These questions involve a range of SQL and PL/SQL concepts, including table creation, modification,

queries, constraints, PL/SQL programming, and ER modeling. Below are structured answers to the
questions:

1. EMPLOYEE Table Creation and Modifications

a. Add a new column HIREDATE:

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE ADD HIREDATE DATE;

b. Change datatype of JOB_ID from CHAR to VARCHAR2:

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE MODIFY JOB_ID VARCHAR2(20);

c. Rename the column Emp_no to E_no:

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE RENAME COLUMN Emp_no TO E_no;

d. Modify column width of the job field:

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE MODIFY JOB_ID VARCHAR2(30);

e. Differences between Nested and Correlated Nested Queries:

 Nested Query: Executed independently. Example:

 SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE Dept_no IN (SELECT Dept_no FROM DEPARTMENT

WHERE Dept_name='SALES');

 Correlated Nested Query: Dependent on the outer query. Example:

 SELECT E_name FROM EMPLOYEE e WHERE EXISTS (SELECT 1 FROM DEPARTMENT d WHERE
d.Dept_no = e.Dept_no AND d.Dept_name='SALES');

2. EMPLOYEE Table Queries

a. Insert 5 rows:

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (Emp_no, E_name, E_address, E_ph_no, Dept_no, Dept_name, Job_id,
Salary)

VALUES (1, 'John', 'NY', '1234567890', 10, 'HR', 'HR01', 50000);

-- Repeat for 5 records

b. Display all information:

SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE;

c. Update city for Emp_no = 12:

UPDATE EMPLOYEE SET E_address = 'Nagpur' WHERE Emp_no = 12;

d. List out SQL commands and their structure:

 DDL: CREATE, ALTER, DROP (for schema changes)

  DML: SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE (for data manipulation)

 TCL: COMMIT, ROLLBACK

 DCL: GRANT, REVOKE

3. EMPLOYEE Queries

a. Employees in MECH:

SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE Dept_name = 'MECH';

b. Delete email_id of James:

UPDATE EMPLOYEE SET E_ph_no = NULL WHERE E_name = 'James';

c. Records in SALES:

SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE Dept_name = 'SALES';

d. Differences:

 Primary Key: Unique, non-null.

 Unique Key: Unique, allows one null.

 Not Null: Ensures column always has a value.

4. EMPLOYEE Count and Age Queries

a. Count Employee Names:

SELECT COUNT(E_name) FROM EMPLOYEE;

b. Maximum age:

SELECT MAX(Salary) FROM EMPLOYEE;

c. Minimum age:

SELECT MIN(Salary) FROM EMPLOYEE;

d. Types of Notations in ER Diagrams:

 Entity: Rectangle

 Relationship: Diamond

 Attribute: Oval

 Key Attribute: Underlined

5. Grouped and Ordered Salaries

a. Grouped Salaries:
SELECT Dept_name, SUM(Salary) FROM EMPLOYEE GROUP BY Dept_name;

b. Salaries Ascending:

SELECT Salary FROM EMPLOYEE ORDER BY Salary ASC;

c. Salaries Descending:

SELECT Salary FROM EMPLOYEE ORDER BY Salary DESC;

6. EMPLOYEE Table Constraints and PL/SQL Concepts

a. Insert 3 records and check:

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (Emp_no, E_name, E_address, E_ph_no, Dept_no, Dept_name, Job_id,
Salary)

VALUES (101, 'Alice', 'Pune', '9876543210', 5, 'IT', 'DEV01', 70000),

(102, 'Bob', 'Delhi', '8765432109', 6, 'HR', 'HR01', 65000),

(103, 'Charlie', 'Mumbai', '7654321098', 7, 'SALES', 'SLS01', 55000);

b. Add primary key and not null constraints:

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE ADD CONSTRAINT PK_Emp PRIMARY KEY (Emp_no);

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE MODIFY E_name VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL;

c. Insert null values and verify:

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (Emp_no, E_name) VALUES (104, NULL); -- This will fail due to NOT NULL
constraint

d. Attribute Definitions:

 Derived Attribute: Value derived from other attributes (e.g., Age from DOB).

