2024/8/29

The scientific method

1
 2024/8/29

2
 2024/8/29

3
 2024/8/29

10

11

The scientific
method:
Science as a
process

A logical series of steps

12

4
 2024/8/29

The hypothetico-deductive Method

relating to the testing
of the consequences
of hypotheses, to
determine whether
the hypotheses
themselves are false
or acceptable.

This is a contrast to
other types of methods

13

1
Identify a
question to
study
State a problem to study
Observation
Defining a problem

14

15

5
 2024/8/29

Observation: Why do my students get

higher grades when they listen to
music when doing the exam?

16

• Conduct a literature review

• Identify a gap in knowledge
• Usually in the ‘introduction’ section of
a journal

Scientific research starts with

a definite aim or purpose.

A problem statement states

the general objective of the
research.

17

FORMULATE A HYPOTHESIS
 An educated guess
 A proposed answer to
the question or
problem.
 A statement that can
be tested

18

6
 2024/8/29

19

Formulate a testable
hypothesis as a solution to
the problem.

A hypothesis is a testable
prediction about the
conditions under which an
event will occur

A possible answer to a
question.
Must be testable

Predicts an outcome

20

For example, a hypothesis might state:

“Students who listen to music during the

exam have higher exam scores than
those students who do not listen to
music”.

A major difference between a question

and a hypothesis is that a hypothesis
predicts an outcome of an experiment.

21

7
 2024/8/29

Develop hypotheses

 The network of associations between the

problem and the variables that affect it is
identified.
 A scientific hypothesis must meet two
requirements:
1. The hypothesis must be testable
2. The hypothesis must be falsifiable (we can
only prove our hypotheses until they are
disproved).

22

23

Non-scientific approach:

No hypothesis (instead replaced by a

research question)

Or perhaps no research question

24

8
 2024/8/29

3. Test the hypothesis

(Gather evidence)

Design a study
to test the
hypothesis and
collect data.

25

26

 An experiment is a controlled procedure

designed to test a hypothesis.
 In an experiment, one variable, or condition, is
changed and the response of another variable
is measured.

Experimental design

The way a researcher

conducts an experiment is
called the experimental
design.

It must be planned very

carefully.

27

9
 2024/8/29

An example…
 Research Question: Does listening to
music during the exam improve exam
scores?

 Method:
 1. Randomly assign half the people to
study and listen to music
 2. The other half studies and doesn’t
listen to music
 3. Measure: exam scores

28

A simple experiment to
assess the effects of music
during study on test scores.

29

A simple experiment to assess the effects of music during study on test scores.

30

10
 2024/8/29

31 Presentation title 28th February 2011

31

Types of Variables
 Dependent Variables: The factors
experimenters measure to see if they
are affected by the independent
variable
 Independent Variables: The factors
experimenters manipulate to see if
they affect the dependent variable
 Subject Variables: Variables that
characterize pre-existing differences
among study participants

32

Independent Controlled Variables

Dependent
Variable
Question Variables
(What I change) (What I keep the same)
(What I observe)

Does heating a cup Temperature of the Amount of sugar that - Stirring

of water allow it to water measured in dissolves completely - Type of sugar
dissolve more sugar? degrees Centigrade measured in grams

33

11
 2024/8/29

Independent Dependent
Controlled Variables
Variable Variables
(What I keep the same)
Question (What I change) (What I observe)

Does fertilizer Growth of the plant

Amount of fertilizer Same size pot for each plant
make Same type of plant in each pot
a plant grow
measured in 1.measured by its height
Same type and amount of soil in pot
2.measured by the
bigger? grams Same amount of water and light
number of leaves
Make measurements of growth for
3.more ways to measure
each plant at the same time
plant growth

34

Here is an easier way to visualize the concept of

the independent and dependent variable
relationship.

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Manipulated Measured

Cause Effect

Before After

Input Output

What you do What happens

35

A simple experiment to assess the effects of music during study on test scores.

36

12
 2024/8/29

 Experimental Group: The group of subjects that

gets exposed to the independent variable

 Control Group: The group of subjects that gets

all conditions EXCEPT the independent variable.
The only difference between the experimental
and control groups is the presence or absence of
the independent variables.

