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REVIEW ON LIMIT STATE

DESIGN METHOD OF STEEL
STRUCTURES
IS 800:2007

INTRODUCTION:
• A steel structure is an assemblage of a group of members
(elements) expected to sustain their share of applied forces
and to transfer them safely to the ground.
• Depending on the orientation of the member in the
structure and its structural use, the member is subjected to
forces, either axial, bending, or torsion, or a combination
thereof.
• Axial Load: Tension or Compression
• Tension members: Ties (trusses)
• Compression members: Struts (trusses), Column or Post
(buildings)

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INTRODUCTION:
• Flexural members: subjected to bending, beams
• Elements are connected by using rivets, bolts, pins or welds
to form the structure
• Depending upon the fixity provided, the connections are
classified as:
• rigid—can transfer moments
• flexible—can transfer axial loads (shears)
• semi-rigid—that fall in between rigid and flexible
• The main advantages of steel structures are their smaller
weight-to-strength ratio, speed of erection and dismantling,
and its scrap value.
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INTRODUCTION:

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INTRODUCTION:
• Standards, Codes & Specifications:
• IS 800-2007: General Construction in Steel-Code of
Practice
• IS Handbook No. 1: Properties of Structural Steel Rolled
Sections
• IS: 875–1987: Code of Practice for Design Loads for
Building and Structures

MATERIALS:

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MATERIALS:
• Other mechanical properties of structural steel are
as follows:
• Modulus of elasticity (E) 2 × 105 N/mm2
• Shear modulus (G) 0.769 × 105 N/mm2
• Poisson’s ratio (μ):
• elastic range 0.3
• plastic range 0.5
• Coefficient of thermal expansion 12 × 10–6/oC
• Unit mass (ρ) 7850 kg/m3

ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS:

• Choosing a standard cross-sectional shape that is
widely available rather than requiring the
fabrication of a shape with unique dimensions and
properties.
• The largest categories of standard shapes include
those produced by hot rolling.
• Usually, sections having larger modulii of section in
proportion to their cross-sectional areas are
preferred.

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ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS:

ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS:

• In most cases, one of the standard shapes
described above will satisfy design requirements.
• If the requirements are especially severe (cross
section does not have enough area or moment of
inertia), then a compound section or a built-up
section may be needed.

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ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS:

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STRESS-STRAIN CURVE:
• Curve OABCDEF represents the
stress–strain curve when a mild
steel specimen is subjected to a
gradually increasing tensile load.
• Various elements of the curve
are as follows.
• OAB— represents a straight line
curve—the strain produced is
proportional to the stress
producing it, i.e., it obeys
Hooke’s law.

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STRESS-STRAIN CURVE:
• A— represents the limit of
proportionality—the stress
beyond which linear variation
ceases.
• B— represents the elastic limit—
the maximum stress up to which
a specimen regains its original
length on removal of the applied
load. This stress, in general, is
not measured and B is assumed
to coincide with A.

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STRESS-STRAIN CURVE:
• C’/C— represents the
upper/lower yield point—the
magnitude of stress
corresponding to the upper yield
point C’ depends on the cross
sectional shape of the specimen
and the type of equipment used
to perform the test.
• The upper yield point is observed
if load is applied rapidly whereas
the lower yield point is observed
if the rate of loading is slow.

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STRESS-STRAIN CURVE:
• In many of the structural steel
hot-rolled sections, the upper
yield point is not obtained due to
residual stresses from the hot
rolling process. Hence, it has no
practical significance.
• Point C represents the yield point
at which there is a definite
increase in strain without any
further increase in stress.
• The stress corresponding to the
lower yield point C is thus yield
stress fy with a typical magnitude
of 250 N/mm2 for mild steel.
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STRESS-STRAIN CURVE:
• For the region OC, the material
is elastic, and the slope E, is the
Young’s modulus.
• The strain at the yield stress is
about 0.00125.
• CD— represents plastic
yielding—it is the strain which
occurs after the yield point, with
no increase in stress.
• The point D of plastic yield range
is somewhat variable but a
typical strain is 0.015.
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STRESS-STRAIN CURVE:
• DE—represents strain
hardening—it is a range where
additional stress produces
additional strain.
• Strain increases fast with stress
till ultimate load is reached.
• The slope of the stress–strain
curve in the strain hardening
range, defined as the strain
hardening tangent modulus, may
not be constant.
• It is typically 5 to 15% of the
Young’s modulus for structural
steels.
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STRESS-STRAIN CURVE:
• E—represents the ultimate
stress—the stress corresponding
to the ultimate load.
• The initial slope of this region is
about 4 per cent of Young’s
modulus.
• At a strain of at least 0.2, the
stress reaches its maximum
value, the ultimate strength of
steel.
• It is also known as minimum
ultimate tensile strength.
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STRESS-STRAIN CURVE:
• EF—after reaching the ultimate
tensile stress, a localized
reduction of cross section of the
specimen called necking takes
place.
• Stress falls with rapid increase in
strain till the specimen breaks.
• This zone is called necking zone.
• F—represents breaking stress—
the stress corresponding to the
breaking load.