 Composite Attribute: Made of multiple components (e.g., Full Name = First Name + Last
Name).

 Strong Entity: Independent entity with its own key.

7. Sailor, Reserves, Boats Table Queries

a. Names of sailors who reserved both red and green boats (INTERSECT):

SELECT S_name FROM Sailors WHERE Boat_color = 'Red'

INTERSECT

SELECT S_name FROM Sailors WHERE Boat_color = 'Green';

b. Names of sailors who reserved red and green boats (UNION ALL):

SELECT S_name FROM Sailors WHERE Boat_color = 'Red'

UNION ALL
SELECT S_name FROM Sailors WHERE Boat_color = 'Green';

c. Names of sailors who reserved boat 103 (EXISTS):

SELECT S_name FROM Sailors s WHERE EXISTS

(SELECT 1 FROM Reserves r WHERE r.S_id = s.S_id AND r.Boat_id = 103);

d. Aggregate Functions:

 SUM(): Adds values

 AVG(): Averages values

 MAX()/MIN(): Finds max/min value

 COUNT(): Counts rows Example:

 SELECT MAX(Salary), COUNT(*) FROM EMPLOYEE;

8. Sailors Table Queries with Ratings

a. Average age of sailors with rating 10:

SELECT AVG(S_age) FROM Sailors WHERE Rating = 10;

b. Name and age of oldest sailor:

SELECT S_name, S_age FROM Sailors WHERE S_age = (SELECT MAX(S_age) FROM Sailors);

c. Youngest sailor per rating:

SELECT Rating, MIN(S_age) AS Youngest_Age FROM Sailors GROUP BY Rating;

d. Average age per rating with at least two sailors:

SELECT Rating, AVG(S_age)

FROM Sailors

GROUP BY Rating

HAVING COUNT(*) >= 2;

e. Normalization (1NF, 2NF):

 1NF: Remove multivalued attributes. Example:

 Name Courses

 Alice Math, Science --> Convert to

 Alice Math

 Alice Science

 2NF: Remove partial dependencies. Example: If a table's non-key attribute depends only on
part of a composite key, decompose it.
9. Customer and Order Table Joins

a. INNER JOIN:

SELECT c.Customer_name, o.Order_id

FROM Customer c INNER JOIN Orders o

ON c.Customer_id = o.Customer_id;

b. LEFT OUTER JOIN:

SELECT c.Customer_name, o.Order_id

FROM Customer c LEFT OUTER JOIN Orders o

ON c.Customer_id = o.Customer_id;

c. RIGHT OUTER JOIN:

SELECT c.Customer_name, o.Order_id

FROM Customer c RIGHT OUTER JOIN Orders o

ON c.Customer_id = o.Customer_id;

d. FULL OUTER JOIN:

SELECT c.Customer_name, o.Order_id

FROM Customer c FULL OUTER JOIN Orders o

ON c.Customer_id = o.Customer_id;

e. Triggers:

 Definition: Automatically invoked SQL blocks on specific events like INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.

 Example:

 CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER after_update_order

 AFTER UPDATE ON Orders

 FOR EACH ROW

 BEGIN

 INSERT INTO Order_audit (Order_id, Update_date) VALUES (:NEW.Order_id, SYSDATE);

 END;

10. Sailors and Nested Queries

a. Names of sailors who reserved red boat (Nested Query):

SELECT S_name FROM Sailors WHERE S_id IN

 (SELECT S_id FROM Reserves WHERE Boat_id IN

(SELECT Boat_id FROM Boats WHERE Color = 'Red'));

b. Reserved boat 103 (Correlated Nested Query):

SELECT S_name FROM Sailors s WHERE EXISTS

(SELECT 1 FROM Reserves r WHERE r.S_id = s.S_id AND r.Boat_id = 103);

c. Oldest sailor:

SELECT S_name, S_age FROM Sailors WHERE S_age = (SELECT MAX(S_age) FROM Sailors);

d. Difference: COUNT() vs COUNT(*):

 COUNT(Column): Counts non-null values.

