Multivariable Calculus

(Week 4)
Topics: More on Vector-valued Functions
Functions of Several Variables
Limits and Continuity
(Reference Chapters: Chapter 11.3 and 12.1-12.2 of Adams and Essex; Chapter
12.5,13.1-13.2 of Larson and Edwards)

Key References of this file:

Larson, R. and Edwards, B., Multivariable Calculus (Metric Version – 11th Edition),
CENGAGE Learning, 2016.
Adams, R.A. and Essex, C., Calculus – A Complete Course, 9th Edition, Pearson,
2018.

Prepared and Revised by Dr. Hugo MAK

HW 2 Question 5
We define the curvature of a path by 𝐫′′(𝑠) , where 𝐫(𝑠) is the arc-length
parametrization of the path. Given a path 𝐫(𝑡), we let 𝐫(𝑠) be its arc-length
𝑡
parametrization so that 𝑠 = ‫׬‬0 𝐫 ′ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏.
′ ′′ 𝑑𝑠 3
(a) Show that 𝐫 𝑡 × 𝐫 𝑡 = 𝐫′(𝑠) × 𝐫′′(𝑠).
𝑑𝑡
HW 2 Question 5
We define the curvature of a path by 𝐫′′(𝑠) , where 𝐫(𝑠) is the arc-length parametrization
of the path. Given a path 𝐫(𝑡), we let 𝐫(𝑠) be its arc-length parametrization so that 𝑠 =
𝑡 ′
‫׬‬0 𝐫 𝜏 𝑑𝜏.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, show that the curvature can be expressed in terms of 𝑡. Give the
explicit form of the curvature function.

𝐫′(𝑡) × 𝐫′′(𝑡 )
𝐫′′(𝑠 ) =
𝐫′ 𝑡 3
HW 2 Question 6
Given a curve C on the xy-plane with equation 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃), where r and θ are the polar coordinates
used to describe any point lying on C, in particular point P in the following figure. Let O be the
origin and ψ be the angle from the line OP to the tangent line at point P. We assume f is
continuously differentiable and non-negative.
(a) Express tan 𝜓 in terms of 𝑟 and derivative of 𝑟 with respect to 𝜃.

Alternatively,
HW 2 Question 6
Given a curve C on the xy-plane with equation 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃), where r and θ are the polar coordinates
used to describe any point lying on C, in particular point P in the following figure. Let O be the
origin and ψ be the angle from the line OP to the tangent line at point P. We assume f is
continuously differentiable and non-negative.
(c) Given two curves 𝐶1 : 𝑟 = 2 − 2 cos 𝜃 (where 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 2𝜋) and 𝐶2 : 𝑟 = 2.
Some part of 𝐶1 is inside 𝐶2, find the arc length of such part.
Alternatively,
 𝑑
Example 1 : 𝐫(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Method 1: Let 𝐫(𝑡)= 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧(𝑡)
Then 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 2 + 𝑦 𝑡 2 + 𝑧 𝑡 2
Hence,
𝑑
𝐫(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
1 −
1
= 𝑥 𝑡 2 + 𝑦 𝑡 2 + 𝑧 𝑡 2 2 ∙ 2𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 ′ 𝑡 + 2𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 ′ 𝑡 + 2𝑧 𝑡 𝑧 ′ 𝑡
2
1
= 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧(𝑡) ∙ 𝑥 ′ 𝑡 , 𝑦 ′ 𝑡 , 𝑧 ′ 𝑡
𝐫 𝑡
𝐫(𝑡)∙𝐫′(𝑡)
=
𝐫 𝑡
 𝑑
Example 1 : 𝐫(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
2
Method 2: Consider 𝐫 𝑡 = 𝐫 𝑡 ∙𝐫 𝑡
𝑑 2 𝑑
Therefore, 𝐫 𝑡 = (𝐫 𝑡 ∙ 𝐫 𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
Thus, 2 𝐫 𝑡 𝐫 𝑡 = 𝐫 𝑡 ∙ 𝐫 ′ 𝑡 + 𝐫′ 𝑡 ∙ 𝐫(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝐫(𝑡)∙𝐫′(𝑡)
Re-arranging, 𝐫(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡 𝐫 𝑡

