2 PUC History TB (2) (1)

Government of Karnataka
1s or
■
ndian
(With Special reference to Karnataka)
II PUC - Text Book

2016
Department of Pre-University Education,

Malleshwaram, Bengaluru - 560 012.
www.pue.kar.nic.in
© Department of Pre-University
All Rights Are Reserved
Education 2014-2015.
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iii
FOREWORD
The Department of Pre-University Education, Government of
Kamataka, entrusted the task of framing the syllabus and writing the
text for second year PUC students, to the History text book committee.
The Department also issued various instructions and guidelines to the
text book committee to be followed in the course of preparing the text.
The Review Committee has contributed by suggesting suitable inclusions,
deletions and corrections. The committee has followed the directions
of the Department and prescribed the syllabus taking into consideration
the syllabi of NCERT and that of the neighbouring states.
After due consultations and discussions like the last year, the
committee decided to have Indian Hisory with special reference to
Karnataka History as the subject matter for Second Year PUC. The
Syllabus starts with stone Age and extends upto the Indian Independece
and Partition and the Unification of Kamataka.
In the previous years, Indian History and Kamataka History were
studied seperately in 180 hours but the Committee had the momentous
responsibility of blending the two into one year of study for 120 hours.
Hence some topics which were studied as seperate chapters have formed
a part of some major topics.
As in First PUC text book, Box items, pictures and activities have
been included in this book also. Since the subject matter is familiar
Glossary is not given. Use of BCE and CE continues.
Three Blue prints along with model question papers with suitable
instructions are given at the end of the textbook.
Lecturers and students are asked to refer both versions of the text
book in case of any doubts.
The Committee held several meetings and met many sujbect experts.
It has put in a lot of efforts to prepare the text and I hope that the
text will serve its purpose and by useful to all readers.
Dr. Gayathri Devi A.H........b

Chairman
iv
Acknowledgements
The History Text book commitee owes its

gratitude to several people who have directly or
indirectly helped in completing the text book. The
members of the committee have utilised information
collected from various libraries, books of various
Indian and Foreign authors, various pictures and
information from different internet sites in writig
the text book.
The committee held its meetings at Govt. P.U.

College, 13th Cross, Malleswharam, Bengaluru, APMC
Yard, Honnali, Sri Chamundeshwari Kshethra,
Thavalli, Kokkadu, Kavishaila and Shimoga. Smt
N.C. Shobha, Principal, Govt. P.U. College for Girls,
13th Cross,Malleswaram, not only gave us
accommadation for our meetings but also voluntarily
helped us in proof reading. The cover page and the
maps were designed by Sri. S. Santhosh Kumar and
Inside layout/designs of text was done by Sri. N.
Nagaraj Proprietor of Multi Options, 31, Police
Station Road, Basavanagudi, Bengaluru - 560 004.
The Committee expresses its gratitude to all of
them.
The committee also extends its gratitude to the

Department of Pre-University Education, and many
officials of the Department who have been
instrumental in bringing out this text book for II PUC.
V
HISTORY TEXT BOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

SL NAME AND ADDRESS DESIGNATION
NO
1. Dr. GAYATHRI DEVI. A.H.
Lecturer, Govt P.U. College for Girls,
13th Cross, Malleshwaram, BENGALURU. Chairman
2. Sri. HALESHAPPA. K.G.
Lecturer, Sri Murali P.U. College,
NELAMANGALA, BENGALURU Rural. Co-ordinator
3. Sri. SHAM PRASAD.K.
Lecturer, Islamiya Composite P.U. College, BELAGAVI. Member
4. Sri. SRIKANT .Y. SHANAWAD,
Lecturer, Beynon- Smith P.U. College, BELAGAVI. Member
5. Sri SHIRAGAOANKAR. N.V.
Lecturer, R.D. Composite P.U. College,
Chikkodi, BELAGAVI. Member
6. Sri. SHUBHAKARA. H.V.
Lecturer, National PU College,B.R. Project,
Bhadravathi TQ. SHNAMOGGA. Member
7. Sri. DAYANANDA. J.S
Lecturer, Govt P.U. College for Girls,
Basavanahalli, CHIKKAMAGALURU. Member
8. Dr. DURUGAPPA MALI KANAKAPPANAVAR
Lecturer, Govt P.U. College Kanakagiri,
GANGAVATITq, KOPPALA. Member
9. Dr. RAMESH. C.S.
Lecturer, Indira P.U. College, Upparahalli, TUMKUR. Member
10. Smt. S.H. PATIL
Lecturer, Basaveswara composite P.U. College,
BAGALAKOTE. Member
11. Sri. H.S. BIRADAR
Principal, S.J.M.Composite P.U. College
GARAGA, Dharwad. Member
12. Dr. D.R.NIDONI
Lecturer, Govt P.U. College for Boys, BIJAPUR. Member
vi
SYLLABUS AND TEXT BOOK REVIEW COMMITTEE
NAME & ADDRESS DESIGNATION
Sri. S.G. BHAT,

Principal, Sri Subramanya Composite
P.U. College, KAVALAKKI, Honnavara., U.K. Member
Sri. R.B. SAMBHA,

Principal, Govt. Independent P.U. College,
Jilanabad, GULBARGA. Member
Sri C.G. MATHAPATI,

Lecturer, Sardar's Govt. P.U. College, BELAGAVI. Member
vii
INDIAN HISTORY
Total Teaching Hours - 120
Chapter SYLLABUS Teaching Page

