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Applied Numerical Methods
with MATLAB® for Engineers and Scientists
Fourth Edition

Steven C. Chapra
Berger Chair in Computing and Engineering
Tufts University
APPLIED NUMERICAL METHODS WITH MATLAB® FOR ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS,
FOURTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2012, 2008, and
2005. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chapra, Steven C., author.
Applied numerical methods with MATLAB for engineers and scientists /
Steven C. Chapra, Berger Chair in Computing and Engineering, Tufts University.
Fourth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2018] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
LCCN 2016038044 | ISBN 9780073397962 (alk. paper) | ISBN 0073397962 (alk. paper)
LCSH: Numerical analysis—Data processing—Textbooks. | Engineering
mathematics—Textbooks. | MATLAB—Textbooks.
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To
My brothers,
John and Bob Chapra

and

Fred Berger (1947–2015)

who I miss as a good friend, a good man.
and a comrade in bringing the light of engineering
to some of world’s darker corners.
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Steve Chapra teaches in the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department at Tufts
University, where he holds the Louis Berger Chair in Computing and Engineering. His other
books include Numerical Methods for Engineers and Surface Water-Quality Modeling.
Steve received engineering degrees from Manhattan College and the University of
Michigan. Before joining the faculty at Tufts, he worked for the Environmental Protection
Agency and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and taught at Texas
A&M University and the University of Colorado. His general research interests focus on
surface water-quality modeling and advanced computer applications in environmental
engineering.
He has received a number of awards for his scholarly contributions, including the
Rudolph Hering Medal, the Meriam/Wiley Distinguished Author Award, and the Chandler-
Misener Award. He has also been recognized as the outstanding teacher at Texas A&M
University (1986 Tenneco Award), the University of Colorado (1992 Hutchinson Award),
and Tufts University (2011 Professor of the Year Award).
Steve was originally drawn to environmental engineering and science because of his
love of the outdoors. He is an avid fly fisherman and hiker. An unapologetic nerd, his love
affair with computing began when he was first introduced to Fortran programming as an
undergraduate in 1966. Today, he feels truly blessed to be able to meld his love of math-
ematics, science, and computing with his passion for the natural environment. In addition,
he gets the bonus of sharing it with others through his teaching and writing!
Beyond his professional interests, he enjoys art, music (especially classical music,
jazz, and bluegrass), and reading history. Despite unfounded rumors to the contrary, he
never has, and never will, voluntarily bungee jump or sky dive.
If you would like to contact Steve, or learn more about him, visit his home page at
http://engineering.tufts.edu/cee/people/chapra/ or e-mail him at [email protected].

iv
 CONTENTS

About the Author iv

Preface xiv

Part One Modeling, Computers, and Error Analysis 1

1.1 Motivation 1
1.2 Part Organization 2

CHAPTER 1
Mathematical Modeling, Numerical Methods,
and Problem Solving 4
1.1 A Simple Mathematical Model 5
1.2 Conservation Laws in Engineering and Science 12
1.3 Numerical Methods Covered in This Book 13
1.4 Case Study: It’s a Real Drag 17
Problems 20

CHAPTER 2
MATLAB Fundamentals 27
2.1 The MATLAB Environment 28
2.2 Assignment 29
2.3 Mathematical Operations 36
2.4 Use of Built-In Functions 39
2.5 Graphics 42
2.6 Other Resources 46
2.7 Case Study: Exploratory Data Analysis 46
Problems 49

CHAPTER 3
Programming with MATLAB 53
3.1 M-Files 54
3.2 Input-Output 61
v
vi CONTENTS

3.3 Structured Programming 65

3.4 Nesting and Indentation 79
3.5 Passing Functions to M-Files 81
3.6 Case Study: Bungee Jumper Velocity 87
Problems 91

CHAPTER 4
Roundoff and Truncation Errors 99
4.1 Errors 100
4.2 Roundoff Errors 106
4.3 Truncation Errors 114
4.4 Total Numerical Error 125
4.5 Blunders, Model Errors, and Data Uncertainty 130
Problems 131

Part Two Roots and Optimization 135

2.1 Overview 135
2.2 Part Organization 136

CHAPTER 5
Roots: Bracketing Methods 138
5.1 Roots in Engineering and Science 139
5.2 Graphical Methods 140
5.3 Bracketing Methods and Initial Guesses 141
5.4 Bisection 146
5.5 False Position 152
5.6 Case Study: Greenhouse Gases and Rainwater 156
Problems 159

CHAPTER 6
Roots: Open Methods 164
6.1 Simple Fixed-Point Iteration 165
6.2 Newton-Raphson 169
6.3 Secant Methods 174
6.4 Brent’s Method 176
6.5 MATLAB Function: fzero 181
6.6 Polynomials 183
6.7 Case Study: Pipe Friction 186
Problems 191
 CONTENTS vii

CHAPTER 7
Optimization 198
7.1 Introduction and Background 199
7.2 One-Dimensional Optimization 202
7.3 Multidimensional Optimization 211
7.4 Case Study: Equilibrium and Minimum Potential Energy 213
Problems 215

Part Three Linear Systems 223

3.1 Overview 223
3.2 Part Organization 225

CHAPTER 8
Linear Algebraic Equations and Matrices 227
8.1 Matrix Algebra Overview 229
8.2 Solving Linear Algebraic Equations with MATLAB 238
8.3 Case Study: Currents and Voltages in Circuits 240
Problems 244