 COUNT(*): Counts all rows.

e. Difference: DROP vs DELETE:

 DROP: Removes table schema and data.

 DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

 DELETE: Removes data but keeps schema.

 DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE Dept_name = 'HR';

11. Sailors Table Queries and Constraints

a. Sailors with a better rating than Horatio (ANY):

SELECT S_name FROM Sailors WHERE Rating >

(SELECT Rating FROM Sailors WHERE S_name = 'Horatio');

b. Sailors with the highest rating (ALL):

SELECT S_name FROM Sailors WHERE Rating >=

ALL (SELECT Rating FROM Sailors);

c. Sailors reserved red and green boats (UNION):

SELECT S_name FROM Sailors WHERE Boat_color = 'Red'

UNION

SELECT S_name FROM Sailors WHERE Boat_color = 'Green';

d. Delete, Truncate, Drop Commands:

 DELETE: Deletes specific rows:

 DELETE FROM Sailors WHERE S_name = 'John';

 TRUNCATE: Deletes all rows:

 TRUNCATE TABLE Sailors;

  DROP: Deletes table schema and data:

 DROP TABLE Sailors;

e. Primary Key vs Unique Key:

 Primary Key: Uniquely identifies each row. Only one allowed per table.

 Unique Key: Allows null values, multiple unique keys allowed.

12. Triggers in PL/SQL

a. Trigger to insert data:

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER trg_insert_employee

AFTER INSERT ON Employee

FOR EACH ROW

BEGIN

INSERT INTO Audit (Emp_no, Action_date, Action_type)

VALUES (:NEW.Emp_no, SYSDATE, 'INSERT');

END;

b. Trigger to update data:

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER trg_update_employee

AFTER UPDATE ON Employee

FOR EACH ROW

BEGIN

INSERT INTO Audit (Emp_no, Action_date, Action_type)

VALUES (:NEW.Emp_no, SYSDATE, 'UPDATE');

END;

c. Trigger to delete data:

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER trg_delete_employee

AFTER DELETE ON Employee

FOR EACH ROW

BEGIN

INSERT INTO Audit (Emp_no, Action_date, Action_type)

VALUES (:OLD.Emp_no, SYSDATE, 'DELETE');

END;
d. Attribute Definitions:

 Derived Attribute: Calculated attribute (e.g., Age derived from DOB).

 Composite Attribute: Multi-part attribute (e.g., Full Address = Street + City + State).

 Strong Entity: Independent entity with a unique key.

13. Procedures in PL/SQL

a. Procedure to view specific columns:

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE view_employee_columns

IS

BEGIN

SELECT Emp_no, E_name FROM Employee;

END;

b. Modify procedure:

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE modify_employee_salary (e_no IN NUMBER, new_salary IN

NUMBER)

IS

BEGIN

UPDATE Employee SET Salary = new_salary WHERE Emp_no = e_no;

END;

c. Primary Key vs Unique Key:

 Primary Key: No nulls, single unique identifier.