Hours Nos.
01. INTRODUCTION 05 1-14
Impact of Geography on Indian History -
Sources of Indian History
02 STONE AGE AND METAL AGE 02 15-18
Pre- Historic Period
03 INDUS CIVILIZATION Excavations 04 19-26
Salient Features - The End of the
Indus Civilization
04 ANCIENT PERIOD 36
4.1 Vedic culture-Origin-Salient features 4 27-32
4.2 Rise of New Religions - Jainisam and 4 33-40
Buddll:nm:m
4.3 Mauryas - Chandragupta Maurya - Kautilya 4 41-52
- Ashoka - contributions - Shatavanas
4.4 Kushanas - Kanishka - Gandhara Art 2 53-56
4.5 Guptas - Samudra Gupta - Golden Age 4 57-64
4.6 Cholas - Rajaraja Chola I, Rajendra Chola I 4 65-70
- Administration
4.7 Vardhanas and Early Chalukyas - Pallavas 6 71-84
Cultural Contributions of Chalukyas
4.8 Rashtrakutas - Dhruva - Govinda III - 3 85-92
Amoghavarsha - Cultural Contributions
4.9 Later Chalukyas and Hoysalas-contributions 5 93-99
05. MEDIEVAL PERIOD 25

5.1 Delhi Sultanate - Alla-ud-din 6 100-113
Khilji - Muhammad bin-Tughalak -
contributions of the Delhi Sultanate
viii
5.2 Mughals - Akbar the great - contributions 6 114-124

ofMughlmls
5.3 Rise of Marathas - Shivaji 2 125-129
5.4 Vijayanagara Empire - Krishnadevaraya 7 130-148
- cultural contributions - Foreign Accounts
- Disintegration of Vijayanagara Empire.
5.5 Bahamani and Adil Shahi Sultans 4 149-154
- cultural contributions
06. SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENT IN 7
MEDIEVAL INDIA:
Acharya Trayas - Basaveshwara- Bhakthi 155-164
Movement-Sufism
07. MODm' .IIBRlOD 36
7.1 Advent of Europeans - Establishment of
British supremacy in India 09 165-175
7.2 First War of Indian Independence 03 176-181
7.3 Impact of British rule on Economy
and Education 03 182-186
7.4 Socio-religious reform Movement 04 187-192
7.5 Mysore-A Model State 03 193-198
7.6 Indian National Movement
- Role of Karnataka 11 199-221
7.7 Unification Movement in Karnataka 03 222-226
08 MAP WORK: 05 227-231
Places of Historical Importance
Question paper Blue print and 232-244
Model Question Papers
Chapter 1 - Introduction
CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
The History of Indian sub-continent at times includes the present
Nations, namely, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar,
Bangladesh, China and SriLanka. The exact description of the extent
of the subcontinent is found in 'Vishnu Purana'. One of the shlokas
reads:
"Uttaram Yatsamudrasya, Himadreschiava Dakshinam Varsham
Tadbharatam nama Bharatiyatra santati"
Meaning: The country that lies north of the oceans and south of
the snowy mountains is called Bharata, there dwell the descendents
of 'Bharata'.
The subcontinent is called by different names such as
Bharatavarsha, Bharatakhanda, Bharata, J ambudweepa, Hindustan and
India. The northern part of the sub continent was called as '
Aryavartha', the land of Aryans. The southern part was called as
Dakshinapatha - the land in the South. Bharatakhanda, Bharatvarsha,
and Bharata are named after Bharata, son of Dushyanta and
Shakuntala as referred in Mahabharata. It was also known as
'Jambudweepa', according to Hindu, Buddhist and Jain traditions. The
southern part of Himalayas was an island continent, which they
regarded as one of the seven continents in the world. It resembled
'Jambu' the Blackberry fruit. So it is called Jambudweepa.
The term India is derived from Greek word 'Indos', which stands
for Sindhu the most important river of the subcontinent. It should
be noted that it includes South India too. 'Hindustan' was widely used
during medieval period. Persians called the river Sindhu as Hindu
and the land as Hindustan. The abbreviated version 'Hind' refers to
the present Republic of India.
-
Impact of Geography on Indian History.
Indian History - II PUC Text Book
The physical features of India, such as the Himalayas, the Northern