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LOCAL BUCKLING OF PLATE ELEMENTS :

• Most structural members, either hot rolled, or cold
rolled, are composed of flat plate elements.
• For example, I-Sections, channels or angle sections
can be regarded as combination of individual plate
elements connected together to form the shape.
• Therefore, while considering the stability of a
structural shape subjected to a compressive strain,
the stability of its component plate elements must
also be considered.
• These elements under compression may buckle
locally out of their original planes.

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LOCAL BUCKLING OF PLATE ELEMENTS :

• Local buckling adversely affects the load carrying
capacity of columns and beams due to reduced
stiffness and strength of the locally buckled plate
elements of the section.
• The local buckling can be prevented by adopting
higher thickness of elements, i.e., by controlling
width-to-thickness ratio.
• The code of practice IS: 800-2007, places limits on
width-to-thickness ratios of component plates of
steel sections and are given in Table 2 of IS 800-
2007.

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LOCAL BUCKLING OF PLATE ELEMENTS :

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DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES:
• Design of steel structures consists of design of steel
members and their connections so that they will
safely and economically resist and transfer the
applied loads.
• This involves the knowledge of material properties,
loads and factor of safety.
• Design philosophies for steel structure are:
1. Elastic or Working Stress Method
2. Plastic or Ultimate Load Method
3. Limit state Method

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DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES:
Working Stress Design (WSD) Method :
• WSD is the traditional method of designing steel
structures and is based on elastic theory.
• Attainment of the initial yielding forms the design
criteria for the members in this approach.
• The working stress in the member should be less
than the permissible stress.
• The permissible stresses are some fraction of the
yield stress of the material and may be defined as
the ratio of the yield stress to the factor of safety.
• The code of practice IS: 800–1984 is based on the
working stress method of design.
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DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES:
Working Stress Design (WSD) Method :
• Limitations:
1. The stress–strain behaviour of the material is
considered to be linear and the structure is
assumed to behave linearly in an elastic manner.
Structures designed based on these assumptions
possess considerable reserve of strength beyond
elastic limit until they reach their ultimate
strength, and lead to uneconomic design.
2. The failure mode of the structure cannot be
visualized.

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DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES:
Working Stress Design (WSD) Method :
• Limitations:
3. The factors of safety used in working stress
design were developed over time largely on the
basis of experience and result in overdesign of
the steel members.
4. Design parameters such as loads, material
properties, strength, etc., are assumed to have
unique values, though they are variable.
5. Since all the sources of loads were considered to
act simultaneously with their maximum value,
while maintaining the same factor of safety,
would lead to unconservative design.
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DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES:
Ultimate Load Design (ULD) Method :
• Also known as Plastic Method of Design.
• In the plastic method, the design criterion is the
ultimate strength and hence the behaviour of
members beyond the yield stress in the inelastic or
plastic range is considered.
• This method of design is based on failure
conditions rather than working load conditions;
failure implies collapse or extremely large
deformations.
• The structure fails at a much higher load, called the
collapse load, than the working load.
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DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES:
Ultimate Load Design (ULD) Method :
• The working loads are multiplied with specified
factors, known as load factors, to obtain ultimate
loads under which a structure collapses.
• The term plastic is used because, at failures, parts
of the member will be subjected to very large
strains—large enough to put the member into
plastic range.
• This method results in smaller size sections than
those designed by WSD method.
• Moreover, the failure mode can be visualized.

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DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES:
Ultimate Load Design (ULD) Method :
• Limitations:
1. It does not consider serviceability conditions
(such as deflection, vibration, fatigue, etc.).
2. No safety factor is applied to the material.
3. The variability of the design parameters involved
(such as loads, material properties and strength)
have not been accounted for. Also, in the load
combinations, all the loads are considered to act
simultaneously with their maximum values
maintaining the same load factor.

