Structured Query Language (SQL)

What is SQL?
SQL is a database language designed for the retrieval and management of data in a relational
database.

SQL is the standard language for database management. All the RDBMS systems like MySQL,
MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Postgres, and SQL Server use SQL as their standard database
language.

SQL programming language uses various commands for different operations. We will learn
about the like DCL, TCL, DQL, DDL and DML commands in SQL with examples.

Why Use SQL?

Here, are important reasons for using SQL

 It helps users to access data in the RDBMS system.

 It helps you to describe the data.
 It allows you to define the data in a database and manipulate that specific data.
 With the help of SQL commands in DBMS, you can create and drop databases and
tables.
 SQL offers you to use the function in a database, create a view, and stored procedure.
 You can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views.

Brief History of SQL

Here, are important landmarks from the history of SQL:

 1970 – Dr. Edgar F. “Ted” Codd described a relational model for databases.
 1974 – Structured Query Language appeared.
 1978 – IBM released a product called System/R.
 1986 – IBM developed the prototype of a relational database, which is standardized by
ANSI.
 1989- First ever version launched of SQL
 1999 – SQL 3 launched with features like triggers, object-orientation, etc.
 SQL2003- window functions, XML-related features, etc.
 SQL2006- Support for XML Query Language
 SQL2011-improved support for temporal databases

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Types of SQL
Here are five types of widely used SQL queries.

 Data Definition Language (DDL)

 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Data Control Language(DCL)
 Transaction Control Language(TCL)
 Data Query Language (DQL)

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DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL):

The Data Definition Language (DDL) is used to create and destroy databases and database
objects. These commands will primarily be used by database administrators during the setup and
removal phases of a database project.

Let's take a look at the structure and usage of four basic DDL commands: CREATE, ALTER,
DROP and RENAME

Practice No. 1

1. Create Table

Command Syntax Description

CREATE TABLE CREATE TABLE table_name It is used to create a new
( column_1 datatype CONSTRAINT table in a database and
constraint_name constraint_desc, specify the name of the
column_2 datatype, table and columns inside it
column_3 datatype
);

DATA TYPES:

1. CHAR (Size): This data type is used to store character strings values of fixed length. The
size in brackets determines the number of characters the cell can hold. The maximum
number of character is 255 characters.
2. VARCHAR (Size) / VARCHAR2 (Size): This data type is used to store variable length
alphanumeric data. The maximum character can hold is 2000 character.
3. NUMBER (P, S): The NUMBER data type is used to store number (fixed or floating point).
Number of virtually any magnitude may be stored up to 38 digits of precision. Number as
large as 9.99 * 10 124. The precision (p) determines the number of places to the right of the
decimal. If scale is omitted then the default is zero. If precision is omitted, values are stored
with their original precision up to the maximum of 38 digits.
4. DATE: This data type is used to represent date and time. The standard format is DDMM-
YY as in 17-SEP-2009. To enter dates other than the standard format, use the appropriate
functions. Date time stores date in the 24-Hours format. By default the time 9 in a date field

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is 12:00:00 am, if no time portion is specified. The default date for a date field is the first
day the current month.
5. LONG: This data type is used to store variable length character strings containing up to
2GB. Long data can be used to store arrays of binary data in ASCII format. LONG values
cannot be indexed, and the normal character functions such as SUBSTR cannot be applied.
6. RAW: The RAW data type is used to store binary data, such as digitized picture or image.
Data loaded into columns of these data types are stored without any further conversion.
RAW data type can have a maximum length of 255 bytes. LONG RAW data type can
contain up to 2GB.

CONSTRAINTS:

Constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table. If there is any violation between the
constraint and the data action, the action is aborted by the constraint. It can be specified when the
table is created (using CREATE TABLE statement) or after the table is created (using ALTER
TABLE statement).

1. NOT NULL: When a column is defined as NOTNULL, then that column becomes a
mandatory column. It implies that a value must be entered into the column if the record is
to be accepted for storage in the table.

Command Syntax Description

NOT NULL CREATE TABLE table_name It is used to create a new
( column_1 datatype CONSTRAINT table in a database and
constraint_name constraint_desc, specify the name of the
column_2 datatype, table and columns inside it
column_3 datatype
);

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE Table_Name (column_name data_type (size) NOT NULL, );

Example:

CREATE TABLE student (sno NUMBER(3)NOT NULL, name CHAR(10));

2. UNIQUE: The purpose of a unique key is to ensure that information in the column(s) is

unique i.e. a value entered in column(s) defined in the unique constraint must not be repeated

across the column(s). A table may have many unique keys.