CHAPTER 9
Gauss Elimination 248
9.1 Solving Small Numbers of Equations 249
9.2 Naive Gauss Elimination 254
9.3 Pivoting 261
9.4 Tridiagonal Systems 264
9.5 Case Study: Model of a Heated Rod 266
Problems 270

CHAPTER 10
LU Factorization 274
10.1 Overview of LU Factorization 275
10.2 Gauss Elimination as LU Factorization 276
10.3 Cholesky Factorization 283
10.4 MATLAB Left Division 286
Problems 287
viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 11
Matrix Inverse and Condition 288
11.1 The Matrix Inverse 288
11.2 Error Analysis and System Condition 292
11.3 Case Study: Indoor Air Pollution 297
Problems 300

CHAPTER 12
Iterative Methods 305
12.1 Linear Systems: Gauss-Seidel 305
12.2 Nonlinear Systems 312
12.3 Case Study: Chemical Reactions 320
Problems 323

CHAPTER 13
Eigenvalues 326
13.1 Mathematical Background 328
13.2 Physical Background 331
13.3 The Power Method 333
13.4 MATLAB Function: eig 336
13.5 Case Study: Eigenvalues and Earthquakes 337
Problems 340

Part Four Curve Fitting 343

4.1 Overview 343
4.2 Part Organization 345

CHAPTER 14
Linear Regression 346
14.1 Statistics Review 348
14.2 Random Numbers and Simulation 353
14.3 Linear Least-Squares Regression 358
14.4 Linearization of Nonlinear Relationships 366
14.5 Computer Applications 370
14.6 Case Study: Enzyme Kinetics 373
Problems 378
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 CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER 15
General Linear Least-Squares and Nonlinear Regression 385
15.1 Polynomial Regression 385
15.2 Multiple Linear Regression 389
15.3 General Linear Least Squares 391
15.4 QR Factorization and the Backslash Operator 394
15.5 Nonlinear Regression 395
15.6 Case Study: Fitting Experimental Data 397
Problems 399

CHAPTER 16
Fourier Analysis 404
16.1 Curve Fitting with Sinusoidal Functions 405
16.2 Continuous Fourier Series 411
16.3 Frequency and Time Domains 414
16.4 Fourier Integral and Transform 415
16.5 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 418
16.6 The Power Spectrum 423
16.7 Case Study: Sunspots 425
Problems 426

CHAPTER 17
Polynomial Interpolation 429
17.1 Introduction to Interpolation 430
17.2 Newton Interpolating Polynomial 433
17.3 Lagrange Interpolating Polynomial 441
17.4 Inverse Interpolation 444
17.5 Extrapolation and Oscillations 445
Problems 449

CHAPTER 18
Splines and Piecewise Interpolation 453
18.1 Introduction to Splines 453
18.2 Linear Splines 455
18.3 Quadratic Splines 459
18.4 Cubic Splines 462
18.5 Piecewise Interpolation in MATLAB 468
18.6 Multidimensional Interpolation 473
18.7 Case Study: Heat Transfer 476
Problems 480
x CONTENTS

Part Five Integration and Differentiation 485

5.1 Overview 485
5.2 Part Organization 486

CHAPTER 19
Numerical Integration Formulas 488
19.1 Introduction and Background 489
19.2 Newton-Cotes Formulas 492
19.3 The Trapezoidal Rule 494
19.4 Simpson’s Rules 501
19.5 Higher-Order Newton-Cotes Formulas 507
19.6 Integration with Unequal Segments 508
19.7 Open Methods 512
19.8 Multiple Integrals 512
19.9 Case Study: Computing Work with Numerical Integration 515
Problems 518

CHAPTER 20
Numerical Integration of Functions 524
20.1 Introduction 524
20.2 Romberg Integration 525
20.3 Gauss Quadrature 530
20.4 Adaptive Quadrature 537
20.5 Case Study: Root-Mean-Square Current 540
Problems 544

CHAPTER 21
Numerical Differentiation 548
21.1 Introduction and Background 549
21.2 High-Accuracy Differentiation Formulas 552
21.3 Richardson Extrapolation 555
21.4 Derivatives of Unequally Spaced Data 557
21.5 Derivatives and Integrals for Data with Errors 558
21.6 Partial Derivatives 559
21.7 Numerical Differentiation with MATLAB 560
21.8 Case Study: Visualizing Fields 565
Problems 567
 CONTENTS xi

Part six Ordinary Differential Equations 573

6.1 Overview 573
6.2 Part Organization 577

CHAPTER 22
Initial-Value Problems 579
22.1 Overview 581
22.2 Euler’s Method 581
22.3 Improvements of Euler’s Method 587
22.4 Runge-Kutta Methods 593
22.5 Systems of Equations 598
22.6 Case Study: Predator-Prey Models and Chaos 604
Problems 609

CHAPTER 23
Adaptive Methods and Stiff Systems 615
23.1 Adaptive Runge-Kutta Methods 615
23.2 Multistep Methods 624
23.3 Stiffness 628
23.4 MATLAB Application: Bungee Jumper with Cord 634
23.5 Case Study: Pliny’s Intermittent Fountain 635
Problems 640