 Unique Key: Allows nulls, ensures data uniqueness.

d. ER Diagram Notations:

 Entity: Rectangle

 Attribute: Oval

 Relationship: Diamond

14. PL/SQL Programs

a. Cursor Example:

DECLARE

CURSOR emp_cursor IS SELECT Emp_no, E_name FROM Employee;

 emp_record emp_cursor%ROWTYPE;

BEGIN

OPEN emp_cursor;

LOOP

FETCH emp_cursor INTO emp_record;

EXIT WHEN emp_cursor%NOTFOUND;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(emp_record.Emp_no || ' ' || emp_record.E_name);

END LOOP;

CLOSE emp_cursor;

END;

b. Multiplication Program:

DECLARE

num NUMBER := 5;

result NUMBER := 1;

BEGIN

FOR i IN 1..10 LOOP

result := num * i;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(num || ' x ' || i || ' = ' || result);

END LOOP;

END;

15. Additional PL/SQL Programs

a. Modify Procedure to View Columns:

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE view_specific_columns (cols IN VARCHAR2)

IS

BEGIN

EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'SELECT ' || cols || ' FROM Employee';

END;

b. Factorial Program:

DECLARE

num NUMBER := 5;
 fact NUMBER := 1;

BEGIN

FOR i IN 1..num LOOP

fact := fact * i;

END LOOP;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Factorial of ' || num || ' is ' || fact);

END;

c. Trigger to Update:

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER trg_update_audit

AFTER UPDATE ON Employee

FOR EACH ROW

BEGIN

INSERT INTO Audit (Emp_no, Action_type, Action_date)

VALUES (:NEW.Emp_no, 'UPDATED', SYSDATE);

END;

16. ER Model Conversion

a. Converting ER to Relational:

 Professors: Professor(SSN, Name, Age, Rank, Specialty)

 Projects: Project(P_no, Sponsor, Start_date, End_date, Budget)

 Relationships:

o Manages(P_no, SSN)

o Works_on(P_no, SSN)

17. Converting ER Model to Relational Model

Representing Entities and Relationships:

1. Professors Table:

2. CREATE TABLE Professors (

3. SSN VARCHAR2(11) PRIMARY KEY,

4. Name VARCHAR2(50),

5. Age NUMBER(3),

6. Rank VARCHAR2(20),
 7. Specialty VARCHAR2(50)

8. );

9. Projects Table:

10. CREATE TABLE Projects (

11. P_no NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,

12. Sponsor VARCHAR2(50),

13. Start_date DATE,

14. End_date DATE,

15. Budget NUMBER(12, 2)

16. );

17. Relationships:

o Manages:

o CREATE TABLE Manages (

o P_no NUMBER,

o SSN VARCHAR2(11),

o PRIMARY KEY (P_no, SSN),

o FOREIGN KEY (P_no) REFERENCES Projects(P_no),

o FOREIGN KEY (SSN) REFERENCES Professors(SSN)

o );

o Works_On:

o CREATE TABLE Works_On (

o P_no NUMBER,

o SSN VARCHAR2(11),

o PRIMARY KEY (P_no, SSN),

o FOREIGN KEY (P_no) REFERENCES Projects(P_no),

o FOREIGN KEY (SSN) REFERENCES Professors(SSN)

o );

18. SQL Queries for Students, Faculty, and Courses

a. Drop a column in Students Table:

ALTER TABLE Students DROP COLUMN login;

b. Rename Students Table:

ALTER TABLE Students RENAME TO STUDENT;

c. Insert 3 Rows into Each Table:

INSERT INTO Students VALUES ('S001', 'Alice', '[email protected]', 20, 3.5);

INSERT INTO Students VALUES ('S002', 'Bob', '[email protected]', 22, 3.7);

INSERT INTO Students VALUES ('S003', 'Charlie', '[email protected]', 21, 3.6);

INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES ('F001', 'Dr. Smith', 70000);

INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES ('F002', 'Dr. Taylor', 75000);

INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES ('F003', 'Dr. Brown', 72000);

INSERT INTO Courses VALUES ('C001', 'Database Systems', 3);

INSERT INTO Courses VALUES ('C002', 'Operating Systems', 4);

INSERT INTO Courses VALUES ('C003', 'Networks', 3);

d. Delete, Truncate, Drop Commands:

 Delete:

 DELETE FROM Students WHERE Age > 21;

 Truncate:

 TRUNCATE TABLE Faculty;

 Drop:

 DROP TABLE Courses;

e. Difference Between Primary Key and Unique Key:

 Primary Key: Ensures data uniqueness; no NULLs.

