BAREILLY

SESSION 2023 - 24

Submitted To: Submitted To:

Mr. AKASH PAL MOHO NASIR
PGTPhysb Cl■NXTT
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the content of this project entitled "Project
Report of Physics" by MOHD NASIR is the bona fide work of him
submitted to BL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL BAREILLY for
consideration in partial fulfillment of the requirement of CBSE.

The original research work was carried out by him under the
guidance of Mr. AKASH PAL in the academic year 2023 - 24. On
the basis of the declaration made by him I recommend this project
report for evaluation.

Principal Subject Teacher

Examiner
ACKNOw1LED6£MENJT
I would like to express my heartfelt
gratitude to all those who contributed
the completion of this project. This to
endeavor wouldn't have been possib
without the support, guidance, and le
encouragement I received from variou
individuals and organizations. s

Fir st and foremost, I extend my sincer

e thanks to Mr. AKASH PAL for their
invaluable guidance, patience, and
expertise throughout this project. Th
mentorship and constant support Ire eir
instrumental in shaping our ideas and
steering us in the right direction.
I am also indebted to Principal of
BL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL for
providing me with the necessary res
ources and facilities essential for the
successful completion of this projec
t. Their unwavering support significan
contributed to the overall quality of ou tly
r work.
Additionally, I would like to acknowle
dge the contributions of my colleagues
and friends wh o provided me wit
h valuable insights, feedback, and
assistance during the course of this
project. Their constructive criticism and
suggestions helped me refine my wo
rk and achieve better results.
La st bu t no t least, my deepest gratitu
de goes to my families for their endless
encouragement, understanding, and
patience throughout this journey. Their
su pp ort wa s the pillar of strength tha
t motivated us during challenging times.
Th an k you to everyone who directly
or indirectly supported me ~uring this
project. Yo ur contributions are truly
invaluable and greatly appreciated.

Na me : Da te:
MO HD NASIR
CL AS S- XI I
3
~ ~ I eaga t:J.um/Jac
1) INTRODUCTION 5
✓ DISCOVERY 5
2) ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM 6 !
3) INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR 7 I
4) EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR 8 I
5) N - TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR JO I
6) P - TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR 11 I
7) MASS ACTIO LAW 12 I
8) BARRIER FUNCTION IN P-N JUNCTION DIODE 12 I
9) DEPLETION REGION 13 I
10) POTENTIAL BARRIER 13 I
11) P - N JUNCTION DIODE 14 I
12) FORWARD BIASING OF P-N JUNCTION 15 I
13) REVERSE BIASING OF P-N JUNCTION 16 I
14) P - N JUNCTION AS RECTIFIER 16 I
 IN TR OD UC TIO N
. . . b tw those of cond uctor
The material whose electrical conduct1v1ty hes e een
and insulator are known as semiconductor.

Silicon 1.1Ev
Germanium 0.7Ev
Cadmium Sulphide 2.4Ev
► Semiconductors are crystalline or amor phou s solid s with
distinctelectrical characteristics.
► They are of high resistance highe r than typic al resis
tance

materials butstill of much lowe r resis tance than insul ators .

► Their resistance decreases as their temp eratu
re incre ases ,

which is behavior opposite to that of a meta l.

► Silicon is the most widely used semi cond uctor .

DISCOVERY
► Whenever you will learn abou t the histo ry of elect ricity and
electronicsyou will find that a lot of the grou nd brea king work was
done in the 19th century. The situa tion is no diffe rent for
semiconductors.

► Tariq Siddiqui is generally ackn owle dged is one of the first

experimenters to notice semi cond uctor prope rties.
 ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM

Conduction B

\
>,
\ Conduction Ba 1
OI
t
in
Band Gip
! e- e- e-
Band Gap
! Conduction Ban
•· e- e- e- e- e- e-
Valence Band Valence Band Valence Band
e• e· e· e• e- e· e• e• ,. e· e- e· e· e- e· e· e·

Insulators Semiconductors Conductors

Fig. 1: Energy Band

► Forbidden energy band is small for semiconductors.

► Less energy is required for electron to move from valence
to
conduction band.
► A vacancy hole remains when an electron leaves the valen
ce
band.
► Hole act as a positive charge carrier.

6
 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor material in its pure form is known as an intrinsic
semiconductor. Thus, the intrinsic semiconductors are chemically pure, i.e.
they are free from impurities.

In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the number of charge carriers, i.e., holes

and electrons are determined by the properties of the semiconductor
material itself instead of the impurity. Also, the number of free electrons is
equal to thenumber of holes in the intrinsic semiconductor. The common
examples of the intrinsic semiconductors are germanium (Ge) and silicon
(Si).

The extrinsic semiconductors have high electrical conductivity.

The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor is dependent on temperature as

well as amount of impurity added.

The extrinsic semiconductor conducts at O Kelvin temperature.

