model••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••2
TCP/IP Four Layers Archiitecture Model••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••5
Other Network Architecture Models: IBM SNA••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••7
Network Protocols: Definition and Overview••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••9

Protocols Guide•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••11
TCP/IP Protocols••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••11
Application Layer Protocols••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••13

BOOTP:Bootstrap Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••13

DCAP: Data Link Switching Client Access Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••14

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••15

DNS: Domain Name System (Service) Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••16

FTP: File Transfer Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••17

Finger: User Information Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••19

HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••20

S-HTTP: Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••21

IMAP & IMAP4: Internet Message Access Protocol (version 4)•••••••••••••••••••••22

IRCP: Internet Relay Chat Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••24

LDAP: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (version 3)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••25

MIME (S-MIME): Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions and Secure MIME••••••26

NAT: Network Address Translation•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••27

NNTP: Network News Transfer Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••28

NTP: Network Time Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••29

POP and POP3: Post Office Protocol (version 3)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••31

Rlogin: Remote Login in UNIX Systems••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••32

RMON: Remote Monitoring MIBs (RMON1 and RMON2)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••33

II
Table of Contents

SLP: Service Location Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••35

SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••36

SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••37

SNMPv1: Simple Network Management Protocol version one••••••••••••••••••••••38

SNMPv2: Simple Network Management Protocol version two••••••••••••••••••••••40

SNMPv3: Simple Network Management Protocol version three••••••••••••••••••••42

SNTP: Simple Network Time Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••44

TELNET: Terminal Emulation Protocol of TCP/IP•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••46

TFTP: Trivial File Transfer Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••47

URL: Uniform Resource Locator•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••48

Whois (and RWhois): Remote Directory Access Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••49

X Window/X Protocol: X Window System Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••50

Presentation Layer Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••51

LPP: Lignhtweight Presentation Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••51

Session Layer Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••52

RPC: Remote Procedure Call Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••52

Transport Layer Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••54

ITOT: ISO Transport Service on top of TCP•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••54

RDP: Reliable Data Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••55

RUDP: Reliable User Datagram Protocol (Reliable UDP)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••57

TALI: Tekelec’s Transport Adapter Layer Interface•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••58

TCP: Transmission Control Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••59

UDP: User Datagram Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••61

Van Jacobson: Compressed TCP Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••62

Network Layer Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••63

Routing Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••63

BGP (BGP-4): Border Gateway Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••63

III
Table of Contents

EGP: Exterior Gateway Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••64

IP: Internet Protocol (IPv4)•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••65

IPv6: Internet Protocol version 6••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••67

ICMP & ICMPv6: Internet Message Control Protocol and ICMP version 6•••••••68

IRDP: ICMP Router Discovery Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••69

Mobile IP: IP Mobility Support Protocol for IPv4 & IPv6••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••70

NARP: NBMA Address Resolution Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••72

NHRP: Next Hop Resolution Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••73

OSPF: Open Shortest Path Firest Protocol (version 2)•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••74

RIP: Routing Information Protocol (RIP2)•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••75

RIPng: Routing Information Protocol next generation for IPv6••••••••••••••••••••••76

RSVP: Resource ReSerVation Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••77

VRRP: Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••78

Multicasting Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••79

BGMP: Border Gateway Multicast Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••79

DVMRP: Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••80

IGMP : Internet Group Management Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••81

MARS: Multicast Address Resolution Server••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••82

MBGP: Multiprotocol BGP••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••83

MOSPF: Multicast Extensions to OSPF•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••85

MSDP: Multicast Source Discovery Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••87

MZAP: Multicast-Scope Zone Anncuncement Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••88

PGM: Pragmatic General Multicast Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••89

PIM-DM: Protocol Independent Multicast - Dense Mode••••••••••••••••••••••••••••90

PIM-SM: Protocol Independent Multicast - Sparse Mode••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••91

MPLS Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••92

MPLS: Multiprotocol Label Switching•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••92

IV
Table of Contents

CR-LDP: Constraint-based LDP••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••94

LDP: Label Distribution Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••95

RSVP-TE: Resource Reservation Protocol - Traffic Extension•••••••••••••••••••••96

Data Link Layer Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••97

ARP and InARP: Address Resolution Protocol and Inverse ARP•••••••••••••••••••97

IPCP and IPv6CP: IP Control Protocol and IPv6 Control Protocol••••••••••••••••••98

RARP: Reverse Address Resolution Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••99

SLIP: Serial Line IP•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••100

Network Security Technologies and Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••101

AAA Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••103

Kerberos: Network Authentication Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••103

RADIUS: Remote Authentication Dial in User Service•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••104

SSH: Secure Shell Protocolsl•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••105

Tunneling Protocols••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••106

L2F: Layer 2 Forwarding Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••106

L2TP: Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••107

PPTP: Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••109

Secured Routing Protocols••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••110

DiffServ: Differentiated Service Architecture•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••110

GRE: Generic Routing Encapsulation•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••111

IPSec: Security Architecture for IP•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••112

IPSec AH: IPsec Authentication Header•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••113

IPsec ESP: IPsec Encapsulating Security Payload•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••114

IPsec IKE: Internet Key Exchange Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••115

IPsec ISAKMP: Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol•116

TLS: Transprot Layer Security Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••117

V
Table of Contents

Other Security Protocols••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••118

SOCKS v5: Protocol for Sessions Traversal Across Firewall Securely••••••••••••••118

Voice over IP and VOIP Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••119

Signalling••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••121

H.323: VOIP Protocols••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••121

H.225.0: Vall signalling protocols and media stream packetization for packet
based multimedia communication systems••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••123

H.235: Security and encryption for H-series (H.323 and other H.245-based)
multimediateminals••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••125

H.245: Control Protocol for Multimedia Communication•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••126

Megaco/H.248: Media Gateway Control Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••127

MGCP: Media Gateway Control Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••128

RTSP: Real-Time Streaming Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••129

SAP: Session Announcement Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••131

SDP: Session Description Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••132

SIP: Session Initiation Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••133

SCCP (Skinny): Cisco Skinny Client Control Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••135

T.120: Multipoint Data Conferencing and Real Time Communication Protocols

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••137

Media/CODEC•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••139

G.7xx: Audio (Voice) Compression Protocols••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••139

H.261: Video Coding and Decoding (CODEC)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••141

H.263: Video Coding and Decoding (CODEC)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••142

RTP: Real-Time Transport Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••144

RTCP: RTP Control Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••145

Other Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••146
VI
Table of Contents

COPS: Common Open Policy Service••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••146

SCTP: Stream Control Transmission Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••147

TRIP: Telephony Routing over IP••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••148

Wide Area Network and Wan Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••149

ATM Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••151

ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode Reference Model•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••151

ATM Layer: Asynchronous Transfer Mode Layer•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••152

AAL: ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL0, AAL2, AAL3/4, AAL5)•••••••••••••••••••••••••153

ATM UNI: ATM Signaling User-to-Network Interface•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••156

LANE NNI: ATM LAN Emulation NNI•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••158

LANE UNI: ATM LAN Emulation UNI••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••160

MPOA: Multi-Protocol Over ATM••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••162

ATM PNNI: ATM Private Network-toNetwork Interface•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••164

Q.2931: ATM Signaling for B-ISDN••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••165

SONET/SDH: Synchronous Optical Network and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••167

Broadband Access Protocols••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••169

BISDN: Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (Broadband ISDN)•••169

ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••170

LAP-D: ISDN Link Access Protocol-Channel D•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••172

Q.931: ISDN Network Layer Protocol for Signaling••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••174

DOCSIS: Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification•••••••••••••••••••••••••175

xDSL: Digital Subscriber Line Technologies (DSL, IDSL, ADSL, HDSL, SDSL,
VDSL,G.Lite)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••176

PPP Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••177

PPP: Point-to-Point Protocols••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••177

BAP: PPP Bandwidth Allocation Protocol(BAP)•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••178

VII
Table of Contents

BACP: PPP Banwidth Allocation Control Protocol (BACP)••••••••••••••••••••••••178

BCP: PPP Briding Control Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••179

EAP: PPP Extensible Authentication Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••180

CHAP: Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••181

LCP: PPP Link Control Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••182

MPPP: MultiLink Point to Point Protocol (MultiPPP)•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••183

PPP NCP: Point to Point Protocol Network Control Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••184

PAP: Password Authentication Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••185

PPPoA: PPP over ATM AAL5••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••186

PPPoE: PPP over Ethernet••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••187

Other WAN Protocols••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••188

Frame Relay: WAN Protocol for Internetworking••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••188

LAPF: Link Access Procedure for Frame Mode Services•••••••••••••••••••••••••••190

HDLC: High Level Data Link Control••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••191

LAPB: Link Access Procedure, Balanced•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••192

X.25: ISO/ITU-T Protocol for WAN Communications•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••193

Local Area Network and LAN Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••195

Ethernet Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••196

Ethernet: IEEE 802.3 Local Area Network Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••196

Fast Ethernet: 100Mbps Ethernet (IEEE 802.3u)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••198

Gigabit (1000 Mbps) Ethernet: IEEE 802.3z(1000Base-X) and 802.3ab(1000

Base-T) and GBIC••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••199

10 Gigabit Ethernet: The Ethernet Protocol IEEE 802.3ae for LAN, WAN and
MAN•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••201

Virtual LAN Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••203

VLAN: Virtual Local Area Network and the IEEE 802.1Q•••••••••••••••••••••••••••203

IEEE 802.1P: LAN Layer 2 QoS/CoS Protocol for Traffic Prioritization••••••••••205

VIII
Table of Contents

GARP: Generic Attribute Registration Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••207

GMRP: GARP Multicast Registration Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••208

GVRP: GARP VLAN Registration Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••209

Wilress LAN Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••210

WLAN: Wireless LAN by IEEE 802.11 Protocols••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••210

IEEE 802.1X: EAP over LAN (EAPOL) for LAN/WLAN Authentication and Key
Management•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••212

IEEE 802.15 and Bluetooth: WPAN Communications•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••214

Other Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••215

FDDI: Fiber Distributed Data Interface••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••215

Token Ring: IEEE 802.5 LAN Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••216

LLC: Logic Link Control (IEEE 802.2)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••217

SNAP: SubNetwork Access Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••218

STP: Spanning Tree Protocol (IEEE 802.1D)•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••219

Metropolitan Area Network and MAN Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••221

DQDB: Distributed Queue Dual Bus (Defined in IEEE 802.6)•••••••••••••••••••••222

SMDS: Switched Multimegabit Data Service••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••223

IEEE 802.16: Broadband Wireless MAN Standard (WiMAX)••••••••••••••••••••••225

Storage Area Network and SAN Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••226