plains, the desert, the mountains (the Vindhyas, the Arawalis, the
Sahyadris, etc.) the Deccan plateau and the coastline have helped and
moulded the development of different political units and cultures.
The Himalayas separate India from the rest of Asia. It forms the
natural barrier, protects India from invaders and the cold winds from
the North. They have given birth to ever flowing north Indian rivers.
These rivers have formed the most fertile northern plains. These plains
were the cradles of Civilizations and Empires. The richness and
prosperity provided by the fertility of the land, assured availability of
basic necessities. It paved the way for the material, spiritual and
philosophical development of man. The great Indus valley civilization
and Vedic culture developed in this region. The northern passes such as
Khyber, Bolan, etc. have helped Indians to have commercial and
cultural relations with the West and also posed India to repeated
Western attacks.
The Western deserts and the dense forests of the Deccan plateau
have turned the people into hard working and warlike. The oceans of
the South once stood as barriers, later served as means of connecting
the rest of the world. They have helped to develop the commercial and
cultural relations with the west. The geographical diversity and zones
within the subcontinent and existence of various races like Dravidian,
Alpine, Mongolian and different tribes have led to the development
of different languages and cultures.
The river basins or valleys of North and South have made the country
agrarian from time immemorial. They also influenced the rise and fall
of many dynasties and growth of many religious, cultural and commercial
centers. Many varieties of minerals and rocks are available in abundance.
The rocks and stones like Sandstone, Marble and Granite have helped
the development of Architecture like palaces, forts, hill forts etc, and
also helped in the development of sculpture. The big rocks in the hills
have helped to develop cave temples. Abundance of rain and favourable
climate resulted in the growth of rich flora and fauna. Excluding the
Himalayas, Hills and desert the whole country falls in tropical climate
zone. The atmosphere is conducive for the all round growth of man.
-
Special Features of Indian History.
India is the seventh largest country in the World in area and the
second largest country in population. Even Herodotus has mentioned
India as 'the land of largest population'. The special features of Indian
history are-
1. Continuity of civilization and culture.
India has one of the earliest histories in the world. It has 4000
years of continuous history and continuity of civilization and culture
like China.
2. Evolution in phases.
Its civilization has developed in various stages and phases with
necessary improvements. We find a connecting chain of events from
Indus to Vedic, Vedic to Islamic and Christian influences.
3. Foreign Invasions.
India in general and North India in particular was often subjected
to the influence and invasion of foreigners. Greeks, Persians, Huns,
Shakas, Arabs, Turks, Kushans, Afghans etc, infiltrated into India
and left deep impact. All these invaders contributed to Indian culture
and became a part of it. The English were an exception to it. Though
they ruled for a long time, they did not become the part of Indian
culture. South India had immunity from such invasions and developed
a distinct culture of its own.
4. Dominant and tolerant Hindu faith.
India is home for Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs, Muslims,
Christians, Parsis and several tribal faiths and practices. Indians
believe in the concept of 'Vasudaivaka kutumbakam' and 'Sarve
Janaha Sukhino Bhavantu' meaning" the whole World is a family
and let all the people be happy."
5. Contributions to the world.
Indians have given noteworthy contributions in the field of Literature,
Philosophy, Music, Dance, Architecture, Sculpture, Science, Yoga,
Medicine, mathematics, Astronomy, Education, etc. The architectural
and cultural monuments including forts, hill forts, palaces, temples,
tombs and caves are the wonderful specimens of human artistic
-
excellence. U.N.O has recognized more than thirty historical sites
as centers of world heritage, such as hill forts ofRajasthan,
Khujaraho, Konark, Tajmahal, Jantar-Mantar, Gaya, Sanchi,
Ajanta, Ellora, Hampi, Pattadkallu, Madurai, Kanchi,
Mahabalipuram, Churches of Goa, etc.
Yoga and Ayurveda are the special contributions of India to the
physical and mental health of man in the world. The contribution
of Charaka, Sushruta and Patanjali are noteworthy. Hindustani and
Carnatic music, Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Kuchupudi, Mohiniattam,
etc. are the artistic contributions of India. The great contributions
of Indian mathematicians have enriched the world with the concept
of zero and the decimal system. When today's developed countries
were passing through dark ages, India was at the height of its
intellectual and spiritual glory. The Universities of Nalanda,
Takshashila, Ujjain, Prayag, Vikramshila, Kashi and Kanchi, attracted
the students from different countries of the world.
6. India as a country of attraction for foreigners.
The fertile land and the huge wealth of India attracted the foreign
invaders. The Greeks, Persians, Afghans, Mongols, Europeans, etc,
attacked India. Places of scenic beauty, hill stations, the Himalayas,
Kashmir Valley, the national parks of Kerala, beaches and historical
monuments are attracting the tourists from all over the world.
7. Unity in Diversity.
India not only has geographical diversity but also diversity in every
sphere of human activity.
a. Physical Diversity.
India possesses diverse physical features. The coldest Siachin,
the hot desert of Rajasthan, the snowy mountains of Himalayas
and evergreen forests, the plains and the plateaus and the coast
line etc, which have added to the varaity of flora and fauna.
b. Racial and Linguistic Diversity.
There is racial diversity in India. The people belonging to Dravidian,
Negroids, Mongoloids, Alpines etc, inhabit this country. Linguistic
diversity is also another unique feature of Indian history. There
are more than 1,600 languages and dialects spoken.
c. Social and Religious diversity.
India is regarded as museum of religions, castes, cults, faiths,
customs, languages, racial types and social systems. India also
has variety of food and dress habits. India has both patriarchal
and Matriarchal family systems. Monogamy, polygamy and
polyandry are also practiced. Four great religions namely
Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism have originated in this
land. Other prominent religions of the world such as Christianity,
Islam, Jews, Parsis and the sub-sects of all these religions co-exist
here with great harmony.
d. Economic diversity.
All through the ages we find economic inequality in India. The
resources are unevenly distributed. On one hand we find very
rich people, on the other hand very poor. Some regions and places
are highly developed and some others are underdeveloped. The
urban parts of India are highly developed and can be compared
with any city of the world, whereas rural India is comparatively
underdeveloped.
In spite of all these diversities there are many unifying forces that
have kept India united. Important among them are:
1. Geographical unity: Himalayas in the north and ocean in the south