Take-Home Exercise: Show that if r is a vector-valued function, then

𝑑
𝐫 𝑡 × 𝐫 ′ 𝑡 = 𝐫(𝑡) × 𝐫′′(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Arc Length
• Let C be a bounded, continuous curve specified by
𝐫=𝐫 𝑡 , 𝑡 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
• We sub-divide the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] into 𝑛 sub-intervals by
points:
𝑎 = 𝑡0 < 𝑡1 < 𝑡2 < ⋯ < 𝑡𝑛−1 < 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑏
• The points 𝐫𝑖 = 𝐫 𝑡𝑖 (0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛) sub-divide C into 𝑛 arcs. We
use 𝐫𝑖 − 𝐫𝑖−1 as an 𝑛
approximation to the arc length between
𝐫𝑖−1 and 𝐫𝑖 , then σ𝑖=1 𝐫𝑖 − 𝐫𝑖−1 approximates the length 𝐶
by the length of a polygonal line.
• We let ∆𝑡𝑖 = 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑖−1 and ∆𝐫𝑖 = 𝐫𝑖 − 𝐫𝑖−1 , then
𝑛 𝑛
∆𝐫𝑖
𝑠𝑛 : = ෍ 𝐫𝑖 − 𝐫𝑖−1 ≈෍ ∆𝑡𝑖
∆𝑡𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
(by completeness axiom, and we assume C is
Ref: Adams, R.A. and Essex, C.,
rectifiable, i.e. smooth in a certain measure- Calculus – A Complete Course, 9th
theoretic sense) Edition, Pearson, 2018.
Arc Length (Formula)
∆𝐫𝑖
• 𝑠𝑛 : = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝐫𝑖 − 𝐫𝑖−1 ≈ σ𝑛𝑖=1 ∆𝑡𝑖
∆𝑡𝑖
• If r(t) has a continuous derivative v(t), then
𝑏 𝑏
𝑑𝐫
𝑠 = 𝑛→∞ lim 𝑠𝑛 = න 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐯(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
max ∆𝑡 →0 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑎
𝑖
In mechanics, the interpretation is as follows:
The distance travelled by a moving particle is the integral of its speed.
 Ref:
Arc Length (Examples) Adams, R.A. and Essex, C., Calculus – A Complete
Course, 9th Edition, Pearson, 2018.
Example 1: Find the length of the part of the circular helix
𝐫 𝑡 = 𝑎 cos 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑎 sin 𝑡 𝐣 + 𝑏𝑡 𝐤
between the points (𝑎, 0,0) and 𝑎, 0, 2𝜋𝑏 . Give a description of the
part of the circular helix as well.
Solution:
The curve spirals around the 𝑧-axis, increase as z-value as it turns.
It lies on the surface of the circular cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 .

Length:
Arc Length (Example 2)

from 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 2 .

Ref.:
Larson, R. and Edwards, B., Multivariable Calculus (Metric
Version – 11th Edition), CENGAGE Learning, 2016.
Arc Length Parametrization
• Considering the two curves
𝐫1 𝑡 = cos 𝑡, sin 𝑡, 2𝑡 , 𝑡 ∈ 0, 2𝜋
2𝜋
𝐫2 𝑡 = cos 3𝑡, sin 3𝑡, 6𝑡 , 𝑡 ∈ 0, 3

• These two curves are the same, but with different speeds. The curve 𝐫2 (𝑡) is obtained
by replacing every t in 𝐫1 (𝑡) by 3𝑡. The initial and final times are adjusted such that the
end points of both graphs remain the same. We say 𝐫𝟐 is a re-parametrization of 𝐫𝟏 .

Definition
• If r(s) is a parametric curve such that 𝐫′(𝑠) = 1 for any s, we say the curve is
parametrized by arc-length.
Goal
• Given a parametric curve r(t), we want to reparametrize the curve by arc-length,
such that with the new parameter s, r(s) travels at unit speed.
Arc Length Parametrization
Process and Steps of Re-parametrization:
𝑡
1. Given a curve r 𝑡 : [𝑎, 𝑏] → 𝐑3 , we compute 𝑠 = ‫𝐫 𝑎׬‬′(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 .
2. Since the upper limit of the above integral is t , the function s is a function of t.
3. Express t as t = t(s).
4. Replace all t by this function of s in the curve r 𝑡 .

The new parametrization r(s) will be arc-length parametrized.