CHAPTER 24
Boundary-Value Problems 646
24.1 Introduction and Background 647
24.2 The Shooting Method 651
24.3 Finite-Difference Methods 658
24.4 MATLAB Function: bvp4c 665
Problems 668

APPENDIX A: MATLAB BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS 674

APPENDIX B: MATLAB M-FILE FUNCTIONS 676
APPENDIX C: INTRODUCTION TO SIMULINK 677
BIBLIOGRAPHY 685
INDEX 687
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 PREFACE

This book is designed to support a one-semester course in numerical methods. It has been
written for students who want to learn and apply numerical methods in order to solve prob-
lems in engineering and science. As such, the methods are motivated by problems rather
than by mathematics. That said, sufficient theory is provided so that students come away
with insight into the techniques and their shortcomings.
MATLAB® provides a great environment for such a course. Although other en-
vironments (e.g., Excel/VBA, Mathcad) or languages (e.g., Fortran 90, C++) could
have been chosen, MATLAB presently offers a nice combination of handy program-
ming features with powerful built-in numerical capabilities. On the one hand, its
M-file programming environment allows students to implement moderately compli-
cated algorithms in a structured and coherent fashion. On the other hand, its built-in,
numerical capabilities empower students to solve more difficult problems without try-
ing to “reinvent the wheel.”
The basic content, organization, and pedagogy of the third edition are essentially pre-
served in the fourth edition. In particular, the conversational writing style is intentionally
maintained in order to make the book easier to read. This book tries to speak directly to the
reader and is designed in part to be a tool for self-teaching.
That said, this edition differs from the past edition in three major ways: (1) new
material, (2) new and revised homework problems, and (3) an appendix introducing
Simulink.
1. New Content. I have included new and enhanced sections on a number of topics. The
primary additions include material on some MATLAB functions not included in previ-
ous editions (e.g., fsolve, integrate, bvp4c), some new applications of Monte Carlo
for problems such as integration and optimization, and MATLAB’s new way to pass
parameters to function functions.
2. New Homework Problems. Most of the end-of-chapter problems have been modified,
and a variety of new problems have been added. In particular, an effort has been made
to include several new problems for each chapter that are more challenging and dif-
ficult than the problems in the previous edition.
3. I have developed a short primer on Simulink which I have my students read prior to
covering that topic. Although I recognize that some professors may not choose to
cover Simulink, I included it as a teaching aid for those that do.
xiv
PREFACE xv

Aside from the new material and problems, the fourth edition is very similar to the
third. In particular, I have endeavored to maintain most of the features contributing to its
pedagogical effectiveness including extensive use of worked examples and engineering and
scientific applications. As with the previous edition, I have made a concerted effort to make
this book as “student-friendly” as possible. Thus, I’ve tried to keep my explanations straight-
forward and practical.
Although my primary intent is to empower students by providing them with a sound
introduction to numerical problem solving, I have the ancillary objective of making this
introduction exciting and pleasurable. I believe that motivated students who enjoy engi-
neering and science, problem solving, mathematics—and yes—programming, will ulti-
mately make better professionals. If my book fosters enthusiasm and appreciation for these
subjects, I will consider the effort a success.

Acknowledgments. Several members of the McGraw-Hill team have contributed to

this project. Special thanks are due to Jolynn Kilburg, Thomas Scaife, Ph.D., Chelsea
Haupt, Ph.D., and Jeni McAtee for their encouragement, support, and direction.
During the course of this project, the folks at The MathWorks, Inc., have truly dem-
onstrated their overall excellence as well as their strong commitment to engineering and
science education. In particular, Naomi Fernandes of The MathWorks, Inc., Book Program
has been especially helpful and Jared Wasserman of the MathWorks Technical Support
Department was of great help with technical questions.
The generosity of the Berger family has provided me with the opportunity to work on
creative projects such as this book dealing with computing and engineering. In addition,
my colleagues in the School of Engineering at Tufts, notably Masoud Sanayei, Babak
Moaveni, Luis Dorfmann, Rob White, Linda Abriola, and Laurie Baise, have been very
supportive and helpful.
Significant suggestions were also given by a number of colleagues. In particular, Dave
Clough (University of Colorado–Boulder), and Mike Gustafson (Duke University) pro-
vided valuable ideas and suggestions. In addition, a number of reviewers provided use-
ful feedback and advice including Karen Dow Ambtman (University of Alberta), Jalal
Behzadi (Shahid Chamran University), Eric Cochran (Iowa State University), Frederic
Gibou (University of California at Santa Barbara), Jane Grande-Allen (Rice University),
Raphael Haftka (University of Florida), Scott Hendricks (Virginia Tech University), Ming
Huang (University of San Diego), Oleg Igoshin (Rice University), David Jack (Baylor Uni-
versity), Se Won Lee (Sungkyunkwan University), Clare McCabe (Vanderbilt University),
Eckart Meiburg (University of California at Santa Barbara), Luis Ricardez (University of
Waterloo), James Rottman (University of California, San Diego), Bingjing Su (University
of Cincinnati), Chin-An Tan (Wayne State University), Joseph Tipton (The University
of Evansville), Marion W. Vance (Arizona State University), Jonathan Vande Geest
(University of Arizona), Leah J. Walker (Arkansas State University), Qiang Hu (University
of Alabama, Huntsville), Yukinobu Tanimoto (Tufts University), Henning T. Søgaard
(Aarhus University), and Jimmy Feng (University of British Columbia).
It should be stressed that although I received useful advice from the aforementioned
individuals, I am responsible for any inaccuracies or mistakes you may find in this book.
Please contact me via e-mail if you should detect any errors.
xvi PREFACE

Finally, I want to thank my family, and in particular my wife, Cynthia, for the love,
patience, and support they have provided through the time I’ve spent on this project.