Command Syntax Description

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UNIQUE CREATE TABLE

Table_Name(column_name
data_type(size) UNIQUE, ….);

3. CHECK: Specifies a condition that each row in the table must satisfy. To satisfy the
constraint, each row in the table must make the condition either TRUE or unknown (due to a
null).

Command Syntax Description

CHECK CREATE TABLE
Table_Name(column_name
data_type(size) CHECK(logical
expression), ….);

4. PRIMARY KEY: A field which is used to identify a record uniquely. A column or

combination of columns can be created as primary key, which can be used as a reference from
other tables. A table contains primary key is known as Master Table.

 It must uniquely identify each record in a table.

 It must contain unique values.
 It cannot be a null field.
 It cannot be multi-port field.
 It should contain a minimum no. of fields necessary to be called unique.

Command Syntax Description

PRIMARY KEY CREATE TABLE
Table_Name(column_name
data_type(size) PRIMARY KEY,
….);

5. FOREIGN KEY: It is a table level constraint. We cannot add this at column level. To

reference any primary key column from other table this constraint can be used. The table in

which the foreign key is defined is called a detail table. The table that defines the primary

key and is referenced by the foreign key is called the master table.

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Command Syntax Description

PRIMARY KEY CREATE TABLE
Table_Name(column_name
data_type(size) PRIMARY KEY,
….);

ALTER TABLE Table_Name ADD To assign an attribute as a

PRIMARY KEY (column_name) primary key after a table is
created without a primary
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD key
CONSTRAINT constraint_name
PRIMARY KEY(colname)

6. DEFAULT: The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default value into a column. The
default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.

Command Syntax Description

PRIMARY KEY CREATE TABLE
Table_Name(col_name1,col_name2,col_name3
DEFAULT ‘<value>’);

CREATE TABLE DEPARTMENT

Dname varchar(50) CONSTRAINT c1 UNIQUE ,

Dnumber INT CONSTRAINT c2 NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,

Mgr_Id INT CONSTRAINT c3 NULL,

Mgr_start_date date

);

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE

Fname varchar(50),

Minit varchar(4),

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Lname varchar(50),

Id INT CONSTRAINT c4 NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,

Bdate date,

Address varchar(50),

Sex varchar(10)CONSTRAINT c5 CHECK(Sex in('male','female')),

Salary float,

Super_Id int,

Dno INT,

CONSTRAINT c7 FOREIGN KEY(Dno) REFERENCES DEPARTMENT(Dnumber)

);

CREATE TABLE DEPT_LOCATIONS

Dnumber INT CONSTRAINT c8 UNIQUE ,

Dlocation INT CONSTRAINT c9 NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,

CONSTRAINT c10 FOREIGN KEY(Dnumber) REFERENCES DEPARTMENT(Dnumber)

);

CREATE TABLE PROJECT

Pname varchar(50),

Pnumber INT CONSTRAINT c13 NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,

Plocation varchar(50),

Dnumber INT,

CONSTRAINT c14 FOREIGN KEY(Dnumber) REFERENCES DEPARTMENT(Dnumber)

);

CREATE TABLE WORKS_ON

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EId INT,

Pno INT,

Hours INT,

CONSTRAINT c15 FOREIGN KEY(Pno) REFERENCES PROJECT(Pnumber),

CONSTRAINT c16 FOREIGN KEY(EId) REFERENCES EMPLOYEE(Id)

);

CREATE TABLE DEPENDENT

EId INT,

Dependent_name varchar(50) CONSTRAINT c17 NOT NULL CONSTRAINT c18 PRIMARY

KEY ,

Sex varchar(10),

Bdate Date,

Relationship varchar(20) DEFAULT 'father',

CONSTRAINT c19 FOREIGN KEY(EId) REFERENCES EMPLOYEE(Id)

);

Description of the above tables

DESC EMPLOYEE;

DESC DEPARTMENT;

DESC PROJECT;

DESC DEPENDENT;

DESC WORKS_ON;

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DESC DEPT_LOCATIONS;

2. Alter table command

ALTER TABLE

Command Syntax Description

ALTER table ALTER TABLE table_name ADD It is used to add columns to
column_name datatype; a existing table in a database

2.1. Adding column to project table

Example: ALTER TABLE PROJECT ADD P_duration varchar(10);
2.2. Adding multiple columns

Example: ALTER TABLE PROJECT ADD (P_duration varchar(10), P_desc varchar(100));

2.3. Changing column width with modify clause

Command Syntax Description

ALTER table ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY This is used to change the
(column_name datatype, column_name width as well as data type of
datatype..) ; fields of existing relations.