 Random Assignment: Subject has an equal chance of

being in either the experimental or control group

Because of controls and random assignment , an

experiment is a powerful technique for examining
cause and effect.

37

38

39

13
 2024/8/29

40

Situational variables are

those that are particular to
the context in which the
study is being conducted.
Such things as temperature,
time of day, noise, lighting,
etc. can act as extraneous
variables.

41

41

What is an experiment?

 Conducted in settings in which:

 The environment can be controlled.
 to examine causality (cause-and-effect relationships).
 Two essential characteristics:
 Researcher has control over the experimental
procedures.
 Participants randomly assigned to different
treatment conditions.

Allows the researcher to be confident that the independent

variable (X) caused differences in the dependent variable

42

14
 2024/8/29

43

44

What does “The environment can

be controlled” mean?
 Has control over the procedure
 Manipulates the independent variable and holds all
other variables constant.
 All participants in an experiment are treated the same,
expect for the level of the independent variables they
are exposed to.
 Therefore, it can be concluded that any change
observed in the dependent variable is caused by the
independent variable and not by other factors

45

15
 2024/8/29

Time of day is also important

Learn at 3 pm Perform better at 3 pm… than 9 pm

12 12 12
9 3 9 3 9 3

6 6 6

46

Improved ability to remember if

tested in the same environment
as the initial learning environment

better recall if tested in classroom

where you initially learned info
than if moved to a new classroom

if learning room smells of

chocolate or mothballs, people will
recall more info if tested in room
with the same smell compared to
different smell or no smell at all

47

 Compare words learned underwater vs on land

 Words heard underwater are best recalled underwater
 Words heard on land are best recalled on land

48

16
 2024/8/29

49

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v40
HnTo51jo

50

The Clever Hans effect a horse that was claimed to

have been able to perform
arithmetic and other intellectual
tasks.

A formal investigation in 1907

demonstrated that the horse
was not actually performing
these mental tasks, but was
watching the reactions of his
human observers

had a large effect on

experimental design and
methodology for all
experiments.
51

17
 2024/8/29

Experimenters are also a source of

extraneous variables. The sex,
appearance, mannerisms, and behaviour
of the person interacting with the
participants can influence the participant’s
behaviour. Less obvious experimenter
variables, such as expectancies and
personal biases, can be extremely
damaging.

52

52

 Single-blind experiment: Only the subjects

have no idea whether they get real
treatment or placebo

 Double-blind experiment: The subjects AND

the experimenters have no idea whether the
subjects get real treatment or placebo
 Best type of experiment, if properly set
up

Another way to avoid experimenter

effects is to replace the experimenter
with a computer, which can deliver
standardized instructions and record
responses without giving clues.

53

54

18
 2024/8/29

A simple experiment to
assess the effects of music
during study on test scores.

55

A simple experiment
to assess the
effects of music
during study on test
scores.

56

57

19
 2024/8/29

Correlation ≠ Causation
 Why?

 The directionality problem: it is

not possible to determine which
variable is the cause, and which
is the effect

Gravetter, F.J. & Forzano, L-B.A. (2012) Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences, (4th
Ed.). Wadsworth Cengage Learning (p.357)

58

 The third variable problem: establishing that

there is a relationship between two variables
does not mean that there is a direct relationship,
a third variable may be responsible for the
relationship
Gravetter, F.J. & Forzano, L-B.A. (2012) Research
Methods for the Behavioral Sciences, (4th Ed.).
Wadsworth Cengage Learning (p.356)

59

Extraneous or Nuisance Variables

 In any experiment there is intended manipulation, but also
other variables which may change across treatment groups or
affect specific participants and therefore affect the dependent
variable.
 Variables which cause these unwanted or nuisance effects are
called nuisance or extraneous variables.
 As several variables may affect the experimental results, you
have to ‘control’ for the effect of all but the one IV of interest.
In this way you show its action alone.