have isolated India from the rest of the world and formed a separate
geographical unit.
2. Administrative unity: The administrative system of ancient India
was mostly identical and uniform which has been brought out by
Chanakya in his 'Arthashastra'. Rulers, administrators and
Bureaucrats have tried to bring political unity. Mauryas, Guptas,
Rashtrakutas, Kushans, Vardhanas, Chalukyas, Moghuls, Marathas,
etc. have tried to bring political unity by expanding their territories.
3. Uniform education and literature: In ancient India, there was uniform
education and literature. Sanskrit language and Vedic literature.
including the epics Ramayana, Mahabharata and -the
Bhagavadgeetha have instilled the feelings of oneness. Sanskrit was
the Lingua-Franca for a long time that influenced the regional
languages. Pali and Prakrit were the languages of the common
people. During the medieval period Persian language played an
important role. Later during the British rule English became the
Lingua-franca. After independence Hindi assumed that role. A
composite culture evolved during Muslim and British rule. Hence
Indians have developed the spirit of tolerance and co-existence.
4. Religious and Social ceremonies: Though India is a land of various
religions, castes, creeds, and sects, the people lead a life of harmony.
They participate in the religious and social ceremonies of each other
and often inter-dine. This has inculcated a feeling of oneness.
5. Recent Changes: Our constitution and the policies of the
government, the present economic and social conditions, the effects
of Globalization, etc. have reduced the differences among different
religions and castes. The food habits, dress, customs, traditions,
etc. are not much different from each other today. This again has
ushered unity among the people.
Introduction to Karnataka History.

Karnataka is a State in South India. It is inhabited dominantly by
Kannada speaking people. It is surrounded by Maharashtra and Goa
in the North, Arabian Sea in the West, Kerala and Tamilnadu in the
South and Andhra in the East. Kavirajamarga of Shrivijaya informs us
that Karnataka extended from Cauvery in the South to Godavari in
the North.
Origin and Antiquity.
Historians have given different theories regarding the origin of the
term Karnataka. Some of them argue that Karnataka derived its name
from the land,, others believe that the name of Kula or community
was coined for the State and vice-versa. The word Karnataka was first
used in the Sabha Parva and Bhishma Parva of Mahabharata. The Tamil
work Silappadigaram mentions the people as Karunadar. Velvikudi
copper plate refers to the term Karunadagan.
Different words like Kamada, Kammittunadu, Karunadu

found in Tamil classics have been differently interpreted
by historians.
According to S. B. Joshi, ( Shambha) the sanskritised version

Karnataka is derived from Kanna + Nadu = Kannadu.
Kanna is the name of the tribe and 'Nadu' the land.
Dr. D.R. Bendre opines that there were two tribes namely
'Kannas' & 'Natar' together formed the word 'Kannatar. Its
Sanskritised version is Karnataka.
Karnadu = Kari + Nadu is interpreted as land of Black

soil. Karu+Nadu = Karunadu is interpreted as elevated or
highland. Some other scholars believe that the term
Karnataka is derived from - Kammittu Nadu that is the
land of fragrance (Sandal wood).
The accepted view is that Karunadu is the name of the

land and Karunadar are the people. But as of today the
term Kamataka stands for the land, Kannadigas stand for
the people and Kannada stands for the language,
-Karnataka, Kannadiga and Kannada.
The extent of Karnataka was subject to expansion and contraction

depending upon the capability of its rulers. The geography of
Karnataka includes the coastal region, the Western Ghats (Sahyadris),
the Malanad and the Northern and Southern plains. These have played
important role in shaping the history. The important dynasties like
Kadambas, Gangas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, Vijayanagara,
Mysore Wodeyars, etc. have shaped the history of Karnataka in
particular and the history of India in general. These dynasties have
made rich contributions to the field of administration, art, architecture,
education and religion.
Karnataka has also played important role during the national
movement. There were anti-British armed rebellions in Karnataka.
Kannadigas also supported Mahatma Gandhi and the national movement.
The history and culture of Karnataka form the integral and homogeneous
part of Indian heritage. Kannadigas are proud that their language is