FC & FCP: Fibre Channel and Fibre Channel Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••228

FCIP: Fibre Channel over TCP/IP•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••229

iFCP: Internet Fibre Channel Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••231

iSCSI: Internet Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)••••••••••••••••••••••••••233

iSNS and iSNSP: Internet Storage Name Service and iSNS Protocol•••••••••••235

NDMP: Network Data Management Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••236

SCSI: Small Computer System Interface•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••238

IX
Table of Contents

ISO Protocols in OSI 7 Layers Model••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••240

Application Layer•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••242

ISO ACSE: Association Control Service Element•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••242

ISO CMIP: Common Management Information Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••244

CMOT: CMIP over TCP/IP••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••246

ISO FTAM: File Transfer Access and Management Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••247

ISO ROSE: Remote Operations Service Element Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••248

ISO RTSE: Reliable Transfer Service Element Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••250

ISO VTP: ISO Virtual Terminal (VT) Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••251

X.400: Message Handling Service Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••252

X.500: Directory Access Protocol (DAP)•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••254

ISO-PP: OSI Presentation Layer Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••255

ISO-SP: OSI Session Layer Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••257

ISO-TP: OSI Transport Layer Protocols TP0, TP1, TP2, TP3, TP4•••••••••••••••259

Network Layer•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••261

CLNP: Connectionless Network Protocol (ISO-IP)•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••261

ISO CONP: Connection-Oriented Network Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••263

ES-IS: End System to Intermediate System Routing Exchange Protocol•••••••264

IDRP: Inter-Domain Routing Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••265

IS-IS: Intermediate System to Intermediate System Routing Protocol•••••••••••266

Cisco Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••267
CDP: Cisco Discovery Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••268

CGMP: Cisco Group Management Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••269

DTP: Cisco Dynamic Trunking Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••270

EIGRP: Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••271

HSRP: Hot Standby Router Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••272

X
Table of Contents

IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••273

ISL & DISL: Cisco Inter-Switch Link Protocol and Dynamic ISL Protocol••••••••274

RGMP: Cisco Router Port Group Management Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••275

TACACS (and TACACS+): Terminal Access Controller Access Control System

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••276

VTP: Cisco VLAN Trunking Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••277

XOT: X.25 over TCP Protocol by Cisco•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••279

Novell NetWare and Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••280

IPX: Internetwork Packet Exchange Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••282

NCP: NetWare Core Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••283

NLSP: NetWare Link Services Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••284

SPX: Sequenced Packet Exchange Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••286

IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA) and Protocols••••••••••••••••••287

IBM SMB: Server Message Block Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••289

APPC: Advanced Program to Program Communications (SNA LU6.2)••••••••••290

SNA NAU: Network Accessible Units (PU, LU and CP)•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••291

NetBIOS: Network Basic Input Output System••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••293

NetBEUI: NetBIOS Extended User Interface••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••294

APPN: Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••295

DLSw: Data-Link Switching Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••297

QLLC: Qualified Logic Link Control••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••298

SDLC: Synchronous Data Link Control•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••299

AppleTalk: Apple Computer Protocols Suite•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••300

DECnet and Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••302

XI
Table of Contents

SS7/C7 Protocols: Signalling System #7 for Telephony ••••••••••••••••304

BISUP: Broadband ISDN User Part•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••306

DUP: Data User Part•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••307

ISUP: ISDN User Part•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••308

MAP: Mobile Application Part••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••310

MTP2 and MTP3: Message Transfer Part level 2 and level 3•••••••••••••••••••••312

SCCP: Signalling Connection Control Part of SS7••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••314

TCAP: Transaction Capabilities Application Part••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••315

TUP: Telephone User Part••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••317

Other Protocols•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••318
Microsoft CIFS: Common Internet File System••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••319

Microsoft SOAP: Simple Object Access Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••320

Xerox IDP: Internet Datagram Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••321

Toshiba FANP: Flow Attribute Notification Protocol•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••322

Network Protocols Dictionary: From A to Z and 0 to 9••••••••••••••••••••••323

Major Networking and Telecom Standard Organizations•••••••••••••••••••341

Network Communication Protocols Map••••••••••••••••••••••••••••342

XII
Figure

Figure

Figure 1-1: Communication between computers in a network•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••3

Figure 1-2: Data encapsulation at each layer••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••3

Figure 1-3: Data communication between peer layers•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••4

Figure 1-4: TCP/IP Protocol Stack 4 Layer Model•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••6

Figure 1-5: SNA vs. OSI model••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••8

Figure 1-6: SNA Network Topology•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••8

Figure 1-7: Communication between TP and LU in SNA•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••8

Figure 2-1: RMON Monitoring Layers•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••33

Figure 2-2: Remote Procedure Call Flow••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••52

Figure 2-3: Mobile IP Functional Flow Chart••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••70

Figure 2-4: MPLS protocol stack architecture••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••92

Figure 2-5: IPsec Protocol Stack Structure••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••112

Figure 2-6: H.323 Protocol Stack Structure•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••122

Figure 2-7: H.235 – Encryption of media••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••125

Figure 2-8: H.235 – Decryption of media••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••125

Figure 2-9: T.120 Data Conferencing Protocol Structure•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••138

Figure 2-10: ATM Reference Model•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••169

Figure 2-11: Gigabit Ethernet Protocol Stack••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••199

Figure 2-12: Packet Bursting Mode in Gigabit Ethernet••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••200

Figure 2-13: 10 Gigabit Ethernet Architecture•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••201

Figure 2-14: IEEE 802.15 (Bluetooth) Protocol Stack••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••214

Figure 2-15: DQDB Architecture•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••222

Figure 2-16: IEEE 802.16 (WiMax) Functional Flow Chart••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••225

Figure 2-17: IEEE 8-2.16 (WiMax) Protocol Stack••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••225

Figure 2-18: Storage Area Network Architecture•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••226

Figure 2-19: Fibre Channel Protocol••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••228

Figure 2-20: NDMP Functional Components•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••236

XIII
Figure

Figure 2-21: SCSI Protocol Stack Structure••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••239

Figure 2-22: Novell Netware Protocol Stack Architecture••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••281

Figure 2-23: IBM SNA vs. OSI Model••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••288

Figure 2-24: IBM APPN Network Illustration••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••296

Figure 2-25: QLLC Network Architecture••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••298

Figure 2-26: AppleTalk Protocol Stack Architecture•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••301

Figure 2-27: DECnet Protocol Suite Architecture••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••303

Figure 2-28: SS7/C7 Protocol Suite Architecture••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••305

Figure 2-29: SCCP Protocol Structure•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••314

Figure 2-30: TCAP Protocol Structure••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••315

Figure 2-31: Microsoft CIFS Flow Chart••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••319

XIV
Perface

Preface
We are living in the IT(Information Technologies) times. The IT provides us many pow-
erful tools that have significantly changed our way of life, work and business opera-
tions. Among all the IT advancements, Internet has the most impact in every aspect
of our society for the past 20 years. From Internet, people can get instant news, com-
municate with others, use it as a super-encyclopedia and find anything that they are
interested in via search engines at their finger tips; Company can conduct business to
business(B2B), business to consumer(B2C), with great efficiency; Government can
announce polices, publicize regulations, and provide administrative information and
services to the general public. Internet not only provides unprecedented convenience
to our daily life, but also opens up new areas of disciplines and commercial opportuni-
ties that have boosted overall economy by creating many new jobs. It is reported that
Internet will become a $20 trillion industry in the near future.

The Internet has also made significant progress and rapid adoption in China. Ac-
cording to the 14th Statistical Survey Report on the Internet Development in China
announced on Jul 20, 2004 by CNNIC(China Internet Network Information Center),
there are about 87 million Internet users as counted by the end of June 30, 2004, in
mainland China, second only to the US; There are about 36 million computer hosts;
The number of domain names registered under CN is 382216; The number of “www”
websites is 626,600. It should be also noted that China has started its CNGI(China
Next Generation Internet) project at the beginning of 2000, right after US and Europe
started the similar initiatives. China now is becoming one of the most important and
influential members not only in the World Trade Organization, but also within the
Internet community.

To build the Internet and many other networks, engineers and organizations around
the world have created many technologies over the past 20 years, in which network
protocol is one of the key technology areas. After years of development on the com-
munication standards and generations of networking architecture, network commu-
nication protocols have become a very complex subject. Various standard organiza-
tions have defined many communication protocols and all major vendors have their
own proprietary technologies. Yet, people in the industry are continuously proposing
and designing new protocols to address new problems in the network communica-
tions. It has become a huge challenge for IT and network professionals at all levels
to understand the overall picture of communication protocols and to keep up with the
pace of its on-going evolutions.

Javvin Company, based on Silicon Valley in California, USA, is a network software

provider. This book is one of its contributions to provide an overview of network proto-
cols and to serve as a reference and handbook for IT and network professionals.. The
book fully explains and reviews all commonly used network communication protocols,
including TCP/IP, security, VOIP, WAN, LAN , MAN, SAN and ISO protocols. It also
covers Cisco, Novell, IBM, Microsoft, Apple and DEC network protocols. Hundreds of
hyperlinks of references for further reading and studies are available in the book. It is
an excellent reference for Internet programmers, network professionals and college
students who are majoring IT and networking technology. It is also useful for individu-
als who want to know more details about the technologies underneath the Internet. I
highly recommend this book to our readers.

Ke Yan, Ph.D.

Chief Architect of Juniper Networks

Founder of NetScreen Technologies
1
Network Communication Architecture and Protocols

Network Communication Architec-

ture and Protocols
A network architecture is a blueprint of the complete computer communi-
cation network, which provides a framework and technology foundation for
designing, building and managing a communication network. It typically has
a layered structure. Layering is a modern network design principle which
divides the communication tasks into a number of smaller parts, each part
accomplishing a particular sub-task and interacting with the other parts in a
small number of well-defined ways. Layering allows the parts of a communi-
cation to be designed and tested without a combinatorial explosion of cases,
keeping each design relatively simple.

If a network architecture is open, no single vendor owns the technology and

controls its definition and development. Anyone is free to design hardware
and software based on the network architecture. The TCP/IP network archi-
tecture, which the Internet is based on, is such a open network architecture
and it is adopted as a worldwide network standard and widely deployed in
local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), small and large enter-
prises, and last but not the least, the Internet.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network architecture, developed by

International Organization for Standardization, is an open standard for com-
munication in the network across different equipment and applications by
different vendors. Though not widely deployed, the OSI 7 layer model is
considered the primary network architectural model for inter-computing and
inter-networking communications.