Proof: It suffices to show that 𝐫′(𝑠) = 1.
𝑑𝐫 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Consider 𝐫′(𝑠) = = 𝐫′(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑑𝑠
Recall that 𝑠 = ‫𝐫 𝑎׬‬′(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 , hence = 𝐫′(𝑡) (Why? By what theorem?)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 1 1
Therefore, = 𝑑𝑠 = , and it follows that 𝐫′(𝑠) = 1.
𝑑𝑠 𝐫′ 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Conclusion: The parametrization r(s) will be arc-length parametrized, and has unit speed.
 Example 1 Find the arc length function s(t) for the line segment
given by
r(t) = (3 – 3t)i + 4t j, 0≤t≤1
and write r as a function of the parameter s.

Using s = 5t (or t = s/5), we can rewrite r using

the arc length parameter as follows.

Ref.:
Larson, R. and Edwards, B., Multivariable Calculus (Metric
Version – 11th Edition), CENGAGE Learning, 2016.
Example 2
Re-parametrize the given curve in the same orientation in terms of the
arc length measured from the point where 𝑡 = 0.
3
𝐫 𝑡 = 3𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝐢 + 3𝑡 sin 𝑡 𝐣 + 2 2 𝑡 𝐤
2 Ref.: Adams, R.A. and Essex, C., Calculus – A
Complete Course, 9th Edition, Pearson, 2018.
Solution:
Review of Functions

Function of two variables

 Domain of Functions of Several Variables
Ref.:
Larson, R. and Edwards, B., Multivariable Calculus (Metric
Version – 11th Edition), CENGAGE Learning, 2016.

Solution to (a)

Therefore, the domain is the set of all points lying on

or outside the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9 except those points
on the y-axis.
Solution to (b) The function g is defined for all points (x, y, z) such that

Consequently, the domain is the set of all points (x, y, z)

lying inside a sphere of radius 3 that is centered at the
origin.
More Examples
Domain of a function: set of allowable inputs
Domain of a two-variable function: each input can be represented by a point (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐑2 .
f(x,y) means z, so
why is the graph not parallel to z
z is present in the
Examples axis?
equation
3
(1) 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = is undefined when 𝑥𝑦 = 0, i.e. when at least one of 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 0.
𝑥𝑦
Domain: 𝑥, 𝑦 : 𝑥 ≠ 0 and 𝑦 ≠ 0
Geometrical representation: whole 𝐑2 plane with x-axis and y-axis removed.

(2) 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 3𝑦 − 5𝑥 2 is defined only when 3𝑦 ≥ 5𝑥 2 .

5
Domain: 𝑥, 𝑦 : 𝑦 ≥ 𝑥 2
3
5
Geometric representation: Region above the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 in 𝐑2 . R^2 because surface in 3D
3
space (check page17)

1
(3) ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 = is defined everywhere on 𝐑2 except on the line 𝑥 = −𝑦. why line? why not
𝑥+𝑦
plane?
Domain: 𝑥, 𝑦 : 𝑥 ≠ −𝑦
because domain in
in xy plane.
 Graph of a Function of two variables
The graph of a function f of two variables is the set of all points (x, y, z) for
which z = f(x, y) and (x, y) is in the domain of f.
This graph can be interpreted geometrically as a surface in space. In the
figure, note that the graph of z = f(x, y) is a surface whose projection onto
the xy-plane is D, the domain of f.

To each point (x, y) in D there corresponds a point (x, y, z)

on the surface, and, conversely, to each point (x, y, z) on
the surface there corresponds a point (x, y) in D.

Ref.:
Adams, R.A. and Essex, C., Calculus – A Complete
Course, 9th Edition, Pearson, 2018.
 Ref.: Adams, R.A. and Essex, C., Calculus – A Complete
Examples Course, 9th Edition, Pearson, 2018.

𝑥 𝑦
(1) 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 3 1 − 2 − 4 , 𝑥 ∈ 0,2 , 𝑦 ∈ 0, 4 − 2𝑥
The graph of f is the plane: triangular surface with
vertices at (2, 0, 0), (0, 4, 0) and (0, 0, 3).

(2) 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 9 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦2
Domain: the disk 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 9 in the xy –plane.
Squaring the equation 𝑧 = 9 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2, we obtain 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 9, which
is a sphere of radius 3 centered at the origin.
The graph of 𝑔 is only the upper hemisphere where 𝑧 ≥ 0
 Ref.:
Examples Larson, R. and Edwards, B., Multivariable Calculus (Metric
Version – 11th Edition), CENGAGE Learning, 2016.