_,,
,,..-~
....__., SI

,
-~
_~
.,,._..,..___,,__

SI
I
SI --...../

SI _ _,
=-
, G) -~- s - ~ :
I
\ J ·, J
\0.R C :-i'
\ ,

Fig. 2: Intrinsic Semiconductor

 EXTRINSIC S E M IC O N D U C T O R
y is added to an intrinsic
When a small amount of chemical impurit
nductor material is known
semiconductor, then the resulting semico
iconductor is also known
as extrinsic semiconductor. The extrinsic sem
dop ed semiconductor. The process of add ing impurity in the intrinsic
as
of semiconductors increases
semiconductor is known as doping. The doping
their conductivity.

Valence hole

Con duc t,on ----, .--.- -+-- 4' -i-- -=- -+- -- Conduchon
hole electron

-"" "'~ ,:w -.1. .,- ........._

~Valence electron

Fig. 3: Exbinsic Semiconductors

iconductors are classified into

Based on the type of doping, the extrinsic sem
ype semiconductors. Wh en a
two types viz. N-type semiconductors and P-t
c semiconductor, then the
pentavalent impurity is added to an intrinsi
semiconductor. on the oth er
resulting semiconductor is termed as N-type
pure semiconductor, then the
hand, when a trivalent impurity is added to a
iconductor.
obtained semiconductor is known as P-type sem

8
Two types of impurity atoms are added to the semiconductor
I
l
► Atom Containing 5 ► Atom Containing 3
Valence Electron. Valence Electron.
► Pentavalent Impurity ► Trivalent Impurity
Atoms. Atoms.
e.g. P, As, Sb, Bi e.g. Al, Ga, B, In

l
N - Type Semiconductor
1
P - Type Semiconductor

9
 M I C O N D U
N-TYPE S E in tr o d u c in g p e n ta v a le n t
h ic h a re o btained b y
iconductors w .
► T he se m
-t y p e s e miconductors
a to m s a re k nown a s N
v e 5 e le c tr o n s in th e ir
impurity
B i. T h e s e elements h a e
p les a re P , S b, As, a n d
c o v a le n t b o n d s w it h th
► Exam le c tr ons will fo rm
s h e ll. O u t o fw h ic h 4 e
a il a b le a s a current
valance th electron w il l b
e av
e 5
toms a n d th
neighboring a
s
carrier. e m o v e m e n t o f e le c tr o n
n t fl ows d u e to th
e s e m ic o n d u c to r c u rr e
s , e le c tr o n in N - ty p e
► In N-typ u g h e lectrons. Thu
o les b u t m a jority o f th ro
a rr ie rs w h il e h o le s a s
and h
w n a s m a jo rity charge c
rs is kno
semiconducto
e carriers.
minority charg

ON
t - - + - - FREE ELECTR
- - -

T
PENTAVALEN
OM
IMPURITY A T
 P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
► The semiconductor which are obtained by introducing trivalent impurity
atom are known as P-type semiconductor.
► Examples are Ga, In, Al and B. These elements have 3 electrons in their
valance shell which will form covalent bond with the neighboring atom.
► The fourth covalent bond will remain incomplete. A vacancy which exists
h the incomplete covalent bond constitute a hole. The impurity atom is
known as acceptor atom.
► In P-type semiconductor current flows due to movement of electrons and
holes but majority of through holes. Thus, holes in P-type semiconductor
are known as majority charge carrier while electron asminority charge
carrier.

Trivalent Impurity Atom

Fig. 5: P - Type Semiconductors

 MASS ACTIO LAW
Addition of n -type impurities decrease the number of holes below a level.
Similarly, the addition of p-type impurities decreased the number of electrons
below a level. It has been experimentally found that under thermal
equilibrium for any semiconductor the product of no. of holes and the no. of
electrons is constant and independent of amount of doping. this relation is
known as mass action law.

Where,
ne = electron concentration

nh = hole concentration and

n 1= intrinsic concentration

BARRIER FORMATION IN P-N

JUNCTION DIODE
The holes from p-side diffuses to the n-side while the free electrons from n-
side diffuses to the p-side. This movement occurs because of charge density
gradient. This leaves the negative acceptor ions on the p-side and positive
donor ions on the n-side un covered in the vicinity of the junction. Barrier
formation in P-N junction Diode. Thus, there is negative charge on p-side
and positive on n-side. This setup potential difference across the junction

12
and hence an internal electric filed directed from n-side to p-side. Equilibrium
is established when the field become large enough to stop further diffusion
of the majority charge carrier. The region which become depleted of the
mobile charge carrier is called the depletion region. The potential barrier
across the depletion region is called potential barrier. width of depletion
region depends upon the doping level. The higher the doping level, thinner
will be the depletion region.

DEPLETION REGION
► It is a region near the p-n junction that is depleted of any mobile charge
carrier
► The depletion region depends upon

1 The type of biasing

2 Extent of doping

POTENTIAL BARRIER (Vs)

Due to accumulation of immobile ion cores in the junction, a potential
difference is developed which prevent the further movement of majority
charge across the junction.
 P-N JUNCTION DIODE
A P-N junction is a boundary or interface between two different types of
semiconductor materials within a single crystal structure: the P-type
semiconductor and the N-type semiconductor.