In addition to the OSI network architecture model, there exist other network
architecture models by many vendors, such as IBM SNA (Systems Network
Architecture), Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC; now part of HP) DNA
(Digital Network Architecture), Apple computer’s AppleTalk, and Novell’s
NetWare. Actually, the TCP/IP architecture does not exactly match the OSI
model. Unfortunately, there is no universal agreement regarding how to de-
scribe TCP/IP with a layered model. It is generally agreed that TCP/IP has
fewer levels (from three to five layers) than the seven layers of the OSI
model.

Network architecture provides only a conceptual framework for communica-

tions between computers. The model itself does not provide specific meth-
ods of communication. Actual communication is defined by various commu-
nication protocols.
2
Network Communication Architecture and Protocols

OSI Network Architecture 7 Layers Model

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference model developed
by ISO (International Organization for Standardization) in 1984, as a con-
ceptual framework of standards for communication in the network across
different equipment and applications by different vendors. It is now consid-
ered the primary architectural model for inter-computing and internetworking
communications. Most of the network communication protocols used today
have a structure based on the OSI model. The OSI model defines the com-
munications process into 7 layers, dividing the tasks involved with moving
information between networked computers into seven smaller, more man-
ageable task groups. A task or group of tasks is then assigned to each of the
seven OSI layers. Each layer is reasonably self-contained so that the tasks
assigned to each layer can be implemented independently. This enables the
solutions offered by one layer to be updated without adversely affecting the
other layers.

The OSI 7 layers model has clear characteristics at each layer. Basically, lay-
ers 7 through 4 deal with end to end communications between data source
and destinations, while layers 3 to 1 deal with communications between net-
work devices. On the other hand, the seven layers of the OSI model can
be divided into two groups: upper layers (layers 7, 6 & 5) and lower layers
(layers 4, 3, 2, 1). The upper layers of the OSI model deal with application
issues and generally are implemented only in software. The highest layer,
the application layer, is closest to the end user. The lower layers of the OSI
model handle data transport issues. The physical layer and the data link lay-
er are implemented in hardware and software. The lowest layer, the physical
layer, is closest to the physical network medium (the wires, for example) and
is responsible for placing data on the medium.

The specific description for each layer is as follows:

Layer 7: Application Layer

• Defines interface to user processes for communication and data

transfer in network
• Provides standardized services such as virtual terminal, file and job
transfer and operations

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

• Masks the differences of data formats between dissimilar systems

• Specifies architecture-independent data transfer format
• Encodes and decodes data; encrypts and decrypts data; compress-
es and decompresses data

Layer 5: Session Layer

• Manages user sessions and dialogues

• Controls establishment and termination of logic links between users
• Reports upper layer errors

Layer 4: Transport Layer

3
Network Communication Architecture and Protocols OSI Network Architecture 7 Layers Model

• Manages end-to-end message delivery in network carry the control information.

• Provides reliable and sequential packet delivery through
error recovery and flow control mechanisms
Application Application
• Provides connectionless oriented packet delivery
Presentation Presentation
Layer 3: Network Layer
Session Session
• Determines how data are transferred between network
devices Transport Transport
• Routes packets according to unique network device ad-
dresses Networt Networt
• Provides flow and congestion control to prevent network
Data Link Data Link
resource depletion
Physical Physical
Layer 2: Data Link Layer

• Defines procedures for operating the communication

links Figure 1-1: Communication between computers in a network
• Frames packets
• Detects and corrects packets transmit errors Headers are prepended to data that has been passed down
from upper layers. Trailers are appended to data that has been
Layer 1: Physical Layer passed down from upper layers. An OSI layer is not required to
attach a header or a trailer to data from upper layers.
• Defines physical means of sending data over network
devices Each layer may add a Header and a Trailer to its Data, which
• Interfaces between network medium and devices consists of the upper layer’s Header, Trailer and Data as it pro-
• Defines optical, electrical and mechanical characteris- ceeds through the layers. The Headers contain information that
tics specifically addresses layer-to-layer communication. Headers,
trailers and data are relative concepts, depending on the layer
that analyzes the information unit. For example, the Transport
Information being transferred from a software application in one Header (TH) contains information that only the Transport layer
computer to an application in another proceeds through the OSI sees. All other layers below the Transport layer pass the Trans-
layers. For example, if a software application in computer A has port Header as part of their Data. At the network layer, an infor-
information to pass to a software application in computer B, the mation unit consists of a Layer 3 header (NH) and data.
application program in computer A need to pass the in-
formation to the application layer (Layer 7) of computer
Application AH Data AT Application
A, which then passes the information to the presentation
layer (Layer 6), which relays the data to the session layer Presentation PH Data PT Presentation
(Layer 5), and so on all the way down to the physical
Session SH Data ST Session
layer (Layer 1). At the physical layer, the data is placed
on the physical network medium and is sent across the Transport TH Data TT Transport
medium to computer B. The physical layer of computer
Networt NH Data NT Networt
B receives the data from the physical medium, and then
its physical layer passes the information up to the data Data Link DH Data DT Data Link
link layer (Layer 2), which relays it to the network layer Physical Data Physical
(Layer 3), and so on, until it reaches the application layer
(Layer 7) of computer B. Finally, the application layer of
computer B passes the information to the recipient appli-
cation program to complete the communication process.
The following diagram illustrated this process. Figure 1-2: Data encapsulation at each layer

The seven OSI layers use various forms of control information to At the data link layer, however, all the information passed down
communicate with their peer layers in other computer systems. by the network layer (the Layer 3 header and the data) is treated
This control information consists of specific requests and in- as data. In other words, the data portion of an information unit at
structions that are exchanged between peer OSI layers. Head- a given OSI layer potentially can contain headers, trailers, and
ers and Trailers of data at each layer are the two basic forms to data from all the higher layers. This is known as encapsulation.
4
Network Communication Architecture and Protocols OSI Network Architecture 7 Layers Model

For example, if computer A has data from a software applica-

tion to send to computer B, the data is passed to the applica-
tion layer. The application layer in computer A then communi-
cates any control information required by the application layer in
computer B by prepending a header to the data. The resulting
message unit, which includes a header, the data and maybe
a trailer, is passed to the presentation layer, which prepends
its own header containing control information intended for the
presentation layer in computer B. The message unit grows in
size as each layer prepends its own header and trailer contain-
ing control information to be used by its peer layer in computer
B. At the physical layer, the entire information unit is transmitted
through the network medium.

The physical layer in computer B receives the information unit

and passes it to the data link layer. The data link layer in comput-
er B then reads the control information contained in the header
prepended by the data link layer in computer A. The header and
the trailer are then removed, and the remainder of the informa-
tion unit is passed to the network layer. Each layer performs the
same actions: The layer reads the header and trailer from its
peer layer, strips it off, and passes the remaining information
unit to the next higher layer. After the application layer performs
these actions, the data is passed to the recipient software ap-
plication in computer B, in exactly the form in which it was trans-
mitted by the application in computer A.

One OSI layer communicates with another layer to make use of

the services provided by the second layer. The services provid-
ed by adjacent layers help a given OSI layer communicate with
its peer layer in other computer systems. A given layer in the
OSI model generally communicates with three other OSI lay-
ers: the layer directly above it, the layer directly below it and its
peer layer in other networked computer systems. The data link
layer in computer A, for example, communicates with the net-
work layer of computer A, the physical layer of computer A and
the data link layer in computer B. The following chart illustrates
this example.

Application Application

Presentation Presentation

Session Session

Transport Transport

Networt Networt

Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical

Figure 1-3: Data communication between peer layers

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Loi Chaum Haut from Ban Meh Meh.

Just beyond 33 miles the hills retire, and the gorge ends near the
village of Ban Meh Kap. A mile farther we crossed an ancient Chinese
fortification called Viang Hau, consisting of two ditches one
encircling the other—about 40 feet broad, and from 10 to 15 feet
deep—and an intermediate rampart. A suburb of Ban Meh Meh is
situated within the enclosure. Shortly after passing through the fort
we halted at the temple of the main village for breakfast. Here I had a
capital view of the hills to the east which divide this portion of the
Meh Ping from its eastern branch, the Meh Ngat.

View of Loi Pa-Yat Pa-Yai.

To the north of the gap through which the road leads to Viang Pow
(Pau) is a great plateau, the crest of which is edged by a narrow range
of mural limestone cliffs called Loi Pa-Yat Pa-Yai, through which the
Meh Pam passes in a gap after draining the plateau lying between the
Meh Fang and the Meh Ping. To the south lies Loi Chaum Haut and
its spurs, and to the east of them the beautiful province of Viang
Pow, which I passed through on my return journey.
Whilst I was sketching the hills and fixing their positions, the
villagers came crowding round me, and peeped from all directions at
the picture I was making. When I had finished, I made the most of
the opportunity by getting the head-men into the temple to make a
map of the country with matches and bamboo strips on the floor. All
were very good-natured, and I learned from them the position of the
sources of the Meh Ping, Meh Teng, Meh Hang, Meh Pai, Meh Nium,
Meh Pam, and other streams. All were intent upon my having correct
information, and various villagers were sent for who had travelled in
different parts of the country. After I had finished the map, Dr
M‘Gilvary asked the people to listen quietly to him, and preached to
them the glad tidings that the world was ruled by a God of love, and
that belief in Him would relieve them from their gross fears and
senseless superstitions.
In the afternoon we continued through the rice-plain for a couple
of miles, and then passing through the southern gate of the palisaded
city of Kiang Dow, entered the city, and shortly afterwards, turning
to the right, left the enclosure by the east gate, and camped for the
night on the bank of the Meh Ping.
A short distance before reaching the city, Dr M‘Gilvary noticed
traces of what he believed to be petroleum on the bank of a small
stream. In connection with this I may mention that Chow Rat, a first
cousin of the Queen of Zimmé, who was intrusted with the
settlement of Muang Fang, brought specimens of a black
encrustation found in the district of Muang Fang, which Dr
M‘Gilvary forwarded to a professor of Davidson College, North
Carolina, who had it examined. It was pronounced to be indicative of
rich petroleum wells. If petroleum exists at Kiang Dow as well as in
Muang Fang, places 40 miles apart, the field is likely to be a large
one; and other fields may be found to exist on the line of our
proposed railway.
 CHAPTER XXVII.