Steven C. Chapra
Tufts University

Medford, Massachusetts
[email protected]

PEDAGOGICAL TOOLS

Theory Presented as It Informs Key Concepts. The text is intended for Numerical
Methods users, not developers. Therefore, theory is not included for “theory’s sake,” for ex-
ample no proofs. Theory is included as it informs key concepts such as the Taylor series, con-
vergence, condition, etc. Hence, the student is shown how the theory connects with practical
issues in problem solving.

Introductory MATLAB Material. The text includes two introductory chapters on how to
use MATLAB. Chapter 2 shows students how to perform computations and create graphs
in MATLAB’s standard command mode. Chapter 3 provides a primer on developing
numerical programs via MATLAB M-file functions. Thus, the text provides students with
the means to develop their own numerical algorithms as well as to tap into MATLAB’s
powerful built-in routines.

Algorithms Presented Using MATLAB M-files. Instead of using pseudocode, this book
presents algorithms as well-structured MATLAB M-files. Aside from being useful com-
puter programs, these provide students with models for their own M-files that they will
develop as homework exercises.

Worked Examples and Case Studies. Extensive worked examples are laid out in detail
so that students can clearly follow the steps in each numerical computation. The case stud-
ies consist of engineering and science applications which are more complex and richer than
the worked examples. They are placed at the ends of selected chapters with the intention
of (1) illustrating the nuances of the methods and (2) showing more realistically how the
methods along with MATLAB are applied for problem solving.

Problem Sets. The text includes a wide variety of problems. Many are drawn from en-
gineering and scientific disciplines. Others are used to illustrate numerical techniques and
theoretical concepts. Problems include those that can be solved with a pocket calculator as
well as others that require computer solution with MATLAB.

Useful Appendices and Indexes. Appendix A contains MATLAB commands, Appendix

B contains M-file functions, and new Appendix C contains a brief Simulink primer.

Instructor Resources. Solutions Manual, Lecture PowerPoints, Text images in Power-

Point, M-files and additional MATLAB resources are available through Connect®.
Part One
Modeling, Computers,
and Error Analysis

1.1 MOTIVATION

What are numerical methods and why should you study them?
Numerical methods are techniques by which mathematical problems are formulated
so that they can be solved with arithmetic and logical operations. Because digital comput-
ers excel at performing such operations, numerical methods are sometimes referred to as
computer mathematics.
In the pre–computer era, the time and drudgery of implementing such calculations
seriously limited their practical use. However, with the advent of fast, inexpensive digital
computers, the role of numerical methods in engineering and scientific problem solving
has exploded. Because they figure so prominently in much of our work, I believe that
numerical methods should be a part of every engineer’s and scientist’s basic education.
Just as we all must have solid foundations in the other areas of mathematics and science,
we should also have a fundamental understanding of numerical methods. In particular, we
should have a solid appreciation of both
their capabilities and their limitations.
Beyond contributing to your overall
education, there are several additional
reasons why you should study numerical
methods:
1. Numerical methods greatly expand the
types of problems you can address.
They are capable of handling large sys-
tems of equations, nonlinearities, and
complicated geometries that are not
uncommon in engineering and science
and that are often impossible to solve
analytically with standard calculus. As
such, they greatly enhance your prob-
lem-solving skills.
2. Numerical methods allow you to use
“canned” software with insight. During
1
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2 PART 1 MODELING, COMPUTERS, AND ERROR ANALySIS

your career, you will invariably have occasion to use commercially available prepack-
aged computer programs that involve numerical methods. The intelligent use of these
programs is greatly enhanced by an understanding of the basic theory underlying the
methods. In the absence of such understanding, you will be left to treat such packages
as “black boxes” with little critical insight into their inner workings or the validity of
the results they produce.
3. Many problems cannot be approached using canned programs. If you are conversant
with numerical methods, and are adept at computer programming, you can design
your own programs to solve problems without having to buy or commission expensive
software.
4. Numerical methods are an efficient vehicle for learning to use computers. Because nu-
merical methods are expressly designed for computer implementation, they are ideal for
illustrating the computer’s powers and limitations. When you successfully implement
numerical methods on a computer, and then apply them to solve otherwise intractable
problems, you will be provided with a dramatic demonstration of how computers can
serve your professional development. At the same time, you will also learn to acknowl-
edge and control the errors of approximation that are part and parcel of large-scale
numerical calculations.
5. Numerical methods provide a vehicle for you to reinforce your understanding of math-
ematics. Because one function of numerical methods is to reduce higher mathematics
to basic arithmetic operations, they get at the “nuts and bolts” of some otherwise
obscure topics. Enhanced understanding and insight can result from this alternative
perspective.
With these reasons as motivation, we can now set out to understand how numerical
methods and digital computers work in tandem to generate reliable solutions to mathemati-
cal problems. The remainder of this book is devoted to this task.