recognized as one of the four classical languages of India.
Sources of Indian History.
History is the record of past events and achievements of man through
the ages. But these events or achievements cannot be replayed or
reproduced. Historians try to reconstruct the past based on the available
sources. Hence, "No Sources, No History". Discovery, collection and
interpretation of sources are the greatest challenges to the historians.
Without sources the historical events will become imaginary or legendary
stories. We have a variety of sources for the study Indian and Kamataka
histories. But it is also an accepted fact that Indians lacked historic
sense. It is very difficult for historians to write Indian history without
the perfect knowledge of ancient Indian languages like Sanskrit, Pali,
Prakrit and many other regional languages and scripts like Brahmi
and Kharoshti. The deep knowledge of Indian tradition and culture is
also essential.
History is classified into pre historic period and historic period based
on the sources available to reconstruct it. The period where the written
records are not available is known as pre-historic period and the period
when we get written records is known as historic period.
The sources of history can be classified into two groups. 1)
Archaeological sources and 2) Literary sources.
1. Archaeological sources.
Archaeological sources are the remains of past human life and
activities. It includes the human relics and artifacts from the earliest
stone tools to the manmade objects found in the excavation. They
are the only sources when we do not have written records. Many
other times they authenticate the information of written records.
The important archeological sources are coins, seals, jewellery, tools,
inscriptions, remains of buildings, pottery, household articles,
terracotta figurines, fossils, weapons, paintings, etc. These provide
us with valuable and useful information to reconstruct the history.
a. Excavations:
Excavation is scientific digging of earth for unearthing Sources.
The pre history of India is written with the help of excavations
only. Excavations are the sole sources of Indus valley civilization.
The excavation conducted at Chandragiri, Tirunelveli, Madhurai,
Archemedu and other places give us information regarding stone
age. Other excavations atAnkorvat (Cambodia), Borobudur (Jawa)
Takshashila, Gaya, Pataliputra, Hampi,etc have provided an insight
into the social, cultural and religious life of the people. The
archaeological remains found during excavation are put to
scientific tests by carbon 14 and potassium methods to ascertain
the age of the remains.
b. Monuments:
They are the structures or sites of historical importance. Forts,
palaces, caves, temples, basadis, statues, stupas etc, are the
examples of monuments. The caves of Ajanta, Ellora, Khajuraho,
the temples at Konark, Belur, Halebeedu, Hampi, the statues
of Gomateshwara, Buddha, etc, help us to understand the cultural
heritage of India.
c. Coins:
The study of coins is known as Numismatics. Coins help us to
understand the period (age), dynasty, economic condition, religion,
script and languages. They also give information regarding
metallurgy, artistic abilities, titles, trade relation and extent of
the empires etc. The coins of Guptas, Shatavahanas, Yadavas,
Vijayanagara etc, are noteworthy. Availability of coins of one
country in other country tells about the commercial relations
between them. The coins in India are of gold, silver, copper,
etc.
d. Paintings:
The paintings of various periods give us most vivid picture of
cultural, social and religious aspects. For ex : The paintings in
Ajanta depict the pictures of royal class, pageants, dance, dress,
hair styles, celebrations, etc. At times they also depict the historical
events. Ex: The paintings atAjanta caves has a picture of
Pulikeshi-
11 receiving the ambassador of Khusro-11.
e. Inscriptions: -
Inscriptions are the most valuable reliable, authentic and direct
sources in writing history. They are generally contemporary and
related to the events, so are more reliable. Inscriptions are
engraved on stones, rocks, walls, terracotta seals and iron
pillars. Some of them are on copper plates also. More than 75000
Inscriptions have been found in India. They are written in various
languages like Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada etc.
They contain details regarding events, sale deeds, decrees,
donations, chronology, victories of kings, etc. The study of
inscriptions is called 'Epigraphy'.
The writings on the seals of Indus civilization are not yet deciphered
to the acceptance of all. That is why Ashoka's inscriptions are regarded
as the oldest ones. They are religious in nature. They provide valuable
information regarding his administration, and the prevailing political
conditions. Hatigumpha cave inscription of king Kharvela of Orissa gives
details regarding the expeditions of Kharvela. The Allahabad pillar
inscription composed by Harisena gives details regarding the
achievements of Samudragupta. lhole inscription composed by Ravikeerti
and Halmidi inscription of Kakutsavarma have their own importance in
the history of Kamataka.
2. Literary sources.
The written records or books of the past, usually written on palm
leaves, barks of trees much later on paper are called as literary
sources. Literary sources can be classified into two types,
a. Indigenous Literature and b. Foreign accounts.
a. Indigenous Literature:
The literature written by native writers is known as Indigenous
Literature. It includes both secular and religious literature. It
is found in various Indian languages. The religious literature
produced by Vedic Rishis, Budhist and Jain monks are major
sources of history. The Vedic or Brahmanical literature includes
the Vedas, the Brahmanakas, the Aranyakas, the Puranas, the
Epics, etc. They help us to understand the social, religious,
spiritual and philosophical life of Aryans. Buddhist monks
developed a
rich literature in Pali language. The Tripitakas provide information
regarding Mahajanapadas, many cities and Mauryan kings. Jain
monks have also produced rich literature in Prakrit and regional
languages especially Kannada. Angas and Upaangas are the
religious texts of Jainism. Jain scholars like Prabhunandi,
Vidyanandi, Gunabhadra, Ajithasenacharya, Poojyapada, etc. have
thrown light on social and political conditions in their writings.
Apart from vast religious literature, Indians have also
produced secular literature in the form of biography, drama, works
on history, polity, science, maths, ayurveda and yoga which
focus on the various aspects of the then existing society.
Buddhacharita of Ashwagosha, Harshacharita of Banabhatta,
Prithvirajraso of Chandbardai, Vikramankadevacharita of
Bilhana, Rajatarangini of Kalhana, Raghuvamsha and
Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa, Mudrarakshasa of Vishakdatta,
Arthashastra of Kautilya, Mahabhashya of Panini, Astangayoga
of Patanjali, etc. throw light on the history of their times. The
works on science and maths like Suryasiddhanta and
Romakasiddhanta by Aryabhata, Charaka Samhita by Charaka,
Shusruta Samhita by Shushruta, etc. provide information to
reconstruct the past.
b. Foreign accounts.
The fertile land, wealth, intellectual and philosophical
attainments of India had attracted many foreign traders, students,
pilgrims, philosophers and invaders. Many of them left their
records, impressions and opinions about India. Such accounts
have merits as well as limitations. They are the primary sources
by first hand informers and help to bridge the gap about important
events. But it is very difficult for the travellers and scholars
staying for a short time to understand the complexities of Indian
culture and polity. Megasthanes, a Greek ambassador, in his book,
'lndica' has given valuable information regarding South and North
India during Mauryan period. 'Geography', by Ptolemy, another
Greek historian supplies information regarding commercial
relations of ancient India. 'The Periplus of the Erithrean Sea', a
work by an unknown Greek author mentions many coastal towns,
rulers and products of India. 'Natural Historia' by Pliny, a Roman
writer gives idea regarding Indo-Roman relations and political
conditions of India.
Trio Pilgrims of China - Fahian, Huien Tsang and Itsing have
provided most useful information. Fahian visited India in early
5th century C.E. and has given vivid picture of many cities and
•
Ashoka's palace. He also gives information of Gupta
administration. Huien tsang visited India in seventh century
C.E. and stayed for about 18 years, and travelled extensively. He
has left valuable information in his book 'Siyuki'. He visited the
courts of Harshvardhana and Pulikeshi II. He has given a vivid
picture of the education, religion, society, and administration. He
has also mentioned the Narmada Battle and the defeat of Harsha.
Itsing visited India during the last decade of seventh century C.E.
He travelled extensively and gives information regarding various
cities of India like Rajagraha, Kasi and Nalanda.
Muslim writers and historians have given valuable
contributions. Important among them are Firdousi's. (Ibn Hassan)
Shahanama and Babarnama by Bahar, Jahangirnama byJ ahangir,
Akbarnama by Abdul Fazal, etc. The Arab travellers, Sulaiman,
Alberuni, and Ibn Batuta, have left their records about Indian
history. Many other travellers like Nikolo Conti of Italy, Abdul
Razzak of Persia, Barbosa and Domingo Paes of Portugal and
Niketin of Russia have given lot of information regarding
Vijayanagara and Bahamani History.
Activity
Collect puranic references regarding the origin of the different names of India.
QUESTIONS
I. Answer the following in a word or a sentence each.