 Unique Key: Allows NULL values.

19. Constraints Examples

Difference Between Primary Key, Unique Key, and Not Null:

 Primary Key: Combines Unique and Not Null:

 CREATE TABLE Example (

 ID NUMBER PRIMARY KEY

 );
  Unique Key: Ensures unique values:

 CREATE TABLE Example (

 Email VARCHAR2(50) UNIQUE

 );

 Not Null: Disallows null values:

 CREATE TABLE Example (

 Name VARCHAR2(50) NOT NULL

 );

20. Employee and Department Tables

Create Employee Table:

CREATE TABLE EMP (

EMPNO NUMBER(6) PRIMARY KEY,

ENAME VARCHAR2(20),

JOB VARCHAR2(10),

DEPTNO NUMBER(3),

SAL NUMBER(7, 2)

);

Create Department Table:

CREATE TABLE DEPT (

DEPTNO NUMBER(2) PRIMARY KEY,

DNAME VARCHAR2(10),

LOC VARCHAR2(10)

);

Queries:

1. Insert Record into Dept Table:

2. INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES (10, 'HR', 'New York');

3. Display Specific Columns:

4. SELECT ENAME, JOB FROM EMP;

5. Delete Lecturer Data:

6. DELETE FROM EMP WHERE JOB = 'Lecturer';

 7. List Records by Salary in Ascending Order:

8. SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY SAL ASC;

9. Update Salary for Managers:

10. UPDATE EMP SET SAL = 14000 WHERE JOB = 'Manager';

21. Modifications in Employee Table

Add Experience Column:

ALTER TABLE EMP ADD EXPERIENCE NUMBER(2);

Modify Column Width:

ALTER TABLE EMP MODIFY JOB VARCHAR2(15);

Create EMP1 Table with Constraints:

CREATE TABLE EMP1 (

ENAME VARCHAR2(20),

EMPNO NUMBER(6) CHECK (EMPNO > 100)

);

Drop a Column:

ALTER TABLE EMP DROP COLUMN EXPERIENCE;

Rename Column in Dept Table:

ALTER TABLE DEPT RENAME COLUMN LOC TO LOCATION;

SQL Command Structures:

 SELECT:

 SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition;

 INSERT:

 INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2) VALUES (value1, value2);

 UPDATE:

 UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1 WHERE condition;

22. University Database ER to Relational Conversion

Entities and Tables:

1. Professors:

2. CREATE TABLE Professors (

 3. SSN VARCHAR2(11) PRIMARY KEY,

4. Name VARCHAR2(50),

5. Age NUMBER(3),

6. Rank VARCHAR2(20),

7. Specialty VARCHAR2(50)

8. );

9. Projects:

10. CREATE TABLE Projects (

11. P_no NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,

12. Sponsor VARCHAR2(50),

13. Start_date DATE,

14. End_date DATE,

15. Budget NUMBER(12, 2)

16. );

i. Delete, Truncate, Drop Commands:

 See 18.d.

ii. Primary Key vs Unique Key:

 See 18.e.

23. Attributes of Entities and Relationships

Entities and Attributes:

1. BUS:

o Attributes: Bus_ID (Primary Key), Bus_Number, Capacity, Type, Operator.

2. TICKET:

o Attributes: Ticket_ID (Primary Key), Date_of_Journey, Seat_Number, Price, Bus_ID

(Foreign Key).

3. PASSENGER:

o Attributes: Passenger_ID (Primary Key), Name, Contact, Age, Gender.

Relationships:

1. Reservation:

o Attributes: Reservation_ID (Primary Key), Passenger_ID (Foreign Key), Ticket_ID

(Foreign Key), Date, Status.