60

60

20
 2024/8/29

61

Types of Extraneous Variables

 Participant or Subject Variables

 Characteristics that come with the participants which you do not want
to influence your findings (e.g., age, sex, handedness, etc.)
 Situational or Environmental Variables

 Characteristics of the situation/environment which are specific to the

research context (e.g., time of day, temperature, lighting, noise, etc.)
 Experimenter Variables

 Characteristics of the experimenter conducting the research. The

experimenter is usually not a passive observer and so can introduce
extraneous variables. The sex, appearance, mannerisms, and 62
behaviour of the person interacting with the participants can influence
the participants behaviour. Less obvious experimenter variables, such
as expectancies, personal biases, and progressive experimenter
fatigue can also be extremely damaging to a study.

62

The Problem with

Extraneous Variables
 They may provide an alternative explanation for your results aside from the
effects of the independent variable (which was what you were trying to
examine)

 e.g., changes in the DV may be due to a

confounding variable instead of the IV
 Extraneous variables add additional variance into your data, which:

 will make it harder to find differences between

groups
 may introduce erroneous patterns and lead you
to make inaccurate conclusions

63

21
 2024/8/29

Rigor

 A good theoretical base and a sound

methodological design would add rigor to
a purposive study.
 Rigor means carefulness, and the degree of
exactitude in research investigations.

64

Data
analysis

65

Next step of the Research Process:

Conduct the Study

 Recruit participants

 Implement your research

design

 Collect your data!

66

22
 2024/8/29

 Develop a procedure to test your hypothesis.

 It is important to list and have all materials
needed to conduct the experiment properly.
 Accurate measurements must be taken to
ensure valid experimental results.
 Be sure to address safety concerns, and take
all precautions necessary to ensure your
experiment is safe to complete.

67

MAKING & RECORDING

OBSERVATIONS
 Must keep careful records.
 Must state how the experiment was
planned, carried out, materials &
equipment used, and how long it took.
 Must record all observations made.

68

Data
analysis

69

23
 2024/8/29

Data is collected and analysed. Statistical

methods are usually used to test whether
the data are consistent or inconsistent
with the hypothesis.
 Examine data tables, charts,
and graphs
 Examine experimental notes
 Look for trends, patterns, and
averages
 What does the data show
 Put your data into words

70

71

The results of experiments are called data.

Science prefers quantitative data, because its

objective

Some non-scientific social science prefers

qualitative data, which is subjective
72

24
 2024/8/29

73

Data
analysis

74

DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
 The answer to a
scientific question is
formulated by
drawing a conclusion
based on data
(scientific facts
collected during the
experiment)
 Statistics help form
the conclusion.

75

25
 2024/8/29

CONCLUSIONS

 Before accepting conclusions,

scientists retest their hypotheses
several times. Later other scientists
repeat the experiment until the
hypothesis and the conclusion are
supported or rejected.

76

What next?

Communicate results

77

Theories
 An organized set of principles used to
explain observed phenomena
 Usually evaluated in terms of three criteria:
 Simplicity
 Comprehensive
 Generatively

 Preference for “mini-theories” rather than

the all-encompassing grand theory

78

26
 2024/8/29

What is a Theory?
 A framework within which seemingly
related knowledge is brought together
in a logical way to provide an explanation for
something (e.g., why people think, feel, or behave a
certain way)
 A theory is an interconnected set of statements, not a
single statement
 Theories are also organising frameworks, and
mechanisms by which research is guided and
developed
 Theories can be used to form hypotheses testable
79
through experimentation

79

Scientific theories

(how do we use
theories in
quantitative social
science?

80

81

27
 2024/8/29

Developing Theories

• When scientists say that a theory can never be

proved, they are not saying that a theory is
unreliable.

• They are simply leaving open the possibility that

a theory may need to be changed at some point
in the future to explain new observations or
experimental results.

82

Scientific Laws
The figure below shows how scientific
experiments can lead to laws as well as
theories.
Observations Hypothesis Experiments Theory
A hypothesis may be An experiment can A theory is tested by
revised based on lead to observations more experiments
experimental data. that support or and modified if
disprove a hypothesis. necessary.

Scientific Law
A scientific law
summarizes the results
of many observations
and experiments.