1. From which language is the word 'India' derived?
2. Name the work that mentions the extent of ancient Karnataka.
3. What is Numismatics?
4. What is excavation?
5. Who wrote 'Buddacharita'?
6. Which is the famous work of Pliny?
II. Answer the following in two words or two sentences each.
1. Name any two passes that connect India with the west.
2. What was the extent of India according to Vishnupurana?
3. Mention any two names of India.
4. Mention any two physical features of India.
5. Name any two mountains of India.
6. Mention any two dominant religions of Indian origin.
7. Mention any two World Heritage sites of India.
8. Name any two universities of ancient India.
9. What is the extent of Karnataka according to Kavirajamarga ?
10. Name any two important dynasties that ruled Karnataka.
11. Write any two physical features of Karnataka.
12. 'No sources No history'. Why?
13. What is the difference between Pre-Historic and Historic age?
14. Mention any two uses of coins in the construction of history?
15. Why are the Inscriptions the most reliable sources in the
construction of history?
16. What are Archaeological sources?
17. Mention the two kinds of Literary sources.
III. Answer the following in 15 to 20 sentences each

1. Explain briefly the impact of Geography on Indian history.
2. Explain the special features of Indian History.
3. 'Unity in Diversity is the unique feature of Indian history'. Explain.
4. Write a note on the contributions of foreign writers in
reconstructing the history of India.
5. Write a note on the importance of Archaeological sources in
reconstructing the History of India.
Chapter 2 - Stone Age and Metal Age
•
CHAPTER Z
STONE AGE AND METAL AGE (PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD)
Human beings are living in India from time immemorial. We can
study the history only on the basis of rude implements they used. This
is known as pre history. India is one of the earliest homes of man.
But historians have no unanimity of opinion regarding the exact place
of origin of the first man in India. Some scholars believe that first man
lived in Sivalik hills of Himalayas and others believe it to be in South
India (Dandakaranya, the then parts of Karnataka).
The existence of various races Negros, Mongoloids, Dravidians, Alpines,

etc. complicate the issue of the origin of man. Present population of
India is the result of inter mixing of many races. But the most acceptable
view is that Deccan was the first home of man. It is believed that man
walked on this earth as early as 150,000 years ago.
The Pre historic period based on the stone implements and metals
used is classified into six ages. 1) Paleolithic 2) Mesolithic 3) Neolithic
4) Copper 5) Bronze and 6) Iron ages. There is also difference of opinion
among historians regarding the exact time or period of these ages.
1. Paleolithic age.
The word Paleolithic is derived from Greek word 'Paleo' (old), and
'lithic' (stone). This is known as Old Stone Age. This period existed
between 40,000 to 10,000 BCE. Man used rough and undressed
stones fitted to stick or bone handles. They used very hard stone
called Quartzite. So they were also known as 'Quartzitemen'. They
had no idea of the use of fire, pottery and agriculture. They mostly
lived on hunting. It is believed that they belonged to the Negro
race with short stature, dark skin, wooly hairs and flat nose.
The important sites of Paleolithic man in India are the Sohan river
basin in present Pakistan, Narmada, and Tungbhadra valleys, Bhopal
and Chota Nagpur areas of Madhya Pradesh, Tirunalveli, in Tamil
Nadu and Karnul in Andhra Pradesh and Belan caves of Uttar
Pradesh, Lingasugur in Raichur and Ghataprabha river basin in
Belgaum district of Karnataka.
2. Mesolithic age.
'Meso' in Greek means middle and 'lithic' means stone. Mesolithic
age means Middle stone age. This was the intervening period between
Paleothic and Neolethic ages. We are not certain about the duration
and age of this period. But commonly accepted age was between
10000 to 8000 BCE. The tools of this period are small compared
to that of the Paleolithic Age. They generally varied between half
inch to one inch (compared to paleolithic age) The man prepared
polished weapons with holes and shapes to the weapons. The
Mesolithic man was a hunter, gatherer and fisherman. He also knew
the use of fire. He learnt to manufacture pots, became herdsman
and buried the dead ones. Important Mesolithic sites in India are
found at Ajmer in Rajasthan, Sabarmati basin in Gujarat,
Ahmadnagar in Maharashtra, Sangankallu in Bellaiy District and
Brahmagiri in Chitradurga District of Karnataka.
3. The Neolithic age.