1.2 PART ORGANIZATION

This book is divided into six parts. The latter five parts focus on the major areas of nu-
merical methods. Although it might be tempting to jump right into this material, Part One
consists of four chapters dealing with essential background material.
Chapter 1 provides a concrete example of how a numerical method can be employed
to solve a real problem. To do this, we develop a mathematical model of a free-falling
bungee jumper. The model, which is based on Newton’s second law, results in an ordinary
differential equation. After first using calculus to develop a closed-form solution, we then
show how a comparable solution can be generated with a simple numerical method. We
end the chapter with an overview of the major areas of numerical methods that we cover in
Parts Two through Six.
Chapters 2 and 3 provide an introduction to the MATLAB® software environment.
Chapter 2 deals with the standard way of operating MATLAB by entering commands one
at a time in the so-called calculator, or command, mode. This interactive mode provides
a straightforward means to orient you to the environment and illustrates how it is used for
common operations such as performing calculations and creating plots.
1.2 PART ORGANIZATION 3

Chapter 3 shows how MATLAB’s programming mode provides a vehicle for assem-
bling individual commands into algorithms. Thus, our intent is to illustrate how MATLAB
serves as a convenient programming environment to develop your own software.
Chapter 4 deals with the important topic of error analysis, which must be understood
for the effective use of numerical methods. The first part of the chapter focuses on the
roundoff errors that result because digital computers cannot represent some quantities
exactly. The latter part addresses truncation errors that arise from using an approximation
in place of an exact mathematical procedure.
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Vocation
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Title: Vocation

Author: George O. Smith

Illustrator: A. Williams

Release date: June 5, 2022 [eBook #68247]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: Street & Smith Publications,

Incorporated, 1945

Credits: Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net.

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VOCATION ***

Vocation
 By GEORGE O. SMITH

Illustrated by Williams

[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from

Astounding Science-Fiction, April 1945.
Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that
the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
Gerd Lel Rayne stood in the arched doorway of the living room of his
home and smiled at the Terran. Andrew Tremaine smiled up at his
host with an almost microscopic feeling of annoyance. The Terran
was a large man, well proportioned, but the other was somewhat
larger and somewhat in better proportion. The annoyance was the
usual jealousy of the better man.
Tremaine knew that Gerd was a better man, and he stifled his feeling
of annoyance because hating Gerd was unjust. Besides, Tremaine
wanted a favor and one does not irritate a favor-giver.
Gerd Lel Rayne was of a breed that could know when a man disliked
him no matter how well it was concealed. Therefore—
Andrew smiled. "You've been well?"
"Positively dripping with good health," boomed Gerd in a resonant
voice. "And yourself?"
"Fair to middling."
"Good. I'm glad to hear it. Will you have refreshment?"
"A cigarette, perhaps."
Gerd opened an ornate box on the table and offered Andrew a
cigarette. Andrew puffed it into illumination and exhaled a cloud of
smoke. "Busy?" he asked.
"Yes," drawled Gerd. "I'm always busy, more or less. But being busy
or un-busy is my own desire. Being without something to do would
drive me crazy, I'm sure." Gerd laughed at the thought. "At the
present time I'm busy seeing you. Is this a business visit or a
personal visit?"
"Partly pleasure, partly business. There's something been bothering
me for some time."
"Glad to help—That's what I'm here for, you know."
"Now that I'm here," admitted Andrew with some abashment, "I have
a feeling that the same question has been asked and answered
before. But I want to hear, firsthand, why your race denies us the
secret of interstellar travel."
"Because you have not developed it yet," said Gerd. "Yes, we could
give it to you. You couldn't use it."
"You're looking down at us again."
"I'm honestly sorry that I give you that opinion. I have no desire to
look down at anything or anyone. Please believe me."
"But—"
"May I offer an hypothetical case?" asked Gerd, and then went on
because he knew the answer to his own question: "A hundred years
ago, the Terrans were living without directive power. You used solar
phoenix power. It brought you out of the mire of wire and machinery
under which Terra writhed. You were, you thought, quite advanced.
You were. But, Andy, could you have used directives? Supposing that
I had given you the secret of directive power? What would have
happened?"
"Um—Trouble, perhaps. But with supervision?"
"I can not give you supervision. I am but one. Consider, Andy. A
planet filled with inventive people, a large quantity of which are highly
trained technically. What would they say to a program which restricted
them to any single phase? We came, and all that we could do to
assist was to let your race know that directive power was available.
The problem of power is an interesting thing, Andy. The initial steps
into any realm of power are such that the discoverers are self-
protected by their own lack of knowledge, and their investigations
lead them into more and more knowledge; they gain the dangerous
after learning how to protect themselves against it. The directive
power could destroy not only Terra but the entire Solar System if
improperly applied."
"What you're saying is that we could not understand it," objected
Andrew.
"I admit it. Could a savage hurt himself if permitted to enter a
powerhouse—even one of the primitive electronic places? Obviously
he could. Even were he given the tools of the art, his survival might
be a matter of guesswork. Only study permits any of us to work with
power, Andy. When the Terrans are capable of handling the source of
interstellar power, it shall come to them—be discovered by them, if
you will. Meanwhile I can but watch and wait, and when I am
approached I can and will try to guide Terra. That, Andy, is my job."
"We'll hunt for it!"
"I know," said Gerd Lel Rayne with a smile. "Your fellows are hunting
now. I approve. But I may not point the way. Your race must only find
it when you are ready to handle it."