(3) ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 = 16 − 4𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2
The domain implied by the equation of h is the set of all points (x, y) such
that 16 − 4𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ≥ 0
Domain: the set of all points lying on or inside the ellipse

Range: all values z = h(x, y) such that 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 4

A point (x, y, z) is on the graph of h if and only if
 Ref.:
Level Curves Larson, R. and Edwards, B., Multivariable Calculus (Metric
Version – 11th Edition), CENGAGE Learning, 2016.

A second way to visualize a function of two variables is

to use a scalar field in which the scalar z = f(x, y) is
assigned to the point (x, y).

A scalar field can be characterized

by level curves (or contour lines)
along which the value of f(x, y)
is constant.

For instance, the weather map

in the figure shows level curves
of equal pressure called isobars.
Level Curves
Ref.:
Larson, R. and Edwards, B., Multivariable Calculus (Metric
Version – 11th Edition), CENGAGE Learning, 2016.

In weather maps for which the level

curves represent points of equal
temperature, the level curves are
called isotherms.

Another common use of level curves

is in representing electric potential fields.

In this type of map, the level curves are

called equipotential lines.
 Ref.:
Level Curves Larson, R. and Edwards, B., Multivariable Calculus (Metric
Version – 11th Edition), CENGAGE Learning, 2016.

Contour maps are commonly used to show regions on

Earth’s surface, with the level curves representing the
height above sea level. This type of map is called a
topographic map.
The mountain shown in Figure 1 is represented by the
topographic map in Figure 2.

Figure 1
Figure 2
 Ref.:
Larson, R. and Edwards, B., Multivariable Calculus (Metric
Version – 11th Edition), CENGAGE Learning, 2016.
Level Surfaces
The concept of a level curve can be extended by one dimension to
define a level surface.

If f is a function of three variables

and c is a constant, then the graph of
the equation f(x, y, z) = c is a
level surface of f, as shown in
the figure.
Definition (Level curves (Surfaces))
The level set with constant 𝑐 for a function 𝑓: 𝐑𝑛 → 𝐑 is the set
(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 )ȁ𝑓 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑐

When 𝑛 = 2: a level set is also called a level curve (e.g. 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑐)

When 𝑛 = 3: a level set is also called a level surface (e.g. 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑐)

𝑓: 𝐑2 → 𝐑, with 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

We try to substitute different values of 𝑐 , then we get

several level sets on the 2-dimensional plane.
These are circles at the origin with different radii (which
depends on the selected values of 𝑐 ). Notice that when
𝑐 = 0, we have a point circle.

Level set diagram of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

 Functions Graph Level Sets
𝑓(𝑥) Curve in 𝐑2 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐 is a point on 𝐑
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) Surface in 𝐑3 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑐 is a curve on 𝐑2
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 4-dimensional surface 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑐 is a surface in 𝐑3
𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) (n+1)-dimensional surface 𝑓 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛
= 𝑐 is a surface in 𝐑𝑛
Ref.: MATH 2010 Notes in CUHK
 Ref.:
More Examples Larson, R. and Edwards, B., Multivariable Calculus (Metric
Version – 11th Edition), CENGAGE Learning, 2016.

Describe the level surfaces of

Solution:
Each level surface has an equation of the form
Therefore, the level surfaces are ellipsoids (whose cross sections parallel to the yz-
plane are circles).
As c increases, the radii of the circular cross sections increase according to the
square root of c.
For example, the level surfaces corresponding to the
values c = 0, c = 4, and c = 16 are as follows.
 Ref.: Adams, R.A. and Essex, C.,
Level Curves of the graphs Calculus – A Complete Course, 9th
Edition, Pearson, 2018.
𝑥
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 3 1 − −
2
𝑦
4
and 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 9 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦2

The bunching of the circles as 𝐶 → 0+ indicates

the steepness of the hemispherical surface, i.e.
the graph of f.
Limits of Functions (Revision on Epsilon-Delta Definition
of 1 variable function) – Figures based on K.Y. LI
(Optional)
Let S be an interval (more generally a set), and let 𝑓: 𝑆 → 𝐑 be a function.
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 roughly means for any desired distance 𝜀 > 0, with 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 (𝑥 ≠ 𝑥0 ) sufficiently close to 𝑥0 , we can
𝑥→𝑥0
obtain 𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝐿 < 𝜀, i.e. the distance between 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝐿 is sufficiently small.