The word Neolithic is derived from Greek words Neo and Lithic,
which means 'New, and 'Stone'. So Neolithic means new stone age.
It is commonly believed that it existed between 8000 to 4000 B.C.E.
The man of this age used stones along with quartzite. The weapons
were chipped, ground, grooved and polished. They had different
forms to serve different purposes.
The man during this period learnt cultivation and domesticated

variety of animals like cow, sheep, goat, etc. They lived in caves and
decorated them with paintings and carvings. The hunting and dancing
scenes are commonly found. They decorated their pottery and built
boats to sail into sea. Weaving was known to them. They used wool
and cotton to manufacture cloth. Their food included fruits,
vegetables, roots, animal flesh, fish, milk products, etc. Cooking was
also known to them. They also used ornaments like beads, rings,
bangles, armlets,
Chapter 2 - Stone Age and Metal Age
etc. •
The lifestyle of this Neolithic man differed in different parts of the
country based on the geographical condition. They worshipped
ancestors and spirits, cremated the dead ones and preserved the
ashes. The practice of human sacrifice was in vogue. Many human
skulls are found during excavation.
The Noelithic sites are Maski, Raichur Doab, Cauvery basin, Bellary
in Karnataka, Salem and Tiruanalveli in Tamilnadu, Hyderabad
and Karnul in Andhra Pradesh, Kathewar in Gujarat, Sindh and
Baluchistan in Pakistan , etc.
Metal Age.
The transition from Stone Age to Metal Age was a gradual process.
Metallic implements and stone implements were used side by side. But
there was no uniformity regarding the use of metals in different parts
of India. In North India new stone age was succeeded by copper age,
whereas in South India new stone age was replaced by Iron age. The
metal age is classified as Copper age, Bronze age and Iron age.
Copper Age.
Gold was the earliest metal to be used. As it was scarce, soft and
shiny, it was only used for ornaments. But the discovery of copper
brought a revolutionary change in human civilization and the dawn of
a new age. Copper was used to prepare implements, harpoons, swords,
axes, spear heads, etc. The implements were used for agriculture, fishing,
fighting and hunting. Copper age co-relates with Harappan civilization.
Iron Age.
By this time hunting and pastoral occupations were sidelined by
agriculture. Man started the settled life. No doubt some bronze
implements and articles are discovered in India, but there is no age as
Bronze Age in Indian History. With the copper and Iron age we enter
the limits of historical period in India. Iron was extensively used in
South India.
Activity
Collect information regarding the various sites of Stone Age in Kamataka.
QUESTIONS

1. Name the stone used by Paleolithic man.
2. Which was the first metal used by man in North India.
3. Which was the first metal used by man in South India?
1. What is the meaning of the term 'Paleolithic'?
2. Mention any two sites of the Paleolithic age.
3. Mention any two sites of the Mesolithic age.
4. What is the meaning of the word 'Neolithic' ?
5. Name any two sites of the Neolithic age.
Chapter 3 - Indus Civilization
CHRPTER-3
INDOS CIVILIZATION
The Indus civilization is one of the ancient civilizations of the world.
It was a contemporary civilization of Egypt, Mesopotamia and China.
In 1856, while laying the railway lines (tracks) in Sindh, some seals
and burnt bricks were discovered. The Department of Archaeological Survey
oflndia was established in 1861. Again in 1862, General Cunningham
discovered a few more seals. In 1920's Sir John Marshall, the then
Director General of Archaeological Department and his colleagues
discovered a new civilization. That is the Indus civilization. In 1921 Dr
RB. Dayaram Sahani discovered Harappan site in the Montgomery district
of West Punjab which is now in Pakistan. This is situated on the banks
of the river Ravi. In 1922 Dr. R.D Banerjee took up excavation in the
Larkhan district of Sindh and discovered Mohenjodaro. Mohenjodaro
means the 'Mound of the dead' in Sindhi language. Numerous excavations
have taken place in the last century at various sites uncovering a lot
of information about Indus civilization. With the partition of the
subcontinent a number of major sites are now in Pakistan.
Important sites belonging to Indus period
SI.no Place of Discovery Country /state Name of Archaeologists
.
1. Rupar Punjab Y.D.Sharma
2. Lothal Cambay-Gujarath Dr.S.R.Rao
3. Kalibangan Rajasthan B.K.Thappar
4. Dholvira Kuch -Gujarath Dr R.S.Bisht
5. Chanhudaro Sindh -Pakistan N.G. Muzumdar
6. Alamgirpur Uttar Pradesh Y.D.Sharma
7. Surkotada Gujarath J.P. Joshi
8. Rangpur Gujarath N.G.Muzumdar
9. Kotdiji Pakistan F.A. Khan
10. Banawali Haryana R.N. Bisht
SITES OF INDUS CIVILIZATION
irpur
• Banawa
• Kalibangan
lavira
othal
(/Jr,,,
,,,Cii
Bay of
Bengal
Arabian
Sea
@
W
.
.E
Indian Ocean
-
Scholars like Sir John Marshall and Dr Mackey are of the opinion
that Indus civilization belongs to 3000 BCE, on the basis of similarity
between strata of the Indus civilization and Sumerian seals. The extent
of the Indus valley civilization covers from Punjab in the West (present
Pakistan) to Uttar Pradesh in the East and from Jammu in the North
to river Narmada in the South. Historians have expressed different views
regarding the race of the people of this civilization. Based on the
skeletons and skulls found, it is believed that they belonged to Proto-
Australoide, Mediterranean, Mongolian and Alpines.
Salient features:
Town Planning.
Town planning is the unique feature of Indus civilization.
Their town planning proves that they lived a highly civilized
and developed life. Indus people were the first to build planned
cities with scientific drainage system. The Indus cities were built on
an uniform plan. Town planning was amazing in nature. A few cities
have citadels to the West built on a higher platform and to the east
of which is the hub of residential area. Both of them are surrounded
by a massive brick wall. The cities without citadel are found on high
mounds.
Streets.
The streets were straight and cut each other at right angles. They
were 13 to 34 feet wide and were well lined. The streets and roads
divided the city into rectangular blocks. Archaeologists have discovered
the lamp posts at intervals. This suggests the existence of street lights.
Dustbins were also provided on the streets. These prove the presence
of good municipal administration.
Drainage system.
One of the most remarkable features of this civilization is that
the city was provided with an excellent closed drainage system. Each
house had its own drainage and soak pit which was connected to the
public drainage. Brick laid channels flowed through every street. They
were covered and had manholes at intervals for cleaning and clearing
purposes. Large brick culverts with corbelled roofs were constructed
• Indian History - II PUC Text Book
on the outskirts of the city to carry excess water. Thus Indus people
had a perfect underground drainage system. No other contemporary
civilization gave so much attention to cleanliness.
The Great Bath.