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DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES:
Limit State Design (LSD) Method :
• LSD method was developed to take account of all
conditions that can make the structure unfit for
use, considering actual behaviour of materials and
structures.
• Statistical methods have been used for
determination of loads and material properties
with a small probability of structure reaching the
limit states of strength and serviceability.
• The working loads are factored using partial safety
factors and the factored loads are used in the
design load combinations.
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DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES:
Limit State Design (LSD) Method :
• The nominal strength of the member also known as
the ultimate capacity is determined and the design
strength is computed by dividing it by appropriate
partial safety factor.
• This factor accounts for material (steel), poor
workmanship and error in construction and
fabrication.
• The member designed should satisfy the criterion:
Design action ≤ Design strength
• The section designed should also satisfy the
serviceability requirements, such as limitations of
deflection and vibration
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DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES:
Limit State Design (LSD) Method :
• Advantages of LSD:
1. It recognizes that the design parameters are
variants and do not have unique values.
2. It attempts to rationally deal with variations in
loads and member behaviour subjected to given
loads.
3. Partial safety factors are used to account for
uncertainty in loads and material strength of the
members.
4. In LSD, uncertainty is reflected in both loading
and material strength rather than a single factor
of safety (WSD) and load factor (ULD).
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DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES:
Limit State Design (LSD) Method :
• The limit states are classified as:
1. Limit state of strength
a. Loss of equilibrium of whole or part of the
structure
b. Loss of stability of structure as a whole of part
of it
c. Failure by excessive deformation
d. Fracture due to fatigue
e. Brittle fracture

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DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES:
Limit State Design (LSD) Method :
2. Limit state of serviceability
a. Deformation and deflection
b. Vibrations
c. Repairable damage or crack due to fatigue
d. Corrosion
e. Fire

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ACTIONS (LOADS):
• The forces from various sources that act on a
structure are called loads.
• The loads acting directly on the structure are called
direct actions; examples being dead loads, live
loads, wind loads etc.
• However, loads may also be caused because of
actions such as deformations, due to temperature,
settlement, etc. and are known as indirect actions.
• Loads may also be classified as:
1. Permanent actions
2. Variable actions
3. Accidental actions

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ACTIONS (LOADS):
Permanent actions
• dead loads (self-weight) and permanent imposed loads
due to weight of the construction materials, machinery
etc. which do not change with time
Variable actions
• live loads, moving loads on bridges (imposed loads),
snow and wind loads (environmental loads),
temperature effects and storage loading that are not
fixed
Accidental actions
• earthquakes, fire, blast, explosion, impact, and action
caused by foundation deformation, as a result of
change in soil structure with time, which are due to
special causes.
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ACTIONS (LOADS):
Characteristic actions (loads)
• The Characteristic Actions (Qc) are the values of the
different actions that are not expected to be
exceeded with more than 5 percent probability,
during the life of the structure.
• In absence of statistical analysis, the loads
presented in IS 875 and other special codes may be
considered characteristic loads.

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ACTIONS (LOADS):
Design actions (loads)
• Code specifies design actions as partial safety factor
times the characteristic actions.
=∑ ; γfk is partial safety factor for kth
load

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STRENGTH:
Design Strength:
• The Design Strength (Sd) is obtained from ultimate
strength (Su) and partial safety factors for materials
(γm).
=

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DEFLECTION LIMIT:

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DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER:

• A structural member subjected to two pulling
(tensile) forces applied at its ends is called a tension
member.
• Often tension members are connected at their ends
with bolts.
• The presence of bolt holes influence the stress at a
cross section through hole or holes.

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DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER:

Design Strength due to Yielding of Gross Section:

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DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER:

Design Strength due to Rupture of Critical Section:

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DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER:

Design Strength due to Rupture of Critical Section:

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DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER:

Design Strength due to Rupture of Critical Section:

Every path is checked and the

path giving minimum net
sectional area is critical.

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DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER:

Design Strength due to Rupture of Critical Section:

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DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER:

Design Strength due to Rupture of Critical Section:

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DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER:

Design Strength due to Rupture of Critical Section:

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DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER:

Design Strength due to Block Shear:
• This type of failure is characterised by tearing out
of a segment or block of material at the end of a
member for certain connection configurations.