Example: ALTER TABLE PROJECT MODIFY P_duration char(200);

2.4. Removing a Column

Command Syntax Description

ALTER table ALTER TABLE table_name ADD It is used to add columns to
column_name datatype; a existing table in a database

Example: ALTER TABLE project DROP COLUMN p_duration;

2.5. Renaming a Table

Command Syntax Description

ALTER table ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME This is used to change the
TO new_relation/table _name; name of existing relations.
RENAME RENAME TABLE old_relation_name : It is used to modify the
TO new_relation_name; name of the existing
database object.

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Example: ALTER TABLE employee RENAME TO emp;

RENAME TABLE emp TO employee;

2.6. Renaming a Column

Command Syntax Description

ALTER table ALTER TABLE relation_name This is used to change the
RENAME COLUMN (OLD name fields/columns of
column_name) to (NEW column_name); existing relations.

Example: ALTER TABLE employee RENAME COLUMN fname TO first_name;

2.7. Changing a Column's Datatype

Command Syntax Description

ALTER table ALTER TABLE relation_name ALTER This is used to change the
COLUMN colunm_name TYPE name data types of existing
varchar(25); relations.

Example: ALTER TABLE employee ALTER COLUMN Fname TYPE varchar(25);

2.8. Adding a CONSTRAINT

Command Syntax Description

ALTER table ALTER TABLE table_name ADD This is used to add
CONSTRAINT constraint_name constraint to existing
constraint_clause; relations.

Example: ALTER TABLE employee ALTER COLUMN fname SET NOT NULL;

2.9. Adding primary key CONSTRAINT

Command Syntax Description

ALTER table ALTER TABLE relation_nameADD This is used to add primary
CONSTRAINT constraint_name key CONSTRAINT to
PRIMARY KEY( column_name); existing relations.

Example: ALTER TABLE employee ADD CONSTRAINT c11 PRIMARY KEY (ID);

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2.10. Removing primary key CONSTRAINT

Command Syntax Description

ALTER table ALTER TABLE relation_name DROP This is used to remove
CONSTRAINT constraint_name ; primary key CONSTRAINT
from existing relations.

Example: ALTER TABLE employee DROP CONSTRAINT c11;

2.11. Adding foreign key reference

Command Syntax Description

ALTER table ALTER TABLE relation_nameADD This is used to add foreign
CONSTRAINT constraint_name key CONSTRAINT to
FOREIGN KEY( column_name) existing relations.
REFERENCING
relation_name(column_name) ;

Example: ALTER TABLE employee ADD CONSTRAINT c11

FOREIGNKEY (Super_Id) REFEREEING employee (Id);

2.12. Removing a CONSTRAINT

Command Syntax Description

ALTER table ALTER TABLE relation_nameDROP This is used to remove
CONSTRAINT constraint_name; constraint from relation.

Example: ALTER TABLE employee DROP CONSTRAINT c5;

3. Dropping Tables

Command Syntax Description

DROP table DROP TABLE relation_name; This is used to delete the
structure of a relation. It
permanently deletes the
records in the table.
Example: DROP TABLE employee;

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3.1. Dropping a primary key that has dependent table

Command Syntax Description

ALTER TABLE ALTER TABLE relation_name DROP This is used to drop a
PRIMARY KEY CASCADE relation that has dependent
table.

Example: ALTER TABLE employee DROP PRIMARY KEY CASCADE;

4. Create VIEW

In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement. A view contains
rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more real
tables in the database. You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and
present the data as if the data were coming from one single table. A view is a virtual table,
which consists of a set of columns from one or more tables. It is similar to a table but it does not
store in the database. View is a query stored as an object.

Command Syntax Description

CREATE VIEW CREATE VIEW <view_name> AS Used to create view from a
SELECT <set of fields> relation.
FROM relation_name WHERE
(Condition)

Exercise

1. Write SQL query to create view which will display name and address of
employees?
3. DROPPING A VIEW:
A view can deleted with the DROP VIEW command. Syntax: DROP VIEW ;

Command Syntax Description

DROP VIEW DROP VIEW view_name Used to drop a view.

LAB PRACTICE 1:

1. Create a university database

2. Inside the university database create a student relation with following schema:
Student (SID, S_name, S_address, S_ph_no, Dept_no)
Department (Dept_code, Dept_name, Dept_location)
Course (C_dode,C_name, C_hr, C_desc)

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Student_Course(C_code,S_ID)
3. Add a new column; E_email to the existing relation.
4. Change the datatype of S_address from char to varchar2.
5. Change the name of column/field SID to S_no.
6. Modify the column width of the S_address field of student table

Practice No. 2
Title: Implementation of DML commands of SQL with suitable examples
 Insert table
 Update table
 Delete Table
Objective:
 To understand the different issues involved in the design and implementation of a
database system
 To understand and use data manipulation language to query, update, and manage a
database

Theory : DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML): DML is used to retrieve, insert and
modify database information. These commands will be used by all database users during the
routine operation of the database. Let's take a brief look at the basic DML commands: INSERT,
UPDATE and DELETE.