Definition (Limit)
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 if and only if ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 > 0 such that
𝑥→𝑥0

∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑥 ∈ (𝑥0 − 𝛿, 𝑥0 + 𝛿) and 𝑥 ≠ 𝑥0 implies 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < 𝜀 .

Equivalently, ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 > 0 such that

∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑆, 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝛿 implies 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < 𝜀 .

Note: Accumulation points
S = 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , 𝑠3 , … , 𝑠𝑛 is a sequence, 𝑥0 is a limit may or may NOT be in S
Definition (Accumulation point): 𝑥0 is an accumulation point Example, take 𝑆 =
1
of 𝑆 if and only if there exists 𝑠𝑛 ∈ 𝑆 (with 𝑠𝑛 ≠ 𝑥0 ) such that :𝑛 is a natural number
𝑛
lim 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑥0 .
𝑛→∞
Examples (Optional)
1
(1) Let 𝑓: 𝐑\ {0} → 𝐑 be defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = . Show, by epsilon-delta approach that
1 7𝑥
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = .
𝑥→2 14
1 1 1 𝑥−2 𝑥−2
(Scratch work) 𝑥 is close to 2, then 𝑓 𝑥 − = − = ≤ <𝜀
14 7𝑥 14 14𝑥 14
𝑥 − 2 < 14𝜀 and 𝑥 ≥ 1 are enough…

Proof: ∀𝜀 > 0, we let 𝛿 = min(1, 14𝜀), then ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐑\ 0 , if 𝑥 ≥ 1 (i.e. 𝛿 < 1)

𝑥−2 <1
0 < 𝑥 − 2 < 𝛿 implies ቊ , which further implies to
𝑥 − 2 < 14𝜀 1 2
𝑥 ∈ (1,3)
ቊ .
𝑥 − 2 < 14𝜀

1 𝑥−2 𝑥−2
Thus, 𝑓 𝑥 − = ≤ < 𝜀 (by scratch)
14 14𝑥 14
Examples (Optional)
𝑥 2
(2) Let 𝑓: [0, +∞) → 𝐑 be defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = + . Show, by epsilon-
1+2𝑥 2+ 𝑥
delta approach that lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 .
𝑥→1
𝑥 2 𝑥 1 2 2
(Scratch) 𝑓 𝑥 − 1 = + −1 = − + −
1+2𝑥 2+ 𝑥 1+2𝑥 3 2+ 𝑥 3
𝑥 1 2 2 𝑥−1 2−2 𝑥 𝑥−1 2 1−𝑥 𝜀 𝜀
≤ −3 + − = + ≤ + < +2 =𝜀
1+2𝑥 2+ 𝑥 3 3 1+2𝑥 3 2+ 𝑥 3 6 2

3𝜀 3𝜀
𝑥−1 < 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1−𝑥 <
2 2 2
9𝜀
Solution 𝑥−1 <
4
3𝜀 9𝜀 2
∀𝜀 > 0, let δ = min{ , } >0 , then
2 4
3𝜀
𝑥 ∈ [0, +∞) and 0 < 𝑥 − 1 < 𝛿 implies 𝑥 − 1 < and
2
9𝜀 2
𝑥−1 < , which further implies that 𝑓 𝑥 − 1 < 𝜀 .
4
(By the scratch above)
Generalization to Functions of two variables
Using the formula for the distance between two points (x, y) and (x0, y0)
in the plane, you can define the -neighborhood about (x0, y0) to be the
disk centered at (x0, y0) with radius  > 0.

Ref.:
Larson, R. and Edwards, B., Multivariable Calculus (Metric
Version – 11th Edition), CENGAGE Learning, 2016.

Let the region R be a set of points

in the plane. A point (x0, y0) in R is
an interior point of R if there exists
a -neighborhood about (x0, y0) that
lies entirely in R
General Case
 Examples
(1) Show that lim 1 + 2𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 = 1
(𝑥,𝑦)→(1,0)

Solution:
𝜀 2
Given 𝜀, we can pick 𝛿 = min 1, , so from 𝑥 − 1 + 𝑦 2 < 𝛿 2 , we have 𝑦 < 𝛿 and
4
𝑥 − 1 < 𝛿, then
𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 − 1 + 3 ≤ 𝑥 − 1 + 3 < 𝛿 + 3 ≤ 4 (for 𝛿 ≤ 1)

Then, 1 + 2𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 − 1 = 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 < 4𝛿 ≤ 𝜀.