KIANG DOW—INVASIONS OF BURMESE SHANS—

PRECIPITOUS HILLS—MUANG HĂNG UNDER THE
BURMESE—VIANG CHAI—CATCH A KAMAIT—ENTERING
MONASTIC LIFE—INQUISITIVE PEOPLE—REACH MUANG
NGAI—VIEW UP THE RIVER—A SHAN PLAY—VISIT THE
GOVERNOR—LEAVE MUANG NGAI—HOT SPRINGS—LOI PA-
YAT PA-YAI—A STORM IN THE HILLS—DRAINAGE
FLOWING IN THREE DIRECTIONS—UNDERGROUND
STREAMS—DIFFICULT PASS—SINKAGE OF GROUND—A
SACRED CAVE—LEGEND OF TUM TAP TOW—VISIT THE
CAVE—AN UNPLEASANT NIGHT—LARGE GAME—
THREATENED WITH BEHEADING—LEGEND OF THE HARE-
LIP—BUILDING A HOUSE—CHINESE FORTS—TRICHINOSIS
—REACH MUANG FANG.

The city of Kiang Dow, which is barely a quarter of a mile square,

is situated 37 miles from Zimmé, and is 1254 feet above the sea. The
whole province contains only 250 houses, 75 of which are in the
enclosure. The city is said to have been resettled in 1809 by seven
householders from Ban Meh Lim, which we passed eight miles from
Zimmé, and was destroyed by Chow Phya Kolon, a Burmese Shan
chief, in 1869 or 1870. On his retiring, it is said to have been at once
reoccupied. According to the governor of Viang Pow, whom I
subsequently met at that place, two invasions of the country occurred
in recent years: one in 1868–69, when Chow Phya Kolon, the chief of
Mokmai, a Burmese Shan State to the west of the Salween, burned
six villages in his State; and another in 1872, when the same chief
again invaded the district, and burned two villages. Chow Phya
Kolon was said to be living in 1884 as an acolyte in a monastery in
Moné.
About this time, 1868–72, there appears to have been a general
downward pressure of the Ngios (Burmese Shans), for, besides the
above-mentioned movements, Chow Phya Roy Sam—whose brother
A-Chai is at present the chief of Muang Hăng, a State in the upper
valley of the Meh Teng—burned Muang Ngai, and drove the Zimmé
Shans out of the province in 1869; and as I have previously stated,
the upper valleys of the Meh Ping, Meh Teng, and Meh Pai, have
been resettled by Burmese Shans, and are under the rule of their
chiefs.

Sketch of Loi Kiang Dow and Loi Nan.

Whilst the elephants were being unloaded, I crossed the river so as

to sketch Loi Kiang Dow, which lies nearly due east and west, and is
seen on end from the city. It rises, like the rock of Gibraltar, straight
up from the plain, to five times the height of that rock, and can be
seen on a clear day from the neighbourhood of Zimmé, 36 miles
distant, looming up over the hills, through which the river has cut its
way. Its crest towered up apparently to more than a mile above the
plain, and we guessed its altitude to be 8000 feet above the sea, or
considerably higher than that of the great hill behind Zimmé.
The sun was setting over the great precipitous hill as I sketched it,
and I had hardly completed its outline and that of Loi Nan (the
Lady’s Hill), which lies parallel to it, and due west of Ban Meh Kaun,
before the sun went down, forcing me to take the angles the
following morning. On the north side, as seen from beyond Muang
Ngai, Loi Nan looks like a gigantic fortress frowning over the plain.
 In the evening the governor of Kiang Dow, who has the title of Pau
Muang (Father of the State), came with his brother to pay us a visit,
and gave us some information about trade-routes and the upper
course of the river. He told us that the Burmese Shans held the upper
valleys of the Meh Ping and Meh Teng, and that the villages in
Muang Hăng belonged to them. The nearest Ngio villages on the Meh
Ping were two days’ journey up the valley, and were called Ban Sang,
and Tone Pa Khom. The road to Muang Hăng, he said, passed in a
defile through the hills, and crossed no range. Mr Gould, who
subsequently visited this Muang, found this information was correct.
The next day being Sunday, I halted, according to agreement with
my missionary companions, who made it a rule never to travel on
Sunday, unless it was necessary to do so. Before breakfast we strolled
to the ruins of a city called Viang Chai, some distance from Kiang
Dow, where we found a pagoda 25 feet square, built of laterite that
appeared to be of ancient date. This Viang was surrounded by a
rampart and two ditches, one 40 feet wide and 15 feet deep, and the
other 20 feet wide and 10 feet deep. There are said to be three Viang
Hau (Chinese cities or forts) in the neighbourhood. When returning,
I noticed a man resembling a Kamook, but with wavy hair, sitting
with a group of people who were gazing at us; and on inquiry I was
glad to learn that he was a Kamait, and seized the opportunity to
arrange for taking his vocabulary early the next morning. In the
afternoon Dr M‘Gilvary and Mr Martin held a service, after which we
wandered about and had a talk with the villagers.
The following morning the Kamait came accompanied by two
companions. I was surprised to find that the Kamait language has a
closer affinity to Bau Lawah than to Kamook, although the Kamooks
and Kamaits have long been close neighbours. The three languages
are evidently derived from a Mon stock. I was so taken up with the
translation of the Kamait’s vocabulary, that on its conclusion I gave
orders for the loading of the elephants, altogether forgetting that we
had not had our early morning’s meal, and was humorously
remonstrated with by my companions. This was soon served, and we
left the city by the north gate.
After passing through some rice-fields and a teak-forest, we
crossed a low flat-topped spur for about a mile, when we came to the
Huay Sai, a small stream which forms the boundary between Kiang
Dow and Muang Ngai. Fresh flowers had been placed on an altar
erected on the stream-bank. Just before crossing the stream a road
leaves the path for Muang Fang. The boundary cuts the path at 40
miles from Zimmé. A mile farther we came to Ban Meh Kaun, and
breakfasted in its temple.
A play had been held the previous night at the village in honour of
two young men who had become acolytes at the monastery. The
temple grounds were crowded with visitors from the neighbouring
villages, and a great many offerings had been made to the monks.
These were heaped up in the temple, and consisted of new yellow
garments, three-cornered and oblong pillows, mats, rugs, water-jars,
and tastily arranged bouquets of flowers. Some of the nosegays were
built up round the stem of the fruit of a plantain into the form of a
large cone.
On visiting the temple to bargain with the abbot for two
handsomely worked three-cornered pillows that my companions had
set their hearts on, he told us that the receipts accruing to him from
the play were over a hundred rupees. In conversation with the
monks, Dr M‘Gilvary was told that it would most likely be countless
ages before they would attain the much-wished-for state of Nirvana,
and that one transgression at any time might relegate them to the
lowest hell to begin again their melancholy pilgrimage. After hearing
this I could not help thinking of the young men newly entered into
the monastic order—who were sitting devoutly on the raised dais,
telling their beads and muttering religious formulæ,—how hopeless
their task seemed to be! a very labour of Sisyphus. Yet there they
were, attired in new yellow robes, with a scarf of new red print calico
crossing their breast and left shoulder, sitting each on a new mat,
with a new betel-box and water-jar before him, trying to look solemn
whilst enjoying what must have been the sweetest moments of their
life, surrounded by numerous admirers, who seemed to envy them
their vocation.
Returning to breakfast at the temple, we were followed by an
inquisitive but good-natured crowd of men, women, and children,
who, after watching the boys dish up our meal, gazed at our mode of
eating, and watched every morsel that we put into our mouths,
wondering why we did not eat, like them, with our fingers, and had
clean plates, and knives and forks, for every course.
 After breakfast I gave the children a treat of biscuits and jam, and
distributed a few hanks of beads amongst them, whilst Dr M‘Gilvary
preached to the people outside the temple. We then had the
elephants loaded, and left for Muang Ngai, which was only a mile
distant. Passing through the city, we camped for the night at two
salas outside the north gate.
The city of Muang Ngai is surrounded, like Kiang Dow, with a
strong stockade, and contains 100 houses. It is situated a mile to the
west of the Meh Ping, near where the river alters its direction from
south-east to due south. The view up the valley of the river is shut in
by a low plateau covered with high-tree forest on the right; in front,
as far as the eye can reach, three sharp peaks are seen on the horizon,
in the direction of the source of the river, which is said to lie nearly
due north-west, about 50 miles distant in an air-line; to the left, the
country appeared a jumble of hills, all dwarfed by Loi Nan, which
stood up thousands of feet above the plain, with its bold precipitous
head facing the city at a distance of about six miles.
After sketching the hills, I visited the remains of the ancient city of
Kiang Ngai, which lies three-quarters of a mile to the north-west, and
is said to have been built by the Lawas, under a chief named A-Koop-
Norp, who is still worshipped as the guardian spirit of the district,
and has pigs sacrificed to him. On returning to Muang Ngai we had
dinner, and were invited by a Shan gentleman to a play that he was
giving that evening in the open air.
The play turned out to be far inferior to any that I had seen in
Burmah. The only performers were three young men, dressed in
their ordinary costume, who were squatted on a mat waving lighted
tapers, whilst they chanted some legend or romance. The actors were
accompanied by musicians playing on the Laos organ or pipes. When
tired of the dreary performance, we accepted the invitation of one of
the head-men, an old acquaintance of Dr M‘Gilvary’s, to visit his
house, which overlooked the play, where we soon had a larger
audience than was present at the performance, and were served with
rice wafers and molasses cakes, handed to us on red lacquered
wooden salvers.
 View up the valley of the Meh Ping from Muang Ngai.