1. INSERT INTO: This is used to add records into a relation.

Command Syntax Description

INSERT INTO INSERT INTO < relation/table name> This is used to add records
(field_1,field_2……field_n)VALUES into a relation
(data_1,data_2,........data_n);

INSERT INTO < relation/table name>

VALUES (data_1,data_2,........data_n);
INSERT INTO relation_name_1 Inserting all records from
SELECT Field_1,field_2,field_n FROM another relation
relation_name_2 WHERE field_x=data;
INSERT INTO relation_name Inserting multiple records
field_1,field_2,.....field_n) VALUES from users
(&data_1,&data_2,........&data_n);

1.1. Data insertion example to DEPARTMENT TABLE

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INSERT INTO DEPARTMENT(Dname,Dnumber,Mgr_Id,Mgr_start_date)

VALUES('Finince',1111,9090,'5/8/7');

INSERT INTO DEPARTMENT(Dname,Dnumber,Mgr_Id,Mgr_start_date) VALUES('Human

Resources',2222,8080,'5/6/9');

INSERT INTO DEPARTMENT(Dname,Dnumber,Mgr_Id,Mgr_start_date)

VALUES('Design',3333,7070,'8/4/7');

INSERT INTO DEPARTMENT(Dname,Dnumber,Mgr_Id,Mgr_start_date)

VALUES('Programming',4444,6060,'5/9/9');

1.2. Data insertion example to EMPLOYEE TABLE

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(Fname,Minit,Lname,id,Bdate,Address,Sex,Salary,Super_id,Dno)

VALUES('HENOK','AG','GETACHEW',9090,'5/9/1','YEKA','Male',125478,NULL,2222);

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(Fname,Minit,Lname,Id,Bdate,Address,Sex,Salary,Super_Id,Dno)

VALUES('Jemal','AB','Sultan',7070,'5/9/12','ARADA','Female',124576,NULL,4444);

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(Fname,Minit,Lname,Id,Bdate,Address,Sex,Salary,Super_Id,Dno)

VALUES('Yonas','MO','Teshome',9785,'9/9/8','BOLE','Male',NULL,,3333);

INSERT INTO
EMPLOYEE(Fname,Minit,Lname,Id,Bdate,Address,Sex,Salary,Super_Id,Dno)VALUES('Toma
s','TB','Belete’, 6060,'8/9/7','ARADA','Male',147891,7070,4444);

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(Fname,Minit,Lname,Id,Bdate,Address,Sex,Salary,Super_Id,Dno)

VALUES('Saron','SA','Ayalew',9069,'5/9/9','GULELE','Female',NULL,98754,1111);

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(Fname,Minit,Lname,Id,Bdate,Address,Sex,Salary,Super_Id,Dno)

VALUES('Robel','RG','Goitom',8080,'5/9/1','YEKA','Male',9090,98745,2222);

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(Fname,Minit,Lname,Id,Bdate,Address,Sex,Salary,Super_Id,Dno)

VALUES('yohannis','YS','Solomon',3270,'5/9/8','N.L','Male',NULL,45756,3333);

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(Fname,Minit,Lname,Id,Bdate,Address,Sex,Salary,Super_Id,Dno)

VALUES('Selam','SS','Surafel',6098,'8/9/6','ARADA','Male',7070,65987,4444);

1.3. Insert statement into DEPT_LOCATIONS table

INSERT INTO DEPT_LOCATIONS(Dnumber,Dlocation) VALUES(1111,65878);

INSERT INTO DEPT_LOCATIONS(Dnumber,Dlocation) VALUES(2222,78564);

INSERT INTO DEPT_LOCATIONS(Dnumber,Dlocation) VALUES(3333,365478);

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INSERT INTO DEPT_LOCATIONS(Dnumber,Dlocation) VALUES(4444,89874);

1.4. Insert statement into PROJECT table

INSERT INTO PROJECT(Pname,Pnumber,Plocation,Dnumber) VALUES('Game

Development',9999,'North Wing',1111);

INSERT INTO PROJECT(Pname,Pnumber,Plocation,Dnumber) VALUES('System

Development',8888,'South Wing',2222);

INSERT INTO PROJECT(Pname,Pnumber,Plocation,Dnumber) VALUES('Unit

Testing',7777,'West Wing',3333);

INSERT INTO PROJECT(Pname,Pnumber,Plocation,Dnumber) VALUES('Code

Writing',6666,'North-East Wing',4444);

1.5. Insert statement into WORKS_ON table

INSERT INTO WORKS_ON(Essn,Pno,Hours) VALUES(9090,9999,35);