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DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER:

Design Strength due to Block Shear:

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DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER:

Design Strength due to Block Shear:

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

• A compression member is a structural member which is
straight and subjected to two equal and opposite
compressive forces applied at its ends.
• Compression member in building: Column, stanchion or
post
• Compression member in truss & bracings: Strut
• When an axial compression increases, a stage of
instability is reached at a load much below crushing
strength of compression member, which is called as
buckling.
• Due to buckling, the load carrying
capacity of column is reduced
considerably.

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Design Strength:

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Design Strength:

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Design Strength:

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Design Strength:

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Design Strength:
The design compressive stress fcd can also be determined from
Table 8(a) to Table 9(d), IS 800:2007.

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Laced column:
• Flat or angle sections are normally used as lacings.
• The purpose of lacing is to hold the various parts of a
column straight, parallel, at a correct distance apart and to
equalize the stress distribution between its various parts.

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Laced column:
• Rules for designing laced columns:
1. As far as possible, the lacing system shall be uniform
throughout the column length.
2. In single laced system the direction of lattices on opposite
faces should be shadow of the other.
3. In bolted or riveted construction, the minimum width of
lacing bars shall be three times the nominal diameter of
the bolt/rivet. [cl. no. 7.6.2, IS 800]
4. The thickness of flat lacing bars shall not be less than
1/40th of its effective length for single lacing and 1/60th of
the effective length for double lacing. [cl. no. 7.6.3, IS 800]
5. Lacing bar shall be inclined at an angle 40o to 70o to the
axis of built-up member. [cl. no. 7.6.4, IS 800]

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Laced column:
6. The distance between the two main members should be kept so
as to get ryy > rzz, where, ryy is the radius of gyration about the
weaker axis and rzz if the radius of gyration of stronger axis of
individual member.
7. Maximum spacing of lacing bars (a1) shall be such that the
maximum slenderness of the main member (a1/r1) between
consecutive lacing connection is not greater than 50 or 0.7
times the most unfavourable slenderness ratio of the member
as a whole, whichever is less. [cl. no. 7.6.5.1, IS 800]

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Laced column:
8. The lacing shall be designed to resist transverse shear Vt= 2.5%
of axial force in columns. [cl. no. 7.6.6.1, IS 800]
9. If the column is subjected to bending also, Vt= bending shear +
2.5% of column force [cl. no. 7.6.6.2, IS 800]

N= no. of
transverse
parallel planes

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Laced column:
10. The slenderness ratio KL/r of lacing bars shall not exceed 145.
[cl. no. 7.6.6.3, IS 800]
11. Effective length of single laced system is equal to the length
between the inner end fastners. For welded joints and double
laced system effectively connected at intersection, effective
length may be taken as 0.7 times the actual length. [cl. no.
7.6.6.3, IS 800]
12. Laced compression member shall be provided with end tie
plates.
13. The effective slenderness ratio of laced columns shall be taken
as 1.05 times the actual maximum slenderness ratio, in order to
account for shear deformation effects. [cl. no. 7.6.1.5, IS 800]

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Battened column:
• Battens are plates or any other rolled
sections used to connect the main
components of compression members.
• Batten should be placed opposite to
each other on the two parallel faces of
the compression member and should be
spaced and proportioned uniformly
throughout.
• The number of battens should be such
that the member is divided into at least
three bays within its actual length.
• Battens provided at the ends of columns
are called end battens and all other
battens in between end battens are
called intermediate battens.
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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Battened column:
• Rules for designing battened columns:
1. The effective slenderness ratio of battened columns shall be
taken as 1.1 times the maximum actual slenderness ratio of the
column to account for shear deformation. [cl. no. 7.7.1.4, IS 800]
2. The maximum spacing of the battens C should be such that the
minimum slenderness ratio of the component member C/r is
not greater than 50 or 0.7 times the slenderness ratio of the
member as a whole, about an axis parallel to battens. [cl. no.
7.7.3, IS 800]
3. The effective depth of the end batten should not be less than
the distance between the centre of gravity of the component
members and this should be more than twice the width of one
component member. [cl. no. 7.7.2.3, IS 800]
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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Battened column:
4. The depth of the intermediate batten is taken as three-fourth of
the effective depth of the end batten and should be more than
twice the width of one component member. [cl. no. 7.7.2.3, IS
800]
5. The thickness t of battens should not be less than 1/50 of the
distance between the innermost connecting lines of the
rivets/bolts or welds perpendicular to the main member. [cl. no.
7.7.2.3, IS 800]
6. Battens should be designed to carry the bending moment and
shear arising from the transverse shear force, Vt, which is 2.5%
of the total axial force on the whole compression member. [cl.
no. 7.7.2.1, IS 800]
7. If the column is subjected to bending also, Vt= bending shear +
2.5% of column force

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Battened column:
8. The design shear and moments for
batten plates is given by:
= =
2
Where,
C= distance between centre to centre
of battens longitudinally
N= no. of parallel planes
S= minimum transverse distance
between the centroid of the fastners
connecting batten to the main
member.