A great stack of pillows, mats, water-bottles, betel-boxes, fans, and

other articles, lay in the corner of the verandah ready to be offered at
the monastery the next day. Before we left, the son of the governor
came to tell us that his father would be pleased if we paid him a visit
that evening, as he had heard we were leaving early the next day.
We accompanied the young man, and were courteously received by
the governor, Chow Phya Pet (Pet is Shan for a diamond), a fine-
looking old gentleman, seventy-eight years of age, who said he had
resided in the city ever since he was twenty-five years old, when
there were only two houses in it. The city had been burnt by the
Ngios (Burmese Shans) fifteen years before, in 1869. The Ngios were
under the leadership of Roy Sam, the governor of Muang Hăng, the
State in the upper valley of the Meh Teng. Muang Hăng was
subsequently deserted, but had lately been resettled by A-Chai, a
brother of Roy Sam, and now had twenty houses in it. Another play
was being acted at the governor’s, and we recognised one of our
mahouts amongst the performers.
The governor told us that his Muang contained 2000 inhabitants,
chiefly witches who had been turned out of Zimmé; other people
were therefore reluctant to settle there, being afraid that the witches
might work them harm. Amongst his people were 200 fighting (or
full-grown free) men. Some of the teak-forests belonged to the Chow
Che Wit, and one to Chow Ootarakan of Zimmé. The forests are
worked by our Burmese subjects.
 Leaving Muang Ngai the next day, we turned east, and crossed a
low table-topped hill formed of soft sandstone, until we reached the
Meh Ping. When crossing the river (which was 100 feet broad and 10
feet deep, with 1¾ foot depth of water, and a sandstone bed), I was
amused by seeing the leading man on foot pull his foot quickly up as
he stepped in a hot spring, but not saying a word for fear the others
should miss doing likewise. The crossing lay 43½ miles from Zimmé,
and 1444 feet above the sea. Small canoes can reach this place, but
cannot proceed farther up the river.
From the river we crossed a low spur, and ascended through a
teak-forest along the south bank of a stream called the Meh Na Oi,
until we reached the crest of the plateau, and passed through a gap in
Loi Pa-Yat Pa-Yai,—the limestone cliffs that fringe the edge of the
plateau, which lies 300 feet above the bank of the Meh Ping. Pa
means rocks; and Yat and Yai, in a straight line. The line of cliffs is
precipitous on both sides, and lies nearly due north and south. Pine-
trees were occasionally seen in the forest.
For the next six miles we skirted the eastern face of the cliffs, the
streams on our right draining into the Meh Pam, which enters the
Meh Ping a mile to the south of Muang Ngai. As we left the cliffs to
descend to the Meh Poi, a heavy shower of rain came down on us like
a deluge, from a low-lying cloud which capped some of the
neighbouring peaks. The broken rainbows on the mist, and the battle
between sunshine and cloud amongst the crags and peaks, made
such a scene of beauty and grandeur that even the stolid elephant-
drivers stopped their animals and shouted with delight.
We halted for the night at Pang Pau, on the banks of the Meh Poi,
which lies 2357 feet above the sea. This stream rises a few miles off to
the north-west, not far from the gap through which the Huay Sai
passes from Muang Hang. The Huay Sai, flowing to the Meh Ping,
which empties into the Gulf of Siam, and the Meh Hang, which
enters the Salween, flowing into the Indian Ocean, both rise in the
same plain, which is only separated from the Meh Fang, which
drains into the Cambodia river, flowing into the China Siam by the
range we were about to cross.
Next morning, after crossing the Meh Poi, we ascended a spur to
the Pa Too Din (or Earthen Gate), the pass over Loi Kyoo Pa Săng.
During the ascent it was raining heavily. The crest of the pass is 58¾
miles from Zimmé, and 2645 feet above the sea; and the hill is
composed of a soft sandstone.
Descending the slope for a quarter of a mile, we reached the
bottom of the valley, which is said to be merely a long pocket in the
hills, its drainage passing in underground passages beneath them.
From the bottom we immediately commenced to ascend to the Pa
Too Pa (or Stone Gate), which we reached after a toilsome climb of
just one hour, the horizontal distance being barely half a mile. The
slope was formed of hard blocks of traprock, with an outcrop of non-
crystalline metamorphic rock. The path up the ravine was so steep
and slippery in places that it seemed impossible for any animal less
agile than a man to ascend it. Our elephants proceeded slowly but
surely, keeping, like links in a chain, so close together, that one felt if
one should slip he would carry the others with him. The path is not
more than 18 inches broad, and is strewn with great rocks. It is said
to be the most difficult pass in the country. Its crest lies 59½ miles
from Zimmé, and 2916 feet above the sea. Mr Archer gives the
altitude as 2750 feet above the sea; and Mr Gould, as 1600 feet above
Zimmé. There may be a slight error in my height on account of
atmospheric disturbance and a dense mist.
Not far from the head of the pass, on the northern side, are two
natural wells called Hoo Low, of great depth—one 6 feet and the
other 10 feet in diameter. A pebble took four seconds in reaching the
bottom. Two miles of easy descent among limestone hills brought us
to the plain of Nong Vee-a, bounded on the north-west by a fine
precipitous hill of mural limestone, called Loi Tum Tap Tow, rising
about 1200 feet above the plain.
Four miles from the summit of the pass, two great depressions in
the ground, called Boo-arks, occur,—one 250 feet in diameter and 25
feet deep; and the other, 300 feet long, 250 feet broad, and 8 feet
deep. These have evidently been caused by the subsidence of the
ground into underlying caverns in the limestone formation. Near
these we left the path and crossed the plain for about half a mile to
visit the sacred cave of Tum Tap Tow, which is situated not far from
the north end of the hill. It was in this cave, according to M‘Leod,
“where the last Buddh (Gaudama) is said to have rested after a
surfeit of pork which caused his death.” Further particulars of this
legend accounting for the name of the cave were related to us,
whereby it appears that, on hearing of Gaudama’s death, a number of
his disciples shut themselves in this cave, and contemplated his
perfections so intently as to become unconscious of the pangs and
cravings of hunger, and thus also attained Neiban (Nirvana)—the
state of forgetfulness and perfect rest.
On dismounting at the foot of the hill, we camped for breakfast,
and then started on foot to the cave amidst a heavy shower of rain.
Before we had proceeded 50 feet, we found that we should have to
wade nearly up to our waists in the icy-cold water flowing out of the
face of the hill, and therefore returned to rearrange our toilets. I put
on a Burmese Shan costume, topped by a waterproof coat; Mr Martin
wore a flannel shirt under a coat, and a Siamese panoung or
petticoat; whilst Dr M‘Gilvary draped himself in a gossamer
waterproof, and carried a pair of sleeping-drawers to put on when he
reached the cave. None of us wore shoes or stockings, and the sharp
fragments of limestone in the path made us walk very gingerly.
After leaving the brook, we scrambled up a slope of shattered
limestone and great blocks that had tumbled down from the cliff
until the path lay up the face of the precipice, when it became so
difficult as to make me rather dread the return journey. On reaching
the entrance, we found it ornamented with stuccoed figures of
spirits, having bird bodies, and elephant tusks and trunk in lieu of a
beak.
Inside was a lofty cavern lighted by a natural skylight. On a raised
platform in the cave was a great reclining image of Buddha, some 30
feet long, and around it a number of figures representing his
disciples. Numerous small wooden and stone images of Buddha had
been placed by pious pilgrims about the platform. Pillows,
mattresses, robes, yellow drapery, flags, water-bottles, rice-bowls,
fans, dolls, images of temples, dolls’ houses for the spirits, and all
sorts of trumpery, were lying together, with fresh and faded flowers
that had been offered to the images, and were strewn in front of
them. A steep ladder led up to niches near the roof of the cave, in
which other images were enshrined.
My companions, who were full of ardour, determined to explore
the inner recesses of the cave, and accordingly lighted their torches
and proceeded farther into the bowels of the earth, whilst I enjoyed a
quiet smoke amongst the gods. Down they went, creeping through
narrow low passages, over rocks, and along ledges, with chasms and
pits lining their path as the cave expanded, bottomless as far as they
could judge by the faint light of their torches, but really not more
than 20 or 30 feet deep, until they could get no farther, and had to
return, having proceeded about an eighth of a mile.
Two deer sprang up from the long grass close to us when we were
returning to the camp, where we were glad to change our clothing
and have a good rub down after our wade through the icy water.
Before we had finished, the rain again came down in torrents, and we
had to climb into our howdahs to complete our toilets.
The Boo-arks mark the western edge of the great plain through
which the Meh Fang runs on its way to join the Meh Khoke, which
passes Kiang Hai, and enters the Meh Kong, or Cambodia river,
below Kiang Hsen. Two miles to the north-east of the Boo-arks we
reached the Meh Fang, and camped for the night. The river at our
camp was 30 feet wide and 6 feet deep, with 1½ foot of water. Our
crossing was 65½ miles from Zimmé, and 1747 feet above the sea.
Much of the plain, as well as the low plateaux fringing it, are covered
with teak-forest, and many of the trees are of great girth. A small
deer sprang up from the long grass nearly at my elephant’s feet as I
approached the camp.
Here we passed the most unpleasant night we had yet spent, as we
were troubled with rain, heat, and mosquitoes. The elephant-drivers,
being piqued with my Madras boys ordering them about, chucked
their clothes and bedding into a puddle. The boys dawdled as usual,
instead of at once erecting their leafy shelter for the night, and they
and their bedding got thoroughly drenched, and we had to make
arrangements for their comfort in our tent. To increase our
misfortunes, our Shan followers had appropriated our fowls on the
sly, and we had to be satisfied with tinned soups and meats. The first
leeches we had seen on the journey were found on our ankles when
we took off our boots.
Next morning we continued our march down the plain, passing
some brick ruins and a Viang Hau, or Chinese fort. A mile beyond
the fort we reached Ban Meh Kih, where the road to Zimmé viâ
Viang Pow and Muang Ken joins the route. The village, the first that
we had seen since leaving Muang Ngai, contained only sixteen
houses. At another village we were told that game was very plentiful.
Wild cattle, larger than buffaloes, come in droves from the hills to
graze in the plain, and rhinoceros and elephant roam about the hills.
Pigs were, however, the greatest pest of the country, as they rooted
up the crops.
We halted for the night at Ban Meh Soon, a village situated near
two Viang Hau, and in a good-sized rice-plain. The Viang Hau to the
south of the village was the smallest that I had seen, being only 300
feet square. It is surrounded by a ditch 30 feet broad and 15 feet
deep. A hundred cattle, laden with tobacco and pepper for Zimmé,
were encamped near the house we put up in. We had been travelling
all day through a fine plain many miles broad. Our camp was 76½
miles from Zimmé.
After we had settled ourselves in the empty house, a villager came
to inform us that the house belonged to the chief of Muang Fang, and
that anybody who slept in it would have his head cut off. As rain was
threatening, we determined to risk the penalty; and we were soon
glad we had done so, as the rain poured down in torrents.
On the head-man of the village coming to pay his respects, he told
us that the Meh Fang flooded its banks on both sides between Ban
Meh Soon and Ban Meh Mou, but that the inundation only lasts a
day and a half. A similar flood happens between the city of Muang
Fang and the Meh Khoke. Every basket of rice sown in his fields
yielded at least a hundred-fold. He said the country was full of
ancient cities whose names had been generally lost. Viang Ma-nee-ka
was situated about 12 miles to the north-east of Muang Fang.
The legend attached to Viang Ma-nee-ka relates that a governor of
Muang Fang had a daughter who would have been lovely if she had
not been so unfortunate as to be born with a hare-lip. When she grew
up, the thought of her deformity so preyed upon her mind that she
left the city and made her home on the banks of the Meh Ai (the river
of Shame), and founded the city of Ma-nee-ka (Hare-lip). There is a
superstition that joints of bamboo cut for drinking the water of the
Meh Ai should be cut straight across; if cut diagonally, the drinker
will incur a hare-lip.
In connection with the new house we were in, I asked the head-
man how long it would take in building. In answer, he said it took
one man five days to make the thatch for a house 25 feet square; and
three men five days to make the mat and bamboo floor and walling,
cut the bamboos and posts, and build the house, including a
verandah 10 feet square. More men could complete the house in less
time. In walking about not far from the village, Mr Martin came
across the lair of a tiger in the high grass, and Dr M‘Gilvary found the
tracks of wild hog.
We were awakened the next morning to the sound of gibbons
wailing in the neighbouring forest, and were detained for about an
hour and a half owing to one of our elephants having strayed in
search of pastures new. Soon after starting we passed through a
Viang Hau, where huge teak-trees were growing, and met a caravan
of fifty oxen laden with tobacco for Zimmé, having brought rice
thence for the new settlers in Muang Fang. One of the leading oxen
wore a mask, formed like a cage, of thin strips of wood painted red,
and surmounted by a bunch of pheasant-tail feathers; another had a
mask made of tiger-skin, and surmounted by peacock’s plumes.
We halted for a few minutes at the village of Ngio-Kow, containing
ten houses, and found many of the people suffering from trichinosis,
owing to their having feasted on a wild hog, which they had pickled
and eaten raw. We subsequently learned that all the people of Viang
Pow had suffered from the same cause two years before, and that it
had caused the death of two of them.
Continuing through the forest and some large savannahs, we
reached Muang Fang and passed through the fortified courtyard into
the city, where we halted at a rest-house which was placed at our
disposal.
 CHAPTER XXVIII.