INSERT INTO WORKS_ON(Essn,Pno,Hours) VALUES(8080,8888,30);

INSERT INTO WORKS_ON(Essn,Pno,Hours) VALUES(7070,7777,35);

INSERT INTO WORKS_ON(Essn,Pno,Hours) VALUES(6060,6666,25);

1.6. Insert statement into DEPENDENT table

INSERT INTO DEPENDENT(Essn,Dependent_name,Sex,Bdate,Relationship)

VALUES(9090,'Jenny Peru','Female','5/9/8','Sister');

INSERT INTO DEPENDENT(Essn,Dependent_name,Sex,Bdate,Relationship)

VALUES(8080,'James Brown','Male','5/9/7','Brother');

INSERT INTO DEPENDENT(Essn,Dependent_name,Sex,Bdate,Relationship)

VALUES(7070,'Peter Miller','Female','5/9/8','Daughter');

INSERT INTO DEPENDENT(Essn,Dependent_name,Sex,Bdate,Relationship)

VALUES(6060,'Billy Rend','Male','5/9/8','Son');

2. UPDATE-SET-WHERE

Command Syntax Description

UPDATE-SET UPDATE relation name SET This is used to update the
Field_name1=data,field_name2=data; all the content of a specific

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field record in a relation.

UPDATE-SET- UPDATE relation name SET This is used to update the
WHERE Field_name1=data,field_name2=data, content of a record in a
WHERE field_name=data; relation.

Example:

UPDATE employee SET Fname = ‘Seble’

UPDATE employee SET Fname = ‘Seble’ WHERE ID=6098

3. DELETE-FROM: This is used to delete all the records of a relation but it will retain the
structure of that relation.

Command Syntax Description

DELETE-FROM DELETE FROM relation_name; This is used to delete all the
records of a relation but it
will retain the structure of
that relation
DELETE -FROM- DELETE FROM relation_name WHERE This is used to delete a
WHERE condition; selected record from a
relation.

Example

DELETE FROM employee;

DELETE FROM employee WHERE ID =6098;

TRUNCATE: This command will remove the data permanently. But structure will not be
removed.

Difference between Truncate & Delete:-

 Using truncate command data will be removed permanently & will not get back where
as by using delete command data will be removed temporally & get back by using
roll back command.
 Using delete command data will be removed based on the condition whereas by using
truncate command there is no condition.
 Truncate is a DDL command & delete is a DML command.

Command Syntax Description

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TRUNCATE TRUNCATE TABLE <Table name> This is used remove the data
permanently but it will
retain the structure of that
relation

Example: TRUNCATE TABLE employee;

LAB EXERCISE 2:

1. Insert data in to the tables that you have created for lab exercise 1?
2. Delete some records from student table?
3. Delete some records from course table based on a condition?
4. Change the name of DEPARTMENT relation to DEPT and back to DEPARTMENT.
5. Rename the SID attribute of the student relation to SNO ?
6. Delete all records of student?

Practice No. 3

SELECT FROM command

Command Syntax Description

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SELECT FROM SELECT * FROM relation_name; This is used to display all

fields for all records.
SELECT a set of fields (Field_name1, To display a set of fields for
Field_name2, Field_name3) all records of relation.
FROM relation_name;
SELECT - FROM - SELECT a set of fields FROM This query is used to display
WHERE relation_name WHERE condition; a selected set of fields for a
selected set of records of a
relation.

Example

1. Write SQL query to retrieve department information?

SQL Retional Algebra statement
SELECT * FROM Department ; Π
Pname,Pnumber,Plocation,Dnumber(Department)

2. Write SQL query to Retrieve department name

SQL Retional Algebra statement
SELECT Dname Π Dname(Department)
FROM Project;

3. Retrieve firstname, lastname and ssn of employee?

SQL Retional Algebra statement
SELECT Fname, Lname, SSN Π Fname, Lname, SSN (Employee)
FROM employee;

4. Write SQL statement to retrieve all employees Ssn?

SQL Retional Algebra statement

SELECT SSN Π SSN (Employee)
FROM employee;

5. Write SQL statement to retrieve address of an employee?

SQL Retional Algebra statement
SELECT Address Π Address (Employee)
FROM Employee;

6. Retrieve distinct values for address of employee?

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SQL Retional Algebra statement

SELECT DISTINCT Address Π Address (Employee)
FROM Employee;

Practice No: 4
Title: Implementation of different types of operators in SQL.
 Arithmetic Operator
 Logical Operator
 Comparison Operator
 Special Operator
 Set Operator

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Objective: To learn different types of operator.