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Battened column:
9. The shear stress (Vb/A1) is calculated in the section of battens and
it should be less than
[cl. no. 8.4, IS 800]
3
Where,
A1= cross-sectional area of the batten
10. The bending stress in the section of the batten is calculated and
it should be less than fy/γm0 [cl. no. 8.2.1.2, IS 800]
6
). *. + , ,- = = = 2<
. 11 2 1
6
Where, t= thickness of batten
d= depth of batten
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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Column Bases:
• Column bases transmit the column load to the concrete or
masonry foundation blocks.
• The column base spreads the load on wider area so that the
intensity of bearing pressure on the foundation block is within the
bearing strength.

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Column Bases:
• Types of column bases:
1. Slab base
2. Gusseted base

Slab base
• These are used in column carrying small loads.
• The column is directly connected to the base plate through cleat
angles .
• The load is transferred to the base plate through bearing.

69

DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Column Bases:

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Column Bases:
Gusseted base
• When the load on the column section is too large or when the axial
load is accompanied by bending moments, usually a gusset base is
provided.
• It consists of a base plate, two gusset plates and two gusset angles
when bolted connections are made.
• The load is transferred to the base partly through bearing and
partly through gussets.

71

DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Column Bases:
Design of Slab Base
• The design of a base plate consists in finding out its size and
thickness.
• Design steps:
1. Assume a suitable grade of concrete. Depending upon the grade
of concrete used, the bearing strength of concrete is determined
by 0.45fck. ‘fck’ is characteristics compressive strength of concrete.
A reduced value of 0.45fck is used against maximum of 0.60fck as
recommended by the code.
= ,
2. 45* 6 7 8* 9: 1* 5*;<)5* = >?,@ABC D @?BC E B @? ?
=
FG
H.IJ KL

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Column Bases:
3. Select the size of base plate. For economy, as far as possible keep
the projections a and b equal.

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER:

Column Bases:
4. The intensity of pressure w, from the concrete pedestal is
determined by:
N
M=
45* 6 7 8* 9: 1* 956O) *
5. Thickness of base plate is calculated as: [cl. no. 7.4.3.1, IS 800]

It should not be less than the thickness of the column flange tf.

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DESIGN OF BEAM:
• Beam is a structural member with length considerably larger than
cross-sectional dimensions subject to lateral loads which give rise
to bending moment and shear forces in the member.
• Beams are also called as joists, girder, spandrels etc. based upon
their location and purpose.
• In roof trusses the roof loads are carried by purlins which acts as a
beam.
• The lintels provided over the openings to support masonry also
acts as a beam.
• In buildings, I-sections are commonly used as beams.
• Based on lateral supports to the compression flanges, the beams
are classified as:
1. Laterally supported beams
2. Laterally unsupported beams

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DESIGN OF BEAM:
Laterally supported beams:
• A beam in which the compression flange is restrained laterally to
prevent lateral buckling is called as laterally supported (restrained)
beam.
• Lateral buckling would reduce in maximum moment capacity of
beam.

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DESIGN OF BEAM:
Laterally unsupported beams:
• A beam in which the compression flange is not restrained laterally
so that the lateral buckling of beam takes place is called as laterally
unsupported (unrestrained) beam.
• In laterally unsupported beams, the lateral buckling of the
compression flange is also accompanied by twisting.
• When the beam deflects laterally, the applied moment exerts a
torque about the deflected longitudinal axis, which causes the
beam to twist. This type of instability is called lateral-torsional
buckling.

77

DESIGN OF BEAM:

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DESIGN OF BEAM:
Type of Sections:

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DESIGN OF BEAM:
Classification of Cross-sections:
• In the limit state design of steel beams, it is necessary to classify
sections as the moment capacity of the classified section depends
upon different formulation.
• Four classes of section have been identified: (a) Plastic, (b)
Compact, (c) Semi-compact and (d) Slender, based on their yield
and plastic moments along with their rotation capacities.
• The category is based on the least width-to-thickness ratio of the
flanges and of the web.
• Local buckling can be prevented by limiting the width-to-thickness
ratio.