MUANG FANG—DESERTED FOR 200 YEARS—

PROCLAMATION RESETTLING THE PROVINCE—
POPULATION—SETTLEMENTS OF NGIO OUSTED BY
SIAMESE—LAND YIELDING 250–FOLD—RUINED CITIES—
320 RUINED TEMPLES—PURLOINING IMAGES—MR
ARCHER’S REPORT—METHOD OF FORMING NEW
SETTLEMENTS—SEPARATION OF RACES IN THE CITIES—
COLONIES OF REFUGEES AND CAPTIVES—CHINESE SHANS
AS LABOURERS—CITY SACKED BY THE BURMESE—
GOVERNOR AND WIFE DROWN THEMSELVES—COST OF
CARRIAGE—DR TIGER THE HUNTER—BARGAIN FOR A
DAGGER—SWORN BROTHERS—CAMBODIAN AND KAREN
CEREMONIES—THE AUGURY OF FOWL-BONES—PASSING
MERIT BY COTTON-THREADS—FIRST HAIR-CUTTING IN
SIAM—LAO MARRIAGE—VISIT THE RUINED CITIES—
FALLEN IDOLS—PUTTING FUGITIVES IN CHAINS—A DEER-
HUNT—SKETCHING THE HILLS—VISIT TO BAN MEH HANG
—OUT OF PROVISIONS—FEVER AND DYSENTERY—
MAHOUT ATTACKED BY VICIOUS ELEPHANT—SPREADING
CATTLE-DISEASE.

The city of Muang Fang, the capital of the province of the same
name, forms part of the ancient city of Viang Fang, and measures
5950 feet from north to south, and 2700 feet from east to west. It lies
83 miles from Zimmé, and 1621 feet above the sea, and contained, at
the time of my visit, 250 houses.
The roof of the sala where we put up being out of repair, we sent
word to the governor asking him to have it put to rights, and learned
that he was absent in the district, but that his brother would at once
have the roof seen to. Shortly afterwards, the brother arrived and
gave the necessary instructions. In the course of conversation, he
told us that Muang Fang, after being deserted for over 200 years
(according to Mr Archer’s informant it was destroyed by the Burmese
about 1717), was resettled in 1880 under Chow Rat Sam Pan, a first
cousin of the Queen of Zimmé, who was allowed by the Chow Che
Wit to issue the following proclamation:—

“The Proclamation of Chow Rat Sam Pan Ta Wong, who has received authority
from the Chow Luang (of Zimmé), Chow Oo-Pa Ra-Cha (second chief), and Wang
Na (the whole body of the court or council of chiefs), proclaims to all people to
inform them, that it may be known everywhere, that on Tuesday of the first month,
the seventh of the waning moon of the civil era 1242, Pee-Ma-Kong, they have
given orders that as Kiang Hsen[17] has already been established, while Muang
Fang is still unpeopled, and the territory is vast for the people to seek a living, and
if they were to think it advisable that the country should be settled in the same way
as Kiang Hsen, it would not be fair, and because it is undoubtedly proper that it
should be settled as our country; wherefore the Royal authority is granted to me to
proclaim that whosoever wishes, or prefers, to go up and settle at Muang Fang,
there shall be no obstacle thrown in his way. In the case of a serf of any prince or
officer, they, their masters, shall not forbid this; their lords and officers shall give
their consent. The serfs are not to be hindered from removing, as they will be still
engaged in their country’s service.
“This proclamation does not apply to slaves, temple serfs, the right and left
body-guard of the king, nor to the city watchmen, jailers and jail-guard, nor to the
Ngio-Kolon (the Ngio, or Burmese Shans who invaded the country with Chow Phya
Kolon, and settled there after being taken prisoners); all which classes are
forbidden to leave their present abodes. But the Ngio who came from Muang Peut,
Muang Sat (Burmese Shan States on the Meh Khoke), in the reign of Chow Luang
Poot-Ta Wong, are not forbidden. Again, when the country is established, there
shall be no restriction thrown in the way of the people making a living, with the
exception of the honey-trees and forest (teak, &c.), which are to be owned as
heretofore. If, however, fresh honey-trees and forests are met with, they are to be
divided among the rulers.
“If anybody wishes to settle in Muang Fang, let him be enrolled in my list of
names; and let no one forbid them, until they number 1000 fighting-men (freemen
between twenty years and sixty years of age). If more than 1000 apply, the
Government has power to restrain them. This proclamation is made on Sunday,
the fifth day of the waning of the fourth moon in Pee-Ma-Kong 1242, and is
submitted to Tow Tun Nun Chai to carry out.”
 This Tow at the time of my visit had become Chow Phya Chai, the
head judge and district officer of Muang Fang. On asking the Chow
the population of the province, he said he could not tell exactly,
because they did not count the women and children, but there were
630 fighting-men upon the list. There were 250 houses in the city,
and 411 in the Muang, and each house contained on an average from
7 to 8 people. This would give a gross population of over 3000 souls.

View looking south-west from Muang Fang.