Gerd arose from his chair and flexed the muscles across his back.
The reason for his arising was not clear to Andrew immediately, but it
came less than three seconds later—It was Gaya Lel Rayne, Gerd's
mate. Andrew arose and greeted her with genuine pleasure.
Her smile was brilliant and genuine. "Business?" she asked.
"Yes," answered Gerd. "But do not leave, because the discussion is
interesting. Andy, the perfect example of the persistent newsman, is
holding forth on the interstellar power."
"They've discovered it?" asked Gaya in hopeful pleasure.
"No," answered Tremaine. "We'd like to, though."
"You will," said Gaya. "I know you will."
"We know we will, too," said Andrew. "Our irritation is not that we
shall be denied it, but that it takes us so long to find it when there is
one on Terra that knows it well."
"Please, Andy. I do most definitely not know it well. I am no
technician."
Gaya looked at her husband quickly. "He's excusing himself," she
said with a laugh.
"He's hoping that we'll believe that his knowledge is no better than
ours and that we'll be content. But, Gerd, I know that you know
enough to give us the answer."
"You know? How, may I ask?"
"It is inconceivable that you would not know."
"Perhaps I do," came the slow answer. "Perhaps I do." The tone of
the speech was low and self-reflective. "But again, perhaps I, too, am
in the dangerous position of not knowing enough. You Terrans have a
saying—'A little knowledge is dangerous.' It is true. Again we strike
the parallel. I give you stellar power and you, knowing nothing about
its intricacies, use it. Can you hope to know down which road lies
total destruction?"
"You are possibly right. We could learn."
"But not from me," said Gerd with finality. "That I cannot and will not
do. One can not supervise and control the inventiveness of a planet
such as yours. Your rugged individualists would be investigating in
their small laboratories with inadequate protection, and inevitably one
or more of them would strike the danger-spot."
"I'm answered," said Andrew reluctantly. "Answered negatively. I'm
forced into accepting your statements. They are quite logical—and
Gaya's willingness to be glad for us when she thought that we had
discovered it is evidence that you are not withholding it with malice.
But logic does not fill an empty spot, Gerd."
Gerd laughed. "If you had everything you want, your race would have
died out before it came out of the jungles."
Tremaine laughed. "I know," he admitted. "Also—and I'm talking
against my own race—there is the interesting observation that if
Heaven is the place where we have everything we want, why are
people always trying to live as long as they can?"
"Perhaps they're not certain of the hereafter."
"Whether they are firmly convinced yes or as firmly convinced no,
they still view death with disfavor. I'd say their dislike was about even.
All right, Gerd. I'll take your statements as you made them and with
reluctance I'll return to my work and ponder."
"Stay for dinner," urged Gaya. She gave him the benefit of a brilliant
smile, but Andrew shook his head.
"I've got to write an editorial," he said. "I've got to change one already
written. I was a bit harsh about you, and I feel it was unfair. Perhaps
you'll join us at dinner tomorrow?"
Gaya laughed. "You're speaking for Lenore, too?"
"Yes," nodded Andrew. "She'll be glad to see you."
"Then we'll be glad to come," said Gerd.

As he left, Gerd turned to his wife and said: "He'll bear watching."
"I caught your thought. He will. Shall I?"
"From time to time. Tremaine suspects. He is a brilliant man, Gaya,
and for his own peace of mind, he must never know the truth."
"If he suspects," said Gaya thoughtfully, "it may mean that he has too
little to do. There are many sciences—would it be possible to hint the
way into one. That might occupy his mind enough to exclude the
other question."
"In another man it might work. But Andrew Tremaine is not a physical
scientist. He is a mental scientist working in an applied line. To give
him the key to any science would mean just momentarily postponing
the pursuit of the original problem. Were he a physical scientist, his
mind would never have come upon the question in the first place. I'm
almost tempted to let loose the initial key to stellar power."
Gaya blanched. "They'd destroy everything. No, Gerd, not that. You'd
be defying the Ones."
"I know," nodded Gerd. "I have to continue for my own personal
satisfaction. Giving in is the easy way—and entirely foreign to our
policy. Terra must find their goal alone. You and I, Gaya, must never
interfere. We are emissaries only; evidences of good will and
friendship. Our position is made most difficult because of the general
impression, held by all Terrans, that an ambassador is a man who lies
to you, who knows that he is lying, and who further knows that you
know he is lying—and still goes ahead and lies, smiling cheerfully at
the same time."
"We've given good evidence of our friendship."
"Naturally. That's our main purpose in life. To befriend, to protect,
even to aid when possible. One day, Gaya, Terra will be one of us.
But guiding Terra and the Solar System into such a channel is most
difficult. Yet, who is to do it but you and I?"
"Shall we request advice? Perhaps the Ones will be interested to
know that Terrans are overly ambitious?"
"You mean they're too confounded curious? The Ones know that. The
Ones put us here because we can cope with Terra—I'll make mention
of it in the standard report—but coping with Terra is our problem,
presented to us, and given with the expectation that we shall handle it
well. To ask for any aid would be an admission of undisputed failure."
"I guess you're right."
Gerd smiled. "Honestly, there is no real danger. If we are capable of
protecting them, we should be equally capable of protecting
ourselves against them. And," said Gerd with an expansive gesture,
"the Ones rate us adequate. We can do no more than to prove their
trust. After all, our race has been wrong about a classification only
once in three galactic years."
"I might be worried," smiled Gaya. "Isn't it about time for them to
make another mistake?"
Gerd put his hands on her shoulders and shook her gently.
"Superstitious lady," he said, "that's against the Law of Probabilities."
"No," disagreed Gaya with a smile. "Right in accordance with it. When
the tossed coin comes up heads ten million times without a tail, it
indicates that there may be two heads on the coin, or that some
outside force is at work. I was fooling, Gerd."
"I know," he said with a laugh. "Now enough of our worries. What's on
the program this evening?"
"Dinner with Executive General Atkins and wife. Theater afterwards."
"I'd better dress, then," said Gerd. "Complete with all the trimmings.
Toni Atkins would be horrified at the idea of dining without the males
all girded and braced in full formal dress."
"Once dinner is over, you'll enjoy them."
"I always do," said Gerd. "They're both interesting people. Save for
her ideas of propriety."
Gaya pushed him in the direction of the dressing room. "I do, too,"
she called after him with malicious pleasure. "And remember, that I'm
just as they are—and not above them at all."
"I might be able to get the legislature to pass laws against women,"
returned Gerd thoughtfully.
"The result might be quite devastating," said Gaya.
The answer came back through the closing door. It was a cheerful
laugh, and: "Yes, wouldn't it?"