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DESIGN OF BEAM:
Classification of Cross-sections:

81

DESIGN OF BEAM:
Classification of Cross-sections:

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DESIGN OF BEAM:
Bending Strength in Bending (Flexure):

83

DESIGN OF BEAM:
Bending Strength in Bending (Flexure):

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DESIGN OF BEAM:
Bending Strength in Bending (Flexure):

85

DESIGN OF BEAM:
Bending Strength in Bending (Flexure):

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DESIGN OF BEAM:
Bending Strength in Bending (Flexure):

87

DESIGN OF BEAM:
Bending Strength in Bending (Flexure):

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DESIGN OF BEAM:
Bending Strength in Bending (Flexure):

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DESIGN OF BEAM:
Bending Strength in Bending (Flexure):

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DESIGN OF BEAM:
Shear Strength:

91

CONNECTIONS:
• The various elements of a steel structure, like tension member,
compression member and flexural member, are connected at their
ends by fasteners (connectors).
• Many a times, compound or built-up sections are provided to
meet the requirements of heavy loads and long spans. Such
sections also need to be connected together to act in unison as
one unit.
• Further, the length of a member may be more than the length of
the section available and this will necessitate the connection of the
two lengths to make up the required length.
• Different types of fasteners available for making connections are
bolts, pins, rivets and welds.
• Of the various types of simple connections used in structures,
bolted, pinned and riveted connections behave alike and are
therefore grouped together.
• Riveted connection is obsolete and is not covered by IS:800-2007.
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CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:
• A bolt may be defined as a metal pin with a head at one end a
shank threaded at the other end to receive a nut.

• Bolts can be used for making end connections in tension and

compression members and in the fabrication of built-up and
compound members
93

CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:
Classification of bolted connection:
1. On the basis of resultant force transferred:
a. Concentric connection:
• the load passes through the CG of the section, e.g., axially
loaded tension and compression members
b. Eccentric connection:
• when the load is away from the CG of the connection, e.g.,
bracket connections
c. Moment resisting connection:
• when joints are subjected to moments, e.g., beam to column
connections in framed structures

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CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:
2. On the basis of type of force:
a. Shear connection:
• when the load transfer is through shear, e.g., lap joint and butt
joint
b. Tension connection:
• when the load is transferred by tension on bolts, e.g., hanger
connection
c. Combined shear and tension connection:
• when an inclined member is to be connected to a column
through bracket, e.g., connections of bracings

95

CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:
3. On the basis of force mechanism:
a. Bearing type connection:
• bolts bear against the holes to transfer the force, e.g., slip-type
connections
b. Friction type connection:
• when the force is transferred by friction between the plates
due to tensioning of bolts, e.g., slip-critical connections

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CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:
Types of bolts:
1. Unfinished Bolts
• Also called ordinary, common, rough or black bolts.
• Used for light structures subjected to static loads and for
secondary members such as purlins, bracings, etc., and for roof
trusses.
• Not recommended for connections subjected to impact load,
vibration and fatigue.
• The bolts are available from 5 to 36 mm in diameter and are
designated as M5 to M36.
• However, in structural steel work the most common ones are M16,
M20, M24 to M30.

97

CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:
• IS: 800 stipulates that the net tensile area
of bolt to be considered is the area at the
root of the threads and are given in Table.

• This area is also called the stress area or

proof area.
• However, in the absence of this table, the
ratio of net tensile area at root of threads
to nominal plain shank area of bolt may be
taken as 0.78 (as per IS: 1367 (part 1)).

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CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:
• Bolts may be placed in standard size, over size, short slotted or
long slotted hole.
• Table 19 of IS: 800–2007 consists of clearances for bolt holes.

99

CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:
• The bolts of property class 3.6 to 12.9 are available, of which
most commonly used bolts are of property class 4.6 to 8.8.

• For ordinary bolted joints, the force is transferred through the

interlocking and bearing of bolts and the joint is called bearing-
type joint.
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CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:
2. High Strength Bolts
• These bolts may be tightened until they have very high tensile
stresses, two or more times that of ordinary bolts, so that the
connected parts are clamped tightly together between the bolts
and nut heads; this permits loads to be transferred primarily by
friction and not by shear.