2. Cancellation:
 o Attributes: Cancellation_ID (Primary Key), Reservation_ID (Foreign Key), Date,
Reason.

Keys:

 Candidate Key: A subset of attributes uniquely identifying a record (e.g., Ticket_ID in the
TICKET table).

 Partial Key: A unique attribute within a weak entity set that requires a foreign key (e.g.,
Reservation_ID in the RESERVATION table).

b. PL/SQL Program Using Cursor Operations:

DECLARE

CURSOR reservation_cursor IS

SELECT Passenger_ID, Ticket_ID FROM Reservation;

passenger_id Reservation.Passenger_ID%TYPE;

ticket_id Reservation.Ticket_ID%TYPE;

BEGIN

OPEN reservation_cursor;

LOOP

FETCH reservation_cursor INTO passenger_id, ticket_id;

EXIT WHEN reservation_cursor%NOTFOUND;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Passenger ID: ' || passenger_id || ', Ticket ID: ' || ticket_id);

END LOOP;

CLOSE reservation_cursor;

END;

24. EMPLOYEE123 Table

Table Creation:

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE123 (

EmpID VARCHAR2(10) PRIMARY KEY,

Name VARCHAR2(15) UNIQUE,

Job VARCHAR2(10),

Address VARCHAR2(35),
 Salary NUMBER(10, 2),

DOJ DATE

);

a. Insert Records:

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE123 VALUES ('E001', 'Alice', 'Manager', 'New York', 75000, '2020-01-01');

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE123 VALUES ('E002', 'Bob', 'Engineer', 'Los Angeles', 60000, '2019-03-15');

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE123 VALUES ('E003', 'Charlie', 'Analyst', 'Chicago', 55000, '2021-07-10');

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE123 VALUES ('E004', 'David', 'Manager', 'Houston', 80000, '2018-05-20');

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE123 VALUES ('E005', 'Eva', 'HR', 'Seattle', 70000, '2020-09-25');

b. Update and Delete:

 Update:

 UPDATE EMPLOYEE123 SET Salary = 78000 WHERE EmpID = 'E002';

 Delete:

 DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE123 WHERE Job = 'Analyst';

c. Aggregate Functions:

 Example:

 SELECT COUNT(*), AVG(Salary), MAX(Salary), MIN(Salary) FROM EMPLOYEE123;

d. Display Names Starting with 'P':

SELECT Name FROM EMPLOYEE123 WHERE Name LIKE 'P%';

e. Cursor Operations:

Refer to 23.b.

25. MERCHANT100 Table

Table Creation:

CREATE TABLE MERCHANT100 (

Mer_ID VARCHAR2(10),

Name VARCHAR2(15) UNIQUE,

Age INTEGER,

Budget NUMBER(12, 2) CHECK (Budget >= 100000)

);

a. Add Address Column:

ALTER TABLE MERCHANT100 ADD Address VARCHAR2(15);

b. Modify Address Size:

ALTER TABLE MERCHANT100 MODIFY Address VARCHAR2(35);

c. Drop Age Column:

ALTER TABLE MERCHANT100 DROP COLUMN Age;

d. Add Primary Key:

ALTER TABLE MERCHANT100 ADD CONSTRAINT PK_Mer_ID PRIMARY KEY (Mer_ID);

e. Insert Records:

INSERT INTO MERCHANT100 VALUES ('M001', 'Alice', 120000, 'New York');

INSERT INTO MERCHANT100 VALUES ('M002', 'Bob', 150000, 'Los Angeles');

INSERT INTO MERCHANT100 VALUES ('M003', 'Charlie', 200000, 'Chicago');

INSERT INTO MERCHANT100 VALUES ('M004', 'David', 175000, 'Houston');

INSERT INTO MERCHANT100 VALUES ('M005', 'Eva', 180000, 'Seattle');

f. List SQL Commands and Structures:

Refer to 18.d.