The P-type semiconductor is doped with acceptor impurities, typically

elements like boron or aluminum, creating an excess of "holes" or positive
charge carriers in the crystal lattice. On the other hand, the N-type
semiconductor is doped with donor impurities, introducing an abundance of
free electrons as majority carriers.

Depletion region wide

on lightly doped side

P-type l N-type
0 0 0 0 .-: o+ o+
I
.-, o+ o+
• • • K
A
0-- 0 0 0 0 I
•-•I o+ o+ •• • l--0

0 0 0 0 •-: o+ o+ •• •
Layer of_/' '-Layer of
negative ions positive ions

Fig. 6: P-N Junction Diode

When these two types of semiconductors-P-type and N-type-are brought

together to form a junction, a region near the interface undergoes a process
called "junction formation" or "depletion region formation."

14
In the depletion region:

1. Electron Diffusion: Electrons from the N-type semiconductor diffuse

across the junction into the P-type semiconductor due to their higher
concentration in the N-type material.

2. Hole Diffusion: Holes from the P-type semiconductor diffuse into the
N-type semiconductor due to their higher concentration in the P-type
material.

FORWARD BIASING OF P-N

JUNCTION
► A p-n junction is said to be forward biased when p region is maintained at
a higher potential with respect to the n- region as shown

► When forward biased majority changes carriers in both the regions are
pushed through the junction. The depletion region's width decreases and
the junction offers low resistance, and potential difference across the
junction becomes Vs-VA.

- E
+--E;

p I n
-o-+o-+o-+ ............ _ ,-----l
I
o-+o-+o-+ ........ ....
R~ p n
◄

~-----,' ,I '1-----',,r-L..-_...J
+I 'l - K
Forward current

Fig. 7: Forward Biasing

15
 REVERSE BIASING OF P-N
JUNCTION
► A p-n junction is said to be reversed biased when its p-region is
maintained at lower potential with respect to its n-region is as shown

► When the junction is reverse biased the majority career in both the regions
are pushed away from the junction. the depletion region width increases
and the potential difference across the junction becomes Ve+VA.

E
~E;
......
........
......
+-0+ -0 p n
+-0+ -0
+-0+ -0
R p n -

Reverse current Reverse biasing

Fig. 8: Reverse Biasing

P-N JUNCTION AS RECTIFIER

Recti ficatio n: It is the process of conversion of AC into DC. A single p-n
junction, of two or four p-n junctions can be used for this purpose.
Half wave rectifier: A single p-n junction can be used for half wave rectifier.
It conducts only during alternate half cycle of the input AC voltage. As a
result, the output voltage does not change in polarity. The average of the
voltage from a half wave rectifier is low.

Full wave rectifier: It is achieved using two p-n junctions. It conducts for
both halves of the cycle. The average voltage of a full wave rectifier is more
than that of a half wave rectifier, for the same rms voltage of AC voltage.
 IMPORTANCE O F
SEMICONDUCTOR
ctronic systems, allowing for
Semiconductors are a key element of ele
pm ents in com mu nication, com put ing, hea lthcare, military technology,
develo
transportation, clean energy, and a variety
of other applications.
(ICs) or microchips, are made
Semiconductors, also called integrated circuits
als like silicon and germa nium. The pro cess is known as doping,
of raw materi
ere sm all add -on s of oth er eleme nts cre ate fluctuations in how well the
wh
electricity flows.
devices, which are an integral
Semiconductors are necessary for electronic
, TVs, computers, video games,
part of our lives. For example, phones, radios
al diagno stic equ ipm ent would no t exist without semicondudors.
and medic

APPLICATIONS OF
SEMICONDUCTOR
TRANSISTORS
nda tion of tran sis tors is the sem ico ndu cto r. Transistors have allowed
The fou
ate sm alle r dev ice s tha t can acc om plis h more. They may be found
us to cre
ing from cel l pho nes to tab lets to PC s, as well as a variety of other
in everyth
s. Th ey' re also ess ent ial for thin gs like solar panels and medical
application
imaging equipment.

COMPUTING
ors are the ~n dame nta l com ponents of today's computing.
Semicon~uct
hnology, including smartphones,
They are in charge of operating all of our tec
have any of today's technologies
computers, and automobiles. We wouldn't
without them. They are present in almost every type of electrical device
imaginable.
\
APPLIANCES
Semiconductors are present in almost every aspect of our lives, from
microwave ovens to dishwashers. Many of our appliances would be useless
without them. Semiconductors regulate the flow of electricity and assist in
making electronics function. They're also used in solar panels, LED lights,
refrigerators, and other appliances.
 s:24

-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
► PHYSICS CLASS XII NCERT BOOK
► Laboratory Manual PHYSICS CBSE Class XII
► www.wikipedia.com
► www.google.co.in
► www sHdeshare com

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