101

CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:
• Due to this friction, the slip in the joint, which is there in joints
with ordinary bolts, is eliminated.
• These bolts are also known as friction-type bolts.
• The joint using high-strength friction grip bolts is called non-slip
connection or slip-critical connection or friction-type connection.
• The high strength bolts are available in sizes from 16 to 36 mm
and are designated as M16, M20, M24 and M30.
• These bolts are identified by the property class identification
symbol such as 8S, 8.8S, 10S or 10.9S embossed on the head of
the bolt.
• Here, S stands for high strength. The most commonly used bolts
are of 8.8S and 10.9S property class.

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CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:
Types of bolted joints:
1. Lap Joint
• The two members to be connected are overlapped and
connected together.
• Consist of single bolted lap joint and a double bolted lap joint.
• The load in the lap joint has eccentricity, as the centre of gravity
of the load in one member and the centre of gravity of load in the
second member are not in the same line.
• Therefore, a couple is formed which causes undesirable bending
in the connection and the bolts may fail in tension.
• To minimize the effect of bending in lap joints at least two bolts in
a line should be provided.

103

CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:

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CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:
2. Butt Joint
• The two members to be connected are placed end to end.
• Additional plate/plates provided on either one or both sides,
called cover plates, are placed and are connected to the main
plates.
• If the cover plate is provided on one it is called a single cover butt
joint but if the cover plates are provided on both sides of the
main plates, it is called a double cover butt joint.

105

CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:

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CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:

107

CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:

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CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:

109

CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:

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CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:

111

CONNECTIONS:
Bolted Connection:

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WELDED CONNECTIONS

113

INTRODUCTION:
• Welding consist of joining two pieces of metal by
establishing a metallurgical bond between them.
• Advantages of welded connection:
1. Welded structures are lighter.
2. Welding process is quicker.
3. Possible to achieve 100% efficiency in the joint.
4. Noise production is less.
5. Have good aesthetic appearance.
6. Connection is airtight & watertight.
7. Joints are rigid.
8. Alterations can be made easily.
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INTRODUCTION:
• Disadvantages of welded connection:
1. Due to uneven heating and cooling, members are
likely to distort.
2. Possibility of brittle fracture.
3. Welded joints fail earlier than bolted joints, if
structure is under fatigue stress.
4. Inspection is difficult and expensive.
5. Highly skilled persons required.
6. Joints are over rigid.

115

TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS:

• Types:
1. Butt Weld 2. Fillet Weld 3. Slot & Plug Weld
Butt Weld
• Also known as groove weld.

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TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS:

Fillet Weld
• Fillet weld is a weld approximately triangular in
cross section joining two surfaces approximately
right angles to each other in lap joint, tee joint or
corner joint.
• When the cross-section of fillet weld is isosceles
triangle with face at 45o, it is known as standard
fillet weld.

117

TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS:

Slot & Plug Weld
• In slot weld, a plate with circular hole is kept with
another plate to be joined and then fillet welding is
made along the periphery of hole.
• In plug weld, small holes are made in one plate and
is kept over another plate and then entire hole is
filled with filler material.

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DESIGN OF GROOVE/BUTT WELD:

• A square groove weld is provided for sections less
than 8 mm.
• Above this a single U, Vee or double U, Vee, etc.,
groove welds are provided.
• Groove weld is usually designed for direct tension
or compression but if shear is also there then due
provision should be made.
Specifications:
1. Reinforcement
2. Size
3. Effective area
119

DESIGN OF GROOVE/BUTT WELD:

• Reinforcement is the extra weld metal which
makes the throat dimension at least 10% greater
than the thickness of the welded material.
• The reason for providing reinforcement is to
increase the efficiency of the joint.
• In any case, the reinforcement should not exceed 3
mm.
• The size of the groove weld used is specified by the
throat dimension.
• This is also called effective throat thickness.
• The groove welds may be of partial penetration or
of complete penetration

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DESIGN OF GROOVE/BUTT WELD:

• complete penetration: the effective throat

thickness is taken as the thickness of the thinner
member jointed.
• Incomplete penetration: effective throat thickness
is assumed to be 5/8th of thickness of the thinner
member
121

DESIGN OF GROOVE/BUTT WELD:

• The effective area of the groove weld is the
product of effective throat thickness and the
effective length of the groove weld.
• Effective length is the length of the weld for which
the required size of the weld is done.
• Effective length shall not be less than four times the
size of weld.
Design Strength:
• The design strength of the groove weld in tension
or compression is governed by yield,

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DESIGN OF GROOVE/BUTT WELD:

123

DESIGN OF FILLET WELD:

• The fillet weld is done for members which overlap
each other.
• For such joints the critical stress is shear stress.
Specifications:
• The nominal size of a fillet weld is the dimension
of its leg.
• Thus, the size of fillet weld is specified as the
minimum leg length of the weld.
• The size of fillet weld shall not be
less than 3mm.