He said that the Ngio (Burmese Shans) had held possession of, and
settled in, the upper valley of the Meh Teng ever since 1870; and that
up to the year before, there were some of their villages in the lower
part of the valley of the Meh Fang, but the Zimmé Shans had forced
them to retire from Muang Fang, and meant ultimately to drive them
out of Muang Nyon and Muang Ngam. As these two provinces form
part of the Burmese Shan State of Muang Sat, and have never been
included in the Zimmé possessions, the talk of this Chow must have
been either sheer brag, or the Zimmé Shans intended at that time to
provoke and commence hostilities with their Burmese Shan
neighbours.
The land in the province, according to our informant, was very
fertile, yielding fully 250-fold what was sown. The inundation that
occurs near the banks of the river will probably cease when the land
nearer the hills is brought under cultivation, and the water is spread
over the fields by means of irrigation-channels. When giving us the
names of the three ancient cities, Viang Fang, Viang Soop Tho, and
Viang Prah, built touching each other at Muang Fang, he said that
the country contained many ruined cities, and at one time must have
been very populous.
Mr Archer, who journeyed through the province in 1887 when on
his way to Kiang Hsen, was of the same opinion as the Chow. In his
report he states:—
“That the valley of the Meh Fang formerly contained a large
population is proved by the most reliable evidence—the number of
temples in ruins strewn close to both banks down to the junction of
the Mé Khok (Meh Khoke); and that the country was well cultivated
is shown by the present stunted vegetation. But the land close to the
river is said to be at present so subject to high floods that no
cultivation is possible: this curious fact may be due to some
impediment of recent formation in the lower course of the river
(perhaps fishing-dams). There is, however, still a large extent of
country well suitable to cultivation, and labour alone is required to
bring the province to its former state of prosperity. I was informed
that 320 ruined temples have been counted within the province, and
this number probably includes all; innumerable figures of Buddha
strewn about these ruins are left undisturbed. I may, by the way,
mention as an instance of the wrong impression made on an
important people by unscrupulous travellers, that I was told by some
of the earlier settlers and by officials of the province, that a ‘former
British consul’ had purloined a number of Buddhas from the
temples. This remark referred to a European traveller (Mr Carl
Bock), who several years ago attempted to take away some of these
images.
In reference to the reoccupation of States that have been deserted
for a long period of years, Mr Archer makes some interesting
remarks. In his report he says:—
“It is interesting to notice how these settlements are effected by the
Laos (the Siamese call the Shans in their dominions outside Siam
proper, Lao or Lau, which is given in the plural only by Europeans as
Laos), as it may illustrate the manner in which the present capitals of
these States were founded within recent times. The site generally
chosen for the future capital is close to or on the banks of the
principal river, and it is of primary importance that the surrounding
country should be a fertile plain well suitable for rice cultivation. The
capitals of these provinces are, therefore, almost always situated in
the midst of a flat low country, but on ground sufficiently elevated to
secure them from high floods. In the case of Muang Fang, however,
the city lies at the foot of the hills on the Meh Chan, and at a little
distance from the Meh Fang: this position was probably chosen in
order to avoid the too heavy inundations of this river.
“Where the new settlement is on the site of a former city, the old
embankment or wall, if any such remain, is kept as the boundary of
the new town, and in time a wooden palisade, perhaps about 12 feet
high, is put up; later, if the new city has greater pretensions, this is
replaced by a high brick wall, either entirely, as in the case of Nan, or
partly, as in Chiengmai (Zimmé) and Lakhon. The site having been
fixed upon, the laborious task of clearing the jungle is begun; all, or
nearly all, the trees are felled, the roads are marked out, and
alongside the settlers are allowed to choose a piece of the ground. A
rough shanty is generally put up at first, and round it are planted
bananas and other quick-growing plants; the grounds of the old
temples are not encroached upon, and the principal wats
(monasteries) are often reoccupied by priests.
“Many of the new-comers first reside in the capital, but as by
degrees they have opportunities of becoming better acquainted with
the surrounding country, they begin by cultivating the most
promising land in the neighbourhood; others join them, and thus
villages are founded; and when a longer residence and increased
population have given a feeling of greater confidence and security,
settlements are gradually formed farther from the capital. A large
body of immigrants, or a number of families from the same locality,
generally form a separate settlement—especially if they are of
different race from the original settlers; and if they settle in the
capital, they usually have a separate quarter allotted to them.
“This is characteristic of all the settlements in Siam, both in the
larger cities and in the provinces. In Bangkok the inhabitants of the
different quarters have gradually become amalgamated; but not far
from the capital the colonies of former captives of war still retain
their language and customs, and keep up little intercourse with their
conquerors. In the northern country the separation is as complete,
and the town of Chiengmai (Zimmé), for instance, is divided into
numerous quarters, inhabited almost exclusively by people of a
different race; and many of the villages in the province are also
colonies of refugees or captives.
“A settlement of this description entails considerable labour, and it
is curious to note from what a distant source Muang Fang draws its
labour-supply. At the time of my visit (early in 1887) to the province,
most of the hard work of clearing the jungle was done by a band of
several hundred hired labourers. These men belong to a people
called by the Laos, Thai Yai, or Thai Lueng (Chinese Shans from the
Chinese Shan States lying to the east of Bhamo), the inhabitants of
the country tributary to China lying north of the (Burmese) Shan
States, close to Yunnan and Burmah. They had followed the course of
the Salween as far as Mehongson (Muang Houngson on the Meh
Pai), the western frontier province of Chiengmai, and thence had
come across country to Muang Fang. Some of them return to their
country with only a year’s earnings, but they are soon replaced by
fresh arrivals. They are said to be better and hardier labourers than
either the Ngios or Laos, and they will probably be employed with
advantage in the construction of public works in Burmah.”
Returning to my conversation with the Chow, he said that the city
was sacked by the Burmese general Soo Too after a siege of three
years and three months—the people escaping to Zimmé. At that time
Phya Pim-ma-san was the Chow Luang (governing chief), and his
wife was named Nang Lo Cha. The night the city was taken, the
governor climbed up a tree, hoping to escape detection; but being
espied, was made prisoner, and fastened up with his wife and two
favourite officers. When morning came they were all missing, and
were found drowned in a well which is still pointed out. This seems
to be an adaptation of the story of the Mongol Prince of Yunnan,
who, when the army sent by Hungwu, the first Emperor of the Ming
Dynasty, in A.D. 1381 captured Yunnan-Fu, with his family and
minister drowned themselves in the neighbouring lake.
He told me, with reference to the cost of carriage, that the charge
for bringing each bucket (25 lb.) of rice from Viang Pow to Muang
Fang—a distance of 40 miles—varied between 8 annas in the dry
season and 10 annas in the rainy season, which gives an average of
1¼ rupee a ton per mile, or forty times as much as is charged for
conveyance by rail in Burmah.
 As my companions wished to have a hunt after big game, the Chow
sent for a celebrated hunter called Mau Sau, or Dr Tiger. Whilst
awaiting his arrival, Mr Martin noticed that the man who had been
sent as a guide with us from Bau Meh Soon, carried a knife with a
handsomely carved ivory handle. On asking what he would sell it for,
the man said that he had made it himself, and that Mr Martin might
have it for 5 salungs (1 rupee and 12 annas). On Mr Martin drawing
out several from his pocket, the man reflected for a while, and then
remarked that the Nai was rich, and yet had only given him 5
salungs; but when Mr Martin remarked he had given him all he had
bargained for, he had nothing to say, and took his departure.
The hunter gave me a good deal of information about the country,
and indicated the position of the sources of the various rivers. He
said he would gladly take my companions the following day to a
place in the hills where game was plentiful, if Dr M‘Gilvary would
arrange with the governor—who would be back later in the afternoon
—for beaters.
On my noticing that several of the men wore pieces of cotton-
thread tied round their wrists, Dr M‘Gilvary told me that it was a
bond of friendship showing that the wearer was a sworn companion
to another man. It is the custom in many parts of Indo-China for
men to enter into these solemn friendships. It exists in Cambodia,
and likewise amongst the Karens and other people. Amongst the
Koui, in Cambodia, the ceremony is performed before the village
elders. Five taper candles and five sticks of incense are lighted to call
the spirits to witness the act; cotton-threads are wound about the
wrists of the young men to produce a mystical tie between them.
Holy water is then imbibed by each of the oath-takers, and the
ceremony is concluded. In Forbes’s ‘British Burma’ he gives an
account of this ceremony amongst the Karens, which runs as follows:
“There exists a singular institution of brotherhood among them, and
to a certain extent among the Burmans, although I believe the latter
have borrowed it from their wilder neighbours. When two Karens
wish to become brothers, one kills a fowl, cutting off its beak, and
rubs the blood on the front of the other’s legs, sticking on them some
of the feathers. The augury of the fowl’s bones is then consulted, and,
if favourable, the same ceremony is repeated by the other party; if
the omens are still auspicious they say, ‘We will be brothers—we will
grow old together—we will visit each other.’”
The practice of passing merit and mystical influence by the means
of thread from one person to another seems to be of Brahmin origin,
and enters into many ceremonies in Siam. In describing the
ceremony of the first hair-cutting, Dr House says: “The ceremonies
begin with the priests (monks) chanting in chorus their prayers,
seated cross-legged on mats on an elevated platform, a thread of
white cotton yarn passing from their hands around the clasped
hands of the kneeling child and back to them again, serving as a sort
of electric conductor to the child of the benefits their prayers evoke.”
Amongst the Lao branch of the Shans, the passing of cotton round
the wrists forms the sole marriage ceremony.
In the afternoon we strolled about the old cities, which covered a
great extent of ground. Numerous ruins of religious buildings
testified to the wealth of the inhabitants in former days. Thousands
of costly images, generally of bronze, representing Buddha sitting,
standing, and recumbent, from life-size to a few inches in height, lay
about in all directions. Some were minus their heads, some had
fallen on their faces, some were half buried in the debris, all were
without worshippers and utterly neglected. The broken fragments
showed that the bronze was a mere shell, for the images were filled
with a core of black sand. The walls and gateways of the ancient cities
are fast being destroyed by the ravages of the pipal tree, and large
trees are now growing in the moats.
On returning from our ramble, we found Dr Tiger waiting to
conduct my companions to the Chow Phya, who had now returned.
On their return they said arrangements were being made for a great
deer-drive the next day, when they hoped to get a big bag of game.
The Chow Phya had told them that any settlers at Muang Fang who
deserted the place and returned to their old quarters would certainly
be put in chains, as they were now part and parcel of Muang Fang.
Next morning the beaters came, numbering twenty men, and
carrying thirteen guns. My companions were eager for the sport, and
became nearly tempestuous because they were detained for two or
three hours after daybreak before the whole party was together. At
last they were off; Dr M‘Gilvary and Mr Martin on elephants, and the
remainder on foot. For two hours they journeyed to the north-east,
and then left the path. A few minutes later they came upon an
unsavoury odour, and Dr Tiger cocked his gun and looked sharply
about; and then, rummaging in the grass, drew out the carcass of a
deer on which a tiger had been breakfasting. This was encouraging. A
few steps farther, one of the men spied a deer standing close by in
the grass. He took careful aim, but his wretched flint-lock missed
fire, and the deer was off. At the same moment another sprang from
under the feet of Mr Martin’s elephant, and got away unshot at.

Junction of the Meh Fang and Meh Khoke valleys.

The missionaries then dismounted, and sent the elephants a short

distance away, and took up the stations assigned to them by the
hunter. The drivers then approached in a big semicircle, but nothing
appeared, and my friends again mounted their elephants, to cross
some damp low ground to another part of the plain. Suddenly a deer
sprang up close to Mr Martin, and he fired and missed. Meanwhile
the men started another, which likewise escaped. The projecting
hood of the howdah, together with the presence of the mahout on the
elephant’s head, doubtless helped to spoil the aim of the mounted
sportsmen, particularly as the elephants got excited with the sport.
In the next drive one of the men got a shot, but when he went to pick
up his deer it started up and disappeared in the long grass. After
lunch they made tracks homeward. On the way the hunter got one
shot, Dr M‘Gilvary four, and Mr Martin two more, and at least half-a-
dozen deer got away without being fired at. They arrived tired and
hungry, with a good many empty cartridges, but with no game.
 In the meantime I had stayed behind to sketch the hills, fix their
positions, and take the diurnal curve from the aneroid barometer
and boiling-point thermometer, and had not the heart to chaff my
companions when they returned with empty bags. The plain of
Muang Fang averages 7 or 8 miles in width, and is over 30 miles
long.
The next day being Sunday, Dr M‘Gilvary and Mr Martin made it a
day of rest, and stayed behind visiting and preaching to the people,
whilst I journeyed five miles to the north-east to sketch the country
from Ban Meh Hang, where I obtained capital views of the junction
of the valleys of the Meh Khoke and the Meh Fang, the rivers
meeting about 15 miles to the east-north-east. At the same time I got
a view of the Loi Tum Tap Tow, now 22 miles distant, and two other
limestone bluffs that jutted up in the plain.
On my return I proposed to my companions to visit Muang Hang,
which was said to be about three days’ journey due east from Muang
Fang, and the sources of the Meh Ping and Meh Hang, and see where
the latter passed under the hills; but circumstances were against us—
our oatmeal, biscuits, sugar, tea, cocoa, chocolate, kitchen-salt,
treacle, and milk, had all been consumed or appropriated by the
nimble-fingered elephant-men, who seemed to consider that they
had a right to feed themselves surreptitiously at our expense on the
route. Vayloo and Jewan had fever, and Loogalay had dysentery. To
put a finishing touch to our disasters, the driver of the vicious
elephant had somehow provoked its anger, and the animal had
knocked him down and tried to kill him with his tusks. Luckily he
had escaped with a few bruises, a damaged hand, and a grazed side.
So we had to give up the extra journey, and settled to return by Viang
Pow and Muang Ken.
 View up the Meh Fang valley from Ban Meh Hang.