Andrew Tremaine jerked the paper from the electrotyper and pressed
two buzzers simultaneously. The answer to one came immediately:
"Yes?"
"Tell Jackson that the editorial page is complete and that he should
get the revised copy set up."
"Yes, Mr. Tremaine. It's on the way."
"Should be coming out of his typer now."
"I'll call him."
The door opened, and the answer to buzzer number two entered.
He was a tall, thin, pale-looking man with stooped shoulders and thick
glasses. He came in and seated himself before Andrew's desk and
waited in silence until the editor spoke.
"Gene, how many fields in psychology have you covered?"
The other shook his head. "Since I came to work for you, only one.
Applied psychology, or the art of finding out what people want to be
told and then telling them."
"That's soft-soapism."
"You name it," grinned the thin man. "You asked for it. Oh, we've
carried the burning torch often enough—that's the other psychology.
Finding out what people think is good for them and crying against it."
"Or both."
"Or both," smiled Gene.
"This is a crazy business, sometimes. I'm on another branch again,
Gene. How much of the human brain is used?"
"Less than ten percent."
"Right. What would happen if the whole brain were used?
"Andy, what kind of a card file would you need to do the following:
One: locate from a mention the complete account of a complex
experience; two: do it almost instantly, and three: compile the data in
five dimensions?"
"Five dim—? Are you kidding?"
"Not at all. Each of the five senses are essentially different and will
require separate cards to make the picture complete. A rose smell,
for instance, would be meaningless alone—you must classify it. The
same card would not fit for all rose-smelling memories since some
are strong, some are weak, some are mixed with other minor odors,
and so forth. Do you follow?"
"Yes, but aren't we getting off the track?"
"Not at all. If your mind can run through ten to the fiftieth power
experiences in five mediums and come up with the proper, correlated
accounts, all in a matter of seconds—think what the same mind might
be able to do if presented with a lesser problem."
"Why can't it do just that?"
"Because when you start to figure out a problem, something restricts
your brain power to less than ten percent of its capability."
"That means that ninety percent of the brain is nonfunctional."
"Right. It is. You can carve better than half of a man's brain out and
not impair a single memory, or action, or ability."
"And nature does not continue with a nonfunctional organ."
"Nature would most certainly weed out anything that was completely
useless. Evolution of a nonfunctional part does not happen."
"Appendix?"
"It had a use once. It is atrophying now. But the brain should be
increasing since we're using it more every year. Instead of being
forced into increase by demand, the brain is already too big for the
work. How did it get that way?"
"You'll never explain it by the law of supply and demand," said Gene.
"We might go over a few brains with analyzers."
"And if you get a nonconforming curve, then what?"
"Fifty years of eliminating the sand to get the single grain of gold."
"You mean process of elimination?"
"Didn't I say it?"
"You'd never recognize it," said Andrew. They both laughed.