Hence, lim 1 + 2𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 = 1 .
(𝑥,𝑦)→(1,0)
 2020𝑥 2 𝑦
(2) Find the limit: lim
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥 2 +𝑦2 Ref. of Figure:
Adams, R.A. and Essex, C., Calculus – A
In this case, the limits of the numerator and Complete Course, 9th Edition, Pearson,
denominator are both 0, so we cannot determine
whether limit exists by simply taking limits of the 2018.
numerator and the denominator separately, followed
by dividing the respective values.
𝑥 2𝑦
Note that 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 and ≤1.
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

Then, in a 𝛿-neighborhood about (0, 0), we have 0 <

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 𝛿, and it follows that for 𝑥, 𝑦 ≠ 0, 0 ,
2020𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑥2
− 0 = 2020 𝑦 ≤ 2020 𝑦
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
≤ 2020 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 2020𝛿

𝜀
Therefore, we can choose 𝛿 = and conclude that
2 2020
2020𝑥 𝑦
− 0 < ε, thus
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
2020𝑥 2 𝑦
lim =0
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
Rules: If lim 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝐿 , lim 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑀 , and every neighborhood
(𝑥,𝑦)→(𝑎,𝑏) (𝑥,𝑦)→(𝑎,𝑏)
of (𝑎, 𝑏) contains points in 𝐷𝑜𝑚 𝑓 ‫ )𝑔(𝑚𝑜𝐷 ځ‬other than (𝑎, 𝑏), then we have the
following rules.
Ref.:
Adams, R.A. and Essex, C., Calculus – A Complete
Course, 9th Edition, Pearson, 2018.

Example 2
The limit of f(x, y) = 5x2y/(x2 + y2) as (x, y) → (1, 2) can be
evaluated by direct substitution, i.e. compute limits of
numerator and denominator respectively.

Example 1 That is, the limit is f(1, 2) = 2.

 2𝑥𝑦
Example 3: Investigate the limiting behavior of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2 2 as (x,y) approaches the
𝑥 +𝑦
origin.
• Note that 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is well-defined at all points on the 𝑥𝑦-plane except at origin.
• Path 1: Let (𝑥, 𝑦) → (0, 0) along the 𝒙-axis, then 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥, 0 = 0, thus
lim 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) must be 0 if it exists.
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0)
• Path 2: Let (𝑥, 𝑦) → (0, 0) along the 𝒚-axis, then 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓 0, 𝑦 = 0,
2𝑘𝑥 2 2𝑘
• Path 3: Let (𝑥, 𝑦) → (0, 0) along the line 𝒚 = 𝒌𝒙, then 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = = , which
1+𝑘 2 𝑥 2
1+𝑘 2
depends on the value of k. For different values of k (i.e. different paths), the limit will be
3
different. In particular, for 𝑘 = 1, 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 1; for 𝑘 = 3, 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = .
5
• Therefore, lim 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) does NOT exist.
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0)

• The first octant part of the graph is the “hood-shaped” surface.

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) has different limits as (x,y) tends to (0, 0) along different

straight lines.
Ref.: Adams, R.A. and Essex, C., Calculus – A Complete
Course, 9th Edition, Pearson, 2018.
Continuity of Multivariable Functions
• A function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is continuous at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) if the following two conditions hold:
(1) 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ∈ 𝐷𝑜𝑚 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
(2) ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 > 0 such that whenever 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓), with
𝑥 − 𝑥0 2 + 𝑦 − 𝑦0 2 < 𝛿, then we have 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) < 𝜀.

Ref.:
Larson, R. and Edwards, B., Multivariable
Calculus (Metric Version – 11th Edition),
CENGAGE Learning, 2016.
 Ref.:
Larson, R. and Edwards, B., Multivariable Calculus (Metric
Version – 11th Edition), CENGAGE Learning, 2016.
In the above theorem, note that h is a function of two variables and g is a
function of one variable.
 Example:
sin 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = itself is NOT
𝑥
continuous, however
𝑔 𝑥
sin 𝑥
=ቐ 𝑥 , 𝑥≠0
1, 𝑥=0
is continuous.

Ref.:
Adams, R.A. and Essex, C., Calculus – A Complete
Course, 9th Edition, Pearson, 2018.
Example:

Ref.:
Adams, R.A. and Essex, C., Calculus – A Complete
Solution: Course, 9th Edition, Pearson, 2018.