83

Scientific Laws

A scientific law is a concise statement

that summarizes the results of many
observations and experiments.
• A law doesn’t try to explain the
relationship it describes.
• That explanation requires a theory.

84

28
 2024/8/29

LAW/THEORY

 When a hypothesis explains how

“facts of nature” occurs, it becomes
scientific principle or law. Example:
Law of Gravity
 When a hypothesis explains why
“natural” events occur through
observations and investigations over a
long period of time, it becomes a
theory. Example: Theory of Evolution

85

1.3
Steps in the Scientific Method

86

Can you see benefits of the

scientific method?

87

29
 2024/8/29

What is Meant by a Scientific Research?

 Scientific research focuses on solving problems

and pursues a step-by-step logical, organized,
and rigorous method to identify the problems,
gather data, analyze them, and draw valid
conclusions therefrom.
 Thus, scientific research is not based on hunches,
experience, and intuition (though these may play
a part in final decision making), but a purposive
and rigorous.

88

Key features of scientific method

 Test hypotheses / cause and effect. The aim is to
test a hypothesis, and to state that an independent
variable causes changes in a dependent variable.

 Objectivity. Information is free from bias as much

as possible as it is controlled.

 Replication. An experiment can be repeated to

obtain same findings

 Thorough. Involves systematic observation,

Measurement, Replication

89

Because of the rigorous way in which the research

done, scientific research enables all those who
are interested in researching about the same or
similar issues to come up with comparable
findings when the data are analyzed.

90

30
 2024/8/29

Key features of scientific method

 Test hypotheses / cause and effect. The aim is to
test a hypothesis, and to state that an independent
variable causes changes in a dependent variable.

 Objectivity. Information is free from bias as much

as possible as it is controlled.

 Replication. An experiment can be repeated to

obtain same findings

 Thorough. Involves systematic observation,

Measurement, Replication

91

objectivity

 The conclusions drawn through the interpretation

of the results of data analysis should be
objective.
 The conclusions should be based on the facts
of the findings derived from actual data, and not
on our own subjective or emotional values.
 The more objective the interpretation of the data,
the more scientific the research investigation
becomes.
minimizes the influence of
experimenter bias – the influence of
researcher’s biases and beliefs on
the outcome of the study

92

Non-scientific methods

 More speculative
 Un-testable

 No control

 Cannot be replicated

 Can’t be falsified
93

31
 2024/8/29

94

Ways of Acquiring Knowledge

 Seven commonly used approaches:

 Superstition: drawing upon belief in supernatural causes

 Intuition: drawing upon instincts and hunches
 Authority: drawing upon experts/authority figures
 Tenacity: drawing upon long-accepted facts or traditions
 Rationalism: drawing on logical reasoning
 Empiricism: drawing on observations directly experienced
by the senses
 Science: drawing upon empirical methods and logical
reasoning

95

Ways of Acquiring Knowledge

 Seven commonly used approaches:

 Superstition: drawing upon belief in supernatural causes

 Intuition: drawing upon instincts and hunches
 Authority: drawing upon experts/authority figures
 Tenacity: drawing upon long-accepted facts or traditions
 Rationalism: drawing on logical reasoning
 Empiricism: drawing on observations directly experienced
by the senses
 Science: drawing upon empirical methods and logical
reasoning

96

32
 2024/8/29

97

98

99

33
 2024/8/29

Ways of Acquiring Knowledge

 Seven commonly used approaches:

 Superstition: drawing upon belief in supernatural causes

 Intuition: drawing upon instincts and hunches
 Authority: drawing upon experts/authority figures
 Tenacity: drawing upon long-accepted facts or traditions
 Rationalism: drawing on logical reasoning
 Empiricism: drawing on observations directly experienced
by the senses
 Science: drawing upon empirical methods and logical
reasoning

100

Intuition

101

101

Ways of Acquiring Knowledge

 Seven commonly used approaches:

 Superstition: drawing upon belief in supernatural causes

 Intuition: drawing upon instincts and hunches
 Authority: drawing upon experts/authority figures
 Tenacity: drawing upon long-accepted facts or traditions
 Rationalism: drawing on logical reasoning
 Empiricism: drawing on observations directly experienced
by the senses
 Science: drawing upon empirical methods and logical
reasoning