Theory:
ARIHMETIC OPERATORS:
(+): Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator.
(-): Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand.
(*): Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator.
(/): Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand.
(^): Power- raise to power of.
(%): Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns remainder.
LOGICAL OPERATORS:
AND: The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement's
WHERE clause.
OR: The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE
clause.
NOT: The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which it is used.
Eg: NOT EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN, NOT IN, etc. This is a negate operator.
COMPARISION OPERATORS:
(=): Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes then condition becomes
true.
(! =): Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal then
condition becomes true.
(< >): Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal then
condition becomes true.
(>): Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right operand, if yes then
condition becomes true
(<): Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of right operand,
if yes then condition becomes true.
(<=): Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right operand, if
yes then condition becomes true.
SPECIAL OPERATOR:
BETWEEN: The BETWEEN operator is used to search for values that are within a set of
values, given the minimum value and the maximum value.
IS NULL: The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULL attribute value.
ALL: The ALL operator is used to compare a value to all values in another value set
ANY: The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicable value in the list
according to the condition.
LIKE: The LIKE operator is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard
operators. It allows to use percent sign (%) and underscore ( _ ) to match a given string
pattern.

Command Syntax Description

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LIKE SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name It is an special operator used

WHERE column_name LIKE pattern; with the WHERE clause to
search for a specific pattern in
a column

Exercise

1. Retrieve all employees whose address is begins with A?

2. Find all employees who were born during the 1950s ?
3. Retrieve all employees whose name is begins with S?

IN: The IN operator is used to compare a value to a list of literal values that have been
specified.

Command Syntax Description

LIKE SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name It is an special operator used
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern; with the WHERE clause to
search for a specific pattern in
a column

EXIST: The EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of a row in a specified table
that meets certain criteria.

1. Write SQL query to retrieve department number for human resource department?
SQL Retional Algebra statement
SELECT Dnumber Π Dnumber (δ Dname=’Human Resource’ (Department))
FROM Department
Where Dname=’Human
Resource’;

2. Retrieve list of employee whose salary is more than 1000000 ?

SQL Retional Algebra statement
SELECT * Π Fname,Minit,Lname,Id,Bdate,Address,Sex,Salary,Super_Id,Dno
FROM
Where Salary >1000000; (δ Salary> 1000000 (Employee))

3. Retrieve list of employee whose salary is between 10000and 400000?

SQL Retional Algebra statement
SELECT * Π Fname,Minit,Lname,Id,Bdate,Address,Sex,Salary,Super_Id,Dno
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Structured Query Language (SQL)

FROM (δ Salary> 10000 and Salary<400000 (Employee))

Where Salary >10000
AND 40000;
SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE (Salary
BETWEEN 10000 AND
40000)

7. Write SQL query to retrieve first name, last name and ID of supervisee of Henok?
SQL Retional Algebra statement
SELECT Fname,Lname,ID R Π ID( δ Fname=’Henok’ (Employee))
FROM Employee
Where SuperID=(SELECT ID Π Fname,Lname,ID (R)
FROM employee WHERE
Fname=’Henok’);

8. Write SQL statement to retrieve the birth date and address of the employee(s) whose
name is ‘John ws. Smith’?
Retional Algebra statement
SQL
SELECT Bdate, Address Rδ Fname = ‘Shrafel’ AND Minit = ‘SH’ AND Lname = ‘Habib’ (Employee)
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Fname = ‘Shrafel’ Π Bdate, Address (R)
AND Minit = ‘SH’ AND
Lname = ‘Habib’;

9. Retrieve all employees who work in department 5?

Rational Algebra statement

SQL
SELECT * Rδ Dno=5 (Employee)
FROM Employee
WHERE Dno = 5; Π Fname,Minit,Lname,Id,Bdate,Address,Sex,Salary,Super_Id,Dno (R)

10. Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for the human resource
department.
Rational Algebra statement
SQL
SELECT
Fname,Lname,Minit,
Address
FROM Employee

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Structured Query Language (SQL)

Where
DNO=(SELECT Dno
FROM Department
WHERE
Dname=’human
resource’);

Practice No: 5
Title: Implementation of different types of Joins
 Inner Join
 Outer Join
 Natural Join..etc
Objective: To implement different types of joins

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Theory: The SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more tables in a
database. A JOIN is a means for combining fields from two tables by using values common
to each.The join is actually performed by the ‘where’ clause which combines specified rows
of tables. Types of Joins: Simple Join, Self Join and Outer Join

Command Syntax Description

Join SELECT column 1, column 2, column used to combine records
3... FROM table_name1, table_name2 from two or more tables in a
WHERE table_name1.column name = database
table_name2.columnname;

Simple Join: It is the most common type of join. It retrieves the rows from 2 tables having a
common column and is further classified into
Equi-join: A join, which is based on equalities, is called equi-join.
Example: Select * from Department, Employee where
Department.Dnumber=Employee.Dno; In the above statement,
Department.Dnumber=Employee.Dno performs the join statement. It retrieves rows from
both the tables provided they both have the same id as specified by the where clause. Since
the where clause uses the comparison operator (=) to perform a join, it is said to be equijoin.
It combines the matched rows of tables. It can be used as follows:
 To insert records in the target table.
 To create tables and insert records in this table.
 To update records in the target table.
 To create views.