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DESIGN OF FILLET WELD:

• The minimum size of the weld should not exceed

the thickness of the thinner part jointed.
• Effective throat thickness is the shortest distance
from the root of the fillet weld to the face of the
diagrammatic weld (line joining the toes).

125

DESIGN OF FILLET WELD:

• The effective throat thickness should not be less

than 3 mm.
• Also, it should not exceed 0.7t or 1.0t under special
circumstances, where t is the thickness of thinner
plate of elements being welded.
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DESIGN OF FILLET WELD:

• Effective throat thickness= KS
• where S is the size of weld in mm and K is constant

• Effective Length is the length of the fillet weld for

which the specified size and throat thickness of
weld exist.
• In practice the actual length of weld is made of the
effective length plus two times the weld size.

127

DESIGN OF FILLET WELD:

• The effective length is, therefore, equal to the
overall length provided minus twice the weld size.
• End returns as are made equal
to twice the size of the weld to
relieve the weld length from high
stress concentrations at their ends.
• The actual length of the weld should not be less
than four times the size of the weld.
• If the length of the welded joint of a splice or end
connections in a compression or tension element
exceeds 150 times the throat size of the weld, the
reduction in weld strength as per long joint is
done.
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DESIGN OF FILLET WELD:

• For long joints the design capacity of weld is
reduced by a factor,

• The effective area of a fillet weld is equal to

effective length of the weld multiplied by effective
throat thickness.

129

DESIGN OF FILLET WELD:

• The overlap of plates to be fillet welded in a lap
joint should not be less than four times the
thickness of the thinner part joined or 40 mm,
whichever is more.
• Any intermittent fillet weld section
should have a minimum effective
length of four times the size of the
weld with a minimum of 40 mm
• The clear spacing between an intermittent fillet
welds should not exceed 12t for compression and
16t for tension and should in no case be more than
200 mm, where t is the thickness of thinner part
jointed.
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DESIGN OF FILLET WELD:

Design Strength:
• The design stress of a fillet weld,

• Where, lw= effective length of weld, tt= throat

thickness, fu= smaller of ultimate strength of the
weld and the parent material

131

DESIGN OF FILLET WELD:

• longitudinal fillet welds: parallel to the load axis

• transverse fillet welds: perpendicular to the load
axis
• For longitudinal fillet weld, a check is provided to
see that the length of each longitudinal fillet weld is
more than the perpendicular distance between
them.
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DESIGN OF FILLET WELD:

Fillet weld applied to edge of plate or section:
• For a fillet weld applied to the square edge of a
part, the specified size of the weld should generally
be at least 1.5 mm less than the edge thickness.
• For a fillet weld applied to the rounded toe of a
rolled section, the specified size of the weld should
generally not exceed 3/4 of the thickness of the
section at the toe.

133

DESIGN OF FILLET WELD:

• The end fillet weld normal to the direction of force
should be of unequal size with a throat thickness
not less than 0.5t where t is thickness of the part.
• The difference in thickness of the welds in such a
case is negotiated at a uniform slope.

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STRESSES DUE TO INDIVIDUAL FORCES:

• When subjected to either compressive or tensile
due to axial force or shear force alone, the stress in
the weld is given by:

135

COMBINATION OF STRESSES:
Fillet Welds:
• When subjected to a combination of normal stress
(due to axial tension/compression or bending
tension/compression) and shear stresses, the
equivalent stress fe should satisfy the following:

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COMBINATION OF STRESSES:
Butt Welds:
• For butt welds check for the combination of
stresses need not be done if:
1. butt welds are axially loaded
2. in single and double bevel welds the sum of
normal and shear stresses does not exceed the
design normal stress, and the shear stress does
not exceed 50 per cent of the design shear stress.
• Where bearing stress, fbr is combined with bending
(tensile or compressive) and shear stresses under
the most unfavourable conditions of loading, the
equivalent stress fe is obtained from the following
formula:
137

COMBINATION OF STRESSES:

The equivalent stress fe as calculated should not

exceed the value allowed for the parent metal.

138