102

34
 2024/8/29

103

Ways of Acquiring Knowledge

 Seven commonly used approaches:

 Superstition: drawing upon belief in supernatural causes

 Intuition: drawing upon instincts and hunches
 Authority: drawing upon experts/authority figures
 Tenacity: drawing upon long-accepted facts or traditions
 Rationalism: drawing on logical reasoning
 Empiricism: drawing on observations directly experienced
by the senses
 Science: drawing upon empirical methods and logical
reasoning

104

Ancient Wisdom

105

35
 2024/8/29

106

Reading in the dark will ruin your eyes

• The more you cut your hair, the faster it grows

• Always wait 1 hour before swimming
• Colds are caused by going out in the cold

- Birds of a feather flock together

- Absence makes the heart grow fonder
- Opposites attract
- Out of sight, out of mind

An old wives' tale is a type of urban

legend, similar to a proverb, which is
generally passed down by old wives to a
younger generation. Such 'tales' usually
consist of superstition, folklore or unverified
claims with exaggerated and/or untrue
details.

107

Is ancient wisdom correct?

 ancient wisdom and common
sense are probably right more
often than wrong. But that is not
good enough for science.

 In the long term, science can find

the right answer to almost
anything.

 Therefore, we do not rely on

common sense, and like to look
for patterns that are against
common sense.

108

36
 2024/8/29

109

The tendency for people to overestimate the

link between variables that are only slightly
or not at all correlated.

 It always rains when I forget my

umbrella
 It always rains after I hang up my
washing
 Doctors are wealthy

110

111

37
 2024/8/29

112

Ways of Acquiring Knowledge

 Seven commonly used approaches:

 Superstition: drawing upon belief in supernatural causes

 Intuition: drawing upon instincts and hunches
 Authority: drawing upon experts/authority figures
 Tenacity: drawing upon long-accepted facts or traditions
 Rationalism: drawing on logical reasoning
 Empiricism: drawing on observations directly experienced
by the senses
 Science: drawing upon empirical methods and logical
reasoning

113

Problems with Non-Scientific

Approaches
 Each of the first six approaches may appear
sound (for certain purposes, at least), but
taken individually, each approach has
pitfalls deriving from issues such as:
 Erroneous beliefs
 Inaccurate information
 Flaws in logical reasoning (which are extremely
common)
 Perceptions biased by prior experiences

114

38
 2024/8/29

115

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dVp9Z5
k0dEE

116

117

39
 2024/8/29

118

119

120

40
 2024/8/29

Can you see any disadvantages of

the scientific method?

121

Science is Limited
 Science is very good at what it does (determining
how nature works) but it is limited to that.
 Science cannot tell us what is moral behavior.

 Science cannot tell us the purpose of life.

 Science cannot tell us what the correct punishment

for murder should be.

[Although science may be able to inform us on how or why we

behave as we do, or to open new options on how to modify
behaviors.]

122

123

41
 2024/8/29

1. Researchers often disagree. Both sides of an

argument can point to experiments that support their
ideas.

2. The design of some experiments is wrong or

flawed

3. Some researchers lie

124

125

126

42
 2024/8/29

Scientific racism
 The use of scientific findings and methods to
support racist attitudes and behaviour, mainly
against the black population

Most widespread
during the second
half of the 19th
Century

127

19th Century

differences in
brain size and
structure of
different racial
and ethnic
groups

128

129

43
 2024/8/29

Key features of scientific method

 Test hypotheses / cause and effect. The aim is to
test a hypothesis, and to state that an independent
variable causes changes in a dependent variable.

 Objectivity. Information is free from bias as much

as possible as it is controlled.

 Replication. An experiment can be repeated to

obtain same findings

 Thorough. Involves systematic observation,

Measurement, Replication

130

Replication

 In the long term, these problems are corrected.

 In general, new research builds on old research.

Many studies replicate older ones, and gradually
the correct answer will emerge.

 This is a big advance of psychology, as opposed

to humanities.

131

132

44