Non Equi-join: It specifies the relationship between columns belonging to different tables by
making use of relational operators other than’=’.

Table Aliases Table aliases are used to make multiple table queries shorted and more
readable. We give an alias name to the table in the ‘from’ clause and use it instead of the
name throughout the query.

Self-join: Joining of a table to itself is known as self-join. It joins one row in a table to
another. It can compare each row of the table to itself and also with other rows of the same
table. Example: select * from employee x , employee y where x.salary >= (select avg(salary)
from x where x. dno =y.dnumber);

Outer Join: It extends the result of a simple join. An outer join returns all the rows returned
by simple join as well as those rows from one table that do not match any row from the table.
The symbols (+) represents outer join.

 Left outer join

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 Right outer join

 Full outer join

1. Write SQL statement to retrieve employees who works on Code Writing project?
Rational Algebra statement
SQL
SELECT ρE(Employee)
Fname,Minit,Lname,Id,Bdate,Address,Sex,Sa
lary,Super_Id,Dno Address ρW(WORKS_ON)
FROM Employee E, WORKS_ON W, ρP(Project)
Project p
Where E.ID=W.EID and W.Pid=W.Pnumber R EXWXP
and P.Pname=’Code Writing’; Sδ E.ID=W.EID AND W.Pid=W.Pnumber AND
P.Pname=’Code Writing’ (R)

Π
Fname,Minit,Lname,Id,Bdate,Address,Sex,Salar
y,Super_Id,Dno(S)

2. Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for the human resource
department.

Rational Algebra statement

SQL
SELECT ρE(Employee)
Fname,Lname,Minit,
Address ρD(Department)
FROM Employee E, R EXD
Department DWHERE
E.DNO=D.Dnumber Sδ E.DNO=D.Dnumber AND Dname=’human resource’ (R)
AND Dname=’human Π Fname,Lname,Minit, Address(R)
resource’;

Practice Exercise

1. Write SQL statement to retrieve dependents of peter?

2. Write SQL statement to retrieve departments located in the same location?
3. Write SQL statements to retrieve managers of programming department?

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4. For every project located in ‘west wing’, write SQL statement to list the project number,
the controlling department number, and the department manager’s last name, address, and
birth date.
5. For each employee, retrieve the employee’s first and last name and the first and last name
of his or her immediate supervisor.
6. Make a list of all project numbers for projects that involve an employee whose last name
is ‘habib’, either as a worker or as manager of the department that controls the project.

Practice No: 5
Aggregative operators: In addition to simply retrieving data, we often want to perform some
computation or summarization. SQL allows the use of arithmetic expressions. We now consider
a powerful class of constructs for computing aggregate values such as MIN and SUM.

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Structured Query Language (SQL)

1. Count: COUNT following by a column name returns the count of tuple in that column. If
DISTINCT keyword is used then it will return only the count of unique tuple in the
column. Otherwise, it will return count of all the tuples (including duplicates)

Command Syntax Description

COUNT SELECT COUNT(column_name), the count of tuple in that
FROM table_name, WHERE condition column

Example:

1.1. Write SQL query to retrieve number of employees

Rational Algebra statement
SQL
SELECT COUNT (*)
FROM Employee; ꞔ COUNT (*)(Employee)

1.2. Write SQL query to retrieve unique address of employee

Rational Algebra statement
SQL
SELECT DISTINCT
COUNT (Address)
FROM Employee;

2. SUM: SUM followed by a column name returns the sum of all the values in that column.

Command Syntax Description

SUM SELECT SUM(column_name), FROM sum of all the values in that
table_name, WHERE condition column
Example

2.1. Write SQL query to retrieve total salary of employees

Rational Algebra statement
SQL
SELECT COUNT (salary)
FROM Employee; ꞔ sum(Salary)(Employee)

3. AVG: AVG followed by a column name returns the average value of that column values.

Command Syntax Description

SUM SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM returns the average value of

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Structured Query Language (SQL)

table_name, WHERE condition that column values

Example

3.1. Write SQL query to retrieve average salary of employees ?

Rational Algebra statement
SQL
SELECT AVG (salary)
FROM Employee; ꞔ AVG(Salary)(Employee)

4. MAX: MAX followed by a column name returns the maximum value of that column.

Command Syntax Description

MAX SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM returns the maximum value of
table_name, WHERE condition that column values