A large caravan of cattle was encamped close to us during our stay

at Muang Fang, and had been spreading foot-and-mouth disease
through the country by contaminating every camping-place it halted
at. Several of the animals died of the disease during our stay at the
city. There is no Contagious Diseases Act in force outside our
possessions in the East, so the fell plague would be further spread as
the caravan proceeded.
 CHAPTER XXIX.

LEAVE MUANG FANG—MY COMRADES HUNTING—THOSE

BOYS AGAIN: PANIC-STRICKEN FISHERWOMEN—WATER-
PARTING BETWEEN THE MEH PING AND MEH KONG—
RAILWAY FROM ZIMMÉ TO MUANG FANG AND KIANG
HSEN—A FREAK OF NATURE—TREE EIGHT FEET BROAD—
A DEER-LICK—BED WITHOUT DINNER—ILLNESS OF
MISSIONARIES—SITTING ON A SNAKE—HEAD OR TAIL,
QUERY—EMIGRANTS CARRYING SPINNING-WHEELS—
CROSS THE MEH NGAT—A BEAUTIFUL PLAIN—VIANG POW
—VISIT FROM THE GOVERNOR—NGIO RAIDS—LOLO AND
KAREN VILLAGES—EFFECT OF MONOPOLIES—PEOPLE
DESERTING MUANG FANG—OFFICIALS COLLECTING
TAXES FOR MONOPOLISTS—NO GAMBLING AND OPIUM
DENS—COST OF CARRIAGE—EXPORT OF RICE—ONE SON-
IN-LAW IN ONE HOUSE—TRADE-ROUTES—LEAVE VIANG
POW—THE DEFILE OF THE MEH NGAT—ACCIDENT TO
ANEROID—A FINE VIEW—AN ARISTOCRATIC GOVERNOR—
POPULATION—WILD TEA—LIGHT TAXATION—FREE FROM
VICES—PUT UP WITH A SHAN CONVERT—WOMEN WELL
TREATED AMONGST THE SHANS—CUTCH-TREES—REACH
ZIMMÉ.

We left Muang Fang on May 19, returning to Zimmé by a route

five-eighths of a mile longer than that by which we had come. The
first night we halted at Ban Meh Kih, where the two routes diverge. A
mile beyond the village we commenced skirting the low plateau
which intervenes between the Meh Fang and its eastern fork, the
Meh Ta Loke. After crossing some low spurs of the plateau, which
rises as it proceeds south, we again reached the Meh Fang, and
halted on its bank in a valley about a quarter of a mile broad, and
near a stream which bore traces of oil upon its waters. The hills
about here are of sandstone.
During the morning’s march we passed five laden elephants on
their way to Zimmé, and met a caravan of fifty laden cattle. The
forest on portions of the plateau was composed of pine-trees. My
companions amused themselves on the way by making small detours
through the long grass, and started many deer, which, however, they
failed to bag. The forest along the route was generally so dense, and
the path was so crooked, that angles had to be taken by me every two
or three minutes, which is fatiguing work.
The Meh Fang, which we crossed after breakfast, was 60 feet wide
and 6 feet deep, with 1 foot of water. Its bed is composed of pebbles
coming from sandstone, slate, granite, and quartz formations. The
crossing was 61½ miles from Zimmé, and 1954 feet above sea-level.
A little farther on we crossed a bend in the river in which a number
of men and women were fishing, who, scared at our appearance,
scuttled away as fast as they could—the women screaming with
terror at the sight of my Madras servants. These boys were always
amused at the horror and panic their black faces inspired in the
women.
After crossing the bend we left the river, and for the next mile
gradually ascended to the summit of the water-parting that separates
the affluents of the Meh Fang, which flows into the Meh Kong, from
those of the Meh Pam, which joins the Meh Ping below Muang Ngai.
The summit of this pass is 59¼ miles from Zimmé, and only 2158
feet above the sea. A railway from Zimmé to Muang Fang, and thence
to Kiang Hsen, would certainly be aligned up the valley of the Meh
Pam, and over this pass into the basin of the Meh Fang. The rise
from the latter river to the crest of the pass is only 204 feet.
In ascending the pass I noticed many palms, resembling small
cocoa-nut trees, and seeing that they were in blossom, asked a man
to get me some of the flowers, when he refused flatly, saying,
“Whoever touched them would certainly suffer from the itch.” The
wood of this palm is used in the construction of weaving-looms. The
jungle was very dense, with aroids, ferns, and wild plantains
scattered through the undergrowth. There are many plants in the
jungle that one has to be chary in handling. Some blister the hand,
while others are covered with prongs like fish-hooks. When riding,
the eyes have to be kept constantly on the look-out, or your head-
covering will be carried away and your coat torn into ribbons by
these snares for the unwary.
The Shan States afford constant surprises, and one was before us
as we looked to the west in descending the pass. Although we had
crossed the water-parting, the high range of mountains which we had
passed over on our former journey at the Pa Too Pa was still to our
right, and we were now at the head of a valley worn out of the plateau
formation at the foot of its slope. The range is here called Loi Pa
Chan, and is limestone overlying sandstone, the latter rock appearing
in the stream that drains the valley. The left side of the valley, from
its easy slope, seemed especially made for railway purposes.
At 56 miles, Loi Pa Chan, which for the last 3¼ miles had been
frowning down upon us, suddenly ended, and a mile farther we
crossed the stream that drains the valley we had been traversing,
having fallen only 288 feet in our easy descent from the crest of the
pass. We shortly afterwards reached a low spur from the eastern
hills, and crossed it to the Huay Pong Pow. We then followed that
stream to Pang Pong Pow, and halted for the night. The trunk of a
banian-tree not far from the camp was 8 feet in diameter, or more
than 25 feet in girth.
The ground near the camp is boggy, with a strong smell of sulphur,
the earth greasy and slimy, the strata a black shaly rock. The place is
a deer-lick, and the caravans of cattle which passed through the
camp early the next morning, taking rice to Muang Fang, so enjoyed
licking the puddles that they could hardly be driven from the place.
These pools are said formerly to have been a great rendezvous for
wild cattle and other animals. Many trees in the neighbourhood of
the camp were covered with the beautiful blossoms of the Rangoon
creeper, and I noticed the single camellia of Burmah growing wild
among the grass.
On halting for the night, we were so tired and weary that we at
once fell upon sardines and cold rice, without waiting for dinner to
be cooked, having had a very poor breakfast. When dinner was at
length served, I was in bed, and my companions on their way there.
The edge was off our appetites; sleep was dulling our senses,—so the
boys enjoyed the dinner, while we enjoyed repose.
 In the morning Mr Martin had a touch of the fever from which he
had previously suffered. Dr M‘Gilvary had long been endeavouring to
ward off recurring visits of the same enemy by taking quinine in
teaspoonfuls. The Shan servants accompanying the missionaries, as
well as my men, likewise had it at times, and I alone remained
impregnable. I was very thankful for my immunity from it, as
otherwise I could not have stood the constant strain upon my
attention.
Leaving the camp, we crossed a spur to the Huay Pun, and
proceeded for a mile up its course, rising 339 feet, to the crest of the
pass over the range which links on the Pa-Yat Pa-Yai plateau to the
eastern hills. This range of hills separates the waters flowing into the
Meh Pam from those flowing into the Meh Ngat. The crest of the pass
lies 51 miles from Zimmé, and 2277 feet above the sea.
Whilst sitting on a stone taking the height with the boiling-point
thermometer, a snake, called Shin Byee in Burmah, wriggled from
under it. The men said the bite of the snake was deadly, and that it
possessed two heads, one where its tail should be. On using my
magnifying-glass I proved to them that this was a delusion, though
the shape and marks on the flat end to the tail gave some reason for
the general belief. A number of emigrants passed us here on their
way to Muang Fang; the women, like good housewives, were carrying
their spinning-wheels on their backs.
We descended the pass to the Meh Ngat, and after breakfast
continued up the valley of that stream for a mile and a half, when we
crossed it near where some men and half-a-dozen women were
fishing in the stream. These hurried away as fast as they could put
foot to ground, and hid themselves in the forest. Our crossing was 48
miles from Zimmé, and 1676 feet above sea-level; and the river 30
feet broad and 4 feet deep, with 6 inches of water in its bed.
Leaving the stream, we marched over the low plateau round which
the stream turns to enter the great plain of Muang Pow (Pau). On
reaching the plain we had a magnificent view of Loi Chaum Haut and
its eastern spurs, and could see the head of Loi Kiang Dow peeping
over the hills I had sketched at Ban Meh Meh. To the east of the
plain, which averages 12 miles in length and 8 miles in width, spur
after spur was seen stretching in a south-easterly direction to the
range in the background that divides the waters of the Meh Ping
from those of the Meh Low. To the south the Meh Ngat breaks
through the hills in a long defile, and to the north appeared the hills
we had passed on our journey. Nothing could be more peaceful than
the aspect of this beautifully situated plain. It seemed to be cut off
from the turmoil and din of the world by the surrounding mountains,
—a place one might long to retire to—
“Where rumour of oppression and deceit,
Of unsuccessful or successful war,
Might never reach me more.”

But history tells a different tale: this pleasant little valley, encircled
by beautiful parks of trees skirting the foot of the surrounding hills,
has been the theatre of many a hostile raid, and its inhabitants are
migrating from it, being discontented with the imposition of
monopolies which they consider to be oppressive.
Owing to the sparseness of the present population, only a small
portion of the rich plain was under cultivation; but it had evidently at
one time been nearly entirely under rice, as only a few stunted trees,
chiefly pouk (the stick-lac tree) and mai cha-lau, were scattered
about it. After marching through the plain for 3 miles, we entered the
north gate of Viang Pow, which is situated 44 miles from Zimmé, and
1426 feet above the sea. The city was surrounded by a newly
constructed palisade raised above a low rampart, and by a ditch 10
feet broad and 1 foot deep.
Continuing along the main road of the city, we halted at a sala,
nearly opposite the court-house. On hearing of our arrival, the
brother of the governor, who was setting out the site of a new house,
sent to borrow a compass so as to test whether he had guessed the
true north and south. On proceeding to the spot, I found the posts
had been placed only 5° out of the true magnetic meridian, giving the
same error that appeared in the alignment of the main street. The
city is well laid out, the roads are broad, and the whole place has an
aspect of neatness and order.
In the evening the governor paid us a visit, and told us that Viang
Pow was established as a Muang, or separate governorship, by the
chief of Zimmé, in 1870: previous to that time the villages had been
under the direct control of Zimmé. In 1868–69, Phya Kolon, a chief