"But what brought you to this conference?" asked Gene. "Knowing

you as I do, you aren't just spending the time of day."
"No, I'm not. Look, Gene, what do you know about Gerd Lel Rayne?"
"Just common knowledge."
"I know. But catalogue it for me. I am trying to think of something and
you may urge the thought into solidification."
"Sounds silly," said Gene. "But here it is—and quite incoherent." He
laughed. "What was I saying about the excellence of memory files?
Well, anyway, Gerd Lel Rayne is a member of a race that has and
employs interstellar travel. Terra has nothing, produces nothing,
manufactures nothing that this race requires. Neither, according to
Gerd, has this race anything that would interest Terrans. Save power
and the stellar drive."
"Stellar power," muttered Andrew.
"What was that? Stellar Power? Call it that if you wish. It may well be
called that for lack of a better name. At any rate, it is more than
obvious that Gerd Lel Rayne and his wife enjoy us. They are
emissaries—ambassadors of good will, if you want to call them that—
whose sole purpose is to give advice upon things that Terra does not
quite understand."
"Except stellar power."
"Reason enough for that," said Gene. "Terra is a sort of vicious race.
We were forced to fight for our very existence. We fought animals,
nature, plants, insects, reptiles, the earth itself. We've fought and won
against weather and wind and sun and rain. And when we ran out of
things to fight, we fought among ourselves because there were too
many differences of opinion as to how men should live. We, Andrew
Tremaine, are civilized—and yet the one thing we all enjoy is a bare-
handed fight to the finish between two members of our own race."
"That's not true."
"Yes it is. What sport has undergone little change for a thousand
years? It is no sport using equipment. The equipment-sports are
constantly changing with the development of new materials with
which to make the equipment. Take the ancient game of golf, for
instance. They used to make four strikes to cover a stinking four
hundred yard green. That's because control of materials was
insufficiently perfect to maintain precision. No two golf balls were
identical, and no two clubs were alike.
"But—and stop me if my rambling annoys you, although it is seldom
that I am permitted to ramble—the sport of ring-fighting is still similar
to its inception. Men stand in a ring and fight with their hands until
one is hors de combat for a period of ten seconds. They used gloves
at one time, I believe, but men are harder and stronger now—and
surgery repairs scars, mars, and abrasions. Also, my fine and literary
friend, the audience, gentle people, like to see the vanquished
battered, torn, and slightly damaged. Civilization! One step removed
from Ancient Roma, where they tossed malcontents into an arena to
see if he could avoid being eaten by a hungry carnivore!
"Well, the one thing that Terra would most probably do is to make use
of this drive and go out and fight with the Ones."
"Are they afraid?"
"I don't know. I'd hardly think so."
"Gene, you're wrong. They wouldn't even bother brushing us off."
"No?"
"No. We'd be polished off before we got to see them. There's
something else there and I don't know what it is."
"You don't follow the hatred angle?"
"You, my friend, have a warped personality. You have the usual
viewpoint of a man of minor stature. That lanky body of yours has
driven you into believing that your race is tough, vicious, and most
deadly to everything. Not because you really believe it, but you
yourself are not tough, deadly, or invincible but you want to belong to
a group that is."
"You think them benign?"
"I wonder—but am forced to believe the overwhelming pile of
evidence. In every way, Gerd and his wife have been willing to co-
operate. They've willingly submitted themselves to our mental testing
—and that is complete, believe me—and in every case they have
proven intelligent, enthusiastic, and capable. Oh, we make mistakes,
but not such complete blunders. I'll tell you one thing, Gene. I went
over there today to ask one question. I wanted to know just why they
refuse to give us the stellar power. Their answer was that we were
not ready for it—and in the face of it, I was forced to agree."
"Whitewash."
"Think so? Then tell me how you can tell."

"Gerd Lel Rayne is a supergenius, according to the card files.

Intelligence Quotient 260! That, my friend, is high enough to fool the
machine!"
"Nonsense."
"A machine, Andy, is a mechanical projection of a man's mind. It is
built to do that which can not be done by man himself. It is capable—
sometimes—of exceeding man's desire by a small amount, but is
seldom capable of coping with a situation for which it is not
engineered. Since no man on Terra has an I.Q. of higher than about
160, for a guess, the machine can not be engineered to analyze
mentalities of I.Q. 260 without fail."
"You do not believe the I.Q. 260 then?"
"Yes, I believe that machine. But the one that gives the curves of
intent can be fooled by such a man."
"Then what is his purpose?"
"Supposing this race intends to take over?"
"Then why don't they just move in and take?"
"Time. Say this race is overrunning the Galaxy. No matter how they
start, plans must be made, even if they originated on Centauri. Since
—and let's try to put ourselves in their place and consider. They have
not moved in. That means a waiting period of some kind. It also
means considerable distance from home base, because if we were
close to them, the program would have started already. Now, since
there is this waiting program, we can assume that they are not ready
yet. And not being ready means one of two things. They are finding
opposition on other planets of other systems. In this case it is not
Divide and Conquer, but keep divided in order to conquer!"
"I'm beginning to follow you."
"If we had the drive, and the power for it, their job might well be
impossible. I doubt that anything alive could make conquest of an
armed planet unless that planet was quite inferior in weapons. Given
the same weapons and power, and at best stalemate. For the very
energy-mass of a planet is unbelievably great, and the weapons that
may be permanently anchored in the granite of Terra would be able to
withstand anything up to and including another, equally armed planet
to stalemate or draw. And granting that Terrans are hard-boiled
people because we were brought up that way from infancy, we'd give
any race a mighty tough fight."
"Then what do you want me to do?"
"I want knowledge. I want something that will permit me to use that
ninety percent of my brain."
"How in the devil do you expect me to come up with something like
that?"
Andrew Tremaine smiled solemnly and said, flatly: "Gene, I'm almost
convinced that Gerd Lel Rayne and company are generating some
force-field that prevents it!"