Example

4.1. Write SQL query to retrieve average salary of employees ?

Rational Algebra statement
SQL
SELECT MAX (salary)
FROM Employee; ꞔ MAX(Salary)(Employee)

5. MIN: MIN followed by a column name returns the maximum value of that column.

Command Syntax Description

MIN SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM returns the minimum value of
table_name, WHERE condition that column values

Example

1.1. Write SQL query to retrieve minimum salary of employees ?

Rational Algebra statement
SQL
SELECT MIN (salary)
FROM Employee; ꞔ MIN(Salary)(Employee)

Exercise

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Structured Query Language (SQL)

1. Write SQL query to retrieve an employee who earns the largest salary?
2. Write SQL query to retrieve an employee who earns the largest salary?

Practice No: 6
Title: Study Implementation of Group by & Having Clause and Order by Clause.

Objective: To learn the concept of group functions Theory:

1. GROUP BY: This query is used to group to all the records in a relation together for each
and every value of a specific key(s) and then display them for a selected set of fields the
relation.

Command Syntax Description

GROUP BY SELECT column_name, COUNT(*) FROM It is an clause in SQL used for

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Structured Query Language (SQL)

table_name GROUP BY column_name; aggregate functions in

collaboration with the SELECT
statement

Example
1. Write SQL query to retrieve total number of employees in each department?
Rational Algebra statement
SQL
SELECT COUNT (*) ,
Dno FROM Employee
GROUP BY Dno;

Exercise
1. Write SQL query to retrieve maximum, minimum, and average salary of employees in
each department?
2. Write SQL query to retrieve maximum, minimum, and average salary of employee’s
human resource in department?

2. HAVING: The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could
not be used with aggregate functions. The HAVING clause must follow the GROUP BY
clause in a query and must also precedes the ORDER BY clause if used.

Command Syntax Description

HAVING SELECT column_name, aggregate_function It is an clause in SQL used for
(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE aggregate functions in
column_name GROUP BY column_name collaboration with the SELECT
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) statement
operator value;

Exercise

1. Write SQL query to retrieve employees who has more than two dependents?
2. Write SQL query to retrieve employees who works on more than one project ?

3. ORDER BY: This query is used to display a selected set of fields from a relation in an
ordered manner base on some field.

Command Syntax Description

ORDER BY SELECT column_name FROM table_name It is a clause used to sort the
ORDER BY column_name ASC | DESC; result set by a particular
column either numerically or

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Structured Query Language (SQL)

alphabetically based on some

field

Exercise

1. Write SQL query to retrieve employees name in ascending and descending order?
2. Write SQL query to retrieve employees salary ascending and descending order?

Practice No: 7
Title : Study & Implementation of

 Sub queries

Objective: – To perform nested Queries and joining Queries using DML command – To
understand the implementation of views.

Theory: SUBQUERIES: The query within another is known as a sub query. A statement
containing sub query is called parent statement. The rows returned by sub query are used by the
parent statement or in other words A subquery is a SELECT statement that is embedded in a
clause of another SELECT statement You can place the subquery in a number of SQL clauses:
WHERE clause, HAVING clause, FROM clause, OPERATORS( IN.ANY,ALL,,>=,<= etc..)

Types

1. Sub queries that return several values

Sub queries can also return more than one value. Such results should be made use along with the
operators in and any.

2. Multiple queries

Here more than one sub query is used. These multiple sub queries are combined by means of
‘and’ & ‘or’ keywords.

3. Correlated sub query

A sub query is evaluated once for the entire parent statement whereas a correlated Sub query is
evaluated once per row processed by the parent statement.

Practice NO.8

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SET OPERATORS

The Set operator combines the result of 2 queries into a single result. The following are the operators:

 Union

 Union all

 Intersect

 Minus

Union: Returns all distinct rows selected by both the queries Union all: Returns all rows selected by
either query including the duplicates.

Intersect: Returns rows selected that are common to both queries.

Minus: Returns all distinct rows selected by the first query and are not by the second

Example:

1. Make a list of all project numbers for projects that involve an employee whose last name is
‘Habib’, either as a worker or as manager of the department that controls the project.

(SELECT DISTINCT Pnumber FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE WHERE

Dnum = Dnumber AND Mgr_ssn = Ssn AND Lname = ‘Habib’ )

UNION

( SELECT DISTINCT Pnumber

FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON, EMPLOYEE

WHERE Pnumber = Pno AND Essn = Ssn AND Lname = ‘Habib’ );

Exercise

1. Write SQL query to retrieve employees who participate in game development project
only?
2. Write SQL query to retrieve employees who participate in game development and unit
testing project only?

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