The most striking
feature in
Mohenjodaro is the
Great Bath. It consists
of a large
quadrangle. In the
centre is a great
swimming pool with
the remains of
galleries and rooms on
all four sides. There
were arrangements
for hot water bath in
some rooms. In the
centre is a great
swimming pool of
39ft long, 23ft wide
and 8ft deep. It has a
flight of steps at either Great Bath
end and is fed by a
well,
situated in one of the adjoining rooms. The water was discharged by
a huge drain with corbelled roof more than 6ft in depth. The Great
bath had 8ft thick outer walls. This solid construction has successfully
withstood the natural ravages for 5000 years.
Granaries:
The largest building in Mohenjodaro is a granary which is 45. 7 lmtrs
long and 15.23 mtrs wide. In Harappa there are a series of brick
platforms which formed the base for two rows of 6 granaries each. In the
Southern part of Kalibangan brick platforms have also been found. These
granaries safely stored the grains, which were probably collected as
revenue or store houses to be used in emergencies.
Buildings:
People of Indus built houses and other buildings by the side of
roads. They built terraced houses of burnt bricks. Every house had
two or more rooms. There were also more than one storied houses.
The houses were designed around an inner court yard and contained
pillared halls, bath rooms, paved floors, kitchen, well, etc. Besides
residential quarters, elaborate structures have also been found. One
of these buildings has got the biggest hall measuring 80ft long and
80ft wide. It might have been a palace, or temple or hall for holding
meetings. The workmen quarters are also found. There was an excellent
system of water supply. There were public wells by the side of
streets. Every big house had its own well. They also built a dockyard
at Lothal.
Political Condition:
There are no written records. So it is very difficult to assert the
kind of administration that existed during this period. Historians have
guessed the existence of a strong administration with uniform and
strict laws based on the accurate and systematic town planning. There
was uniformity in town planning, drainage, water supply, and
maintenance of streets. Dr. S.R Rao is claimed to have deciphered the
writing on some seals and he opines that these ancient cities had
administrators of various grades. It proves the existence of well
established administration.
Social Condition.
With the help of the excavations some historians have come to the
conclusion that there was a fourfold division of the society based on
occupations. They were probably, the Learned class, Warriors, Traders
and Workers. The learned class included priests, astrologers and
physicians.
Wheat was their principal food. Barley, rice, fruits, vegetables, dates,
milk, etc. were used. Fish, beef, pork, poultry, flesh of tortoise, etc.
were also used.
They used cotton and wollen clothes. Their dress was simple. Both
men and women wore upper garment (shawl) and lower garment (dhoti).
The Indus women were fond of ornaments. Ornaments were worn by
both women and men. Girdles, nose studs, earrings and anklets were
worn only by women. There was variety in the shape and the design
of the ornaments. Ornaments were made of gold, silver and precious
stones. Women knew variety of hair styles and they used ivory combs
and bronze mirror. Toilet jars made of ivory, metal, pottery and stones
have been discovered at Harappa. Face paints, lipsticks and collyrium
were also used.
The people had great love for indoor and outdoor games. Dice,
hunting, bull fighting, cock fighting, fishing, clay modelling and chess
were means of amusements. They knew the art of dancing and
music.
A rich variety of earthern vessels made of potter's wheel have been

discovered and they were either glazed or painted. Vessels of copper,
bronze, silver and porcelain were used. Children's toys such as clay
models of birds, animals, men, women, wheeled carts and chair were
common. We also come across many weapons like the axes, spears,
daggers, maces, slings, bow and arrows. They were made of copper and
bronze.
They disposed their dead by cremation or burial. Many urns

containing human bones and ashes have been found and a large burial
ground has been unearthed at Harappa.
Economic Condition.
Agriculture was the main occupation followed by cattle rearing and
dairy farming. They knew the art of irrigation. They grew wheat, barley,
peas, sesame and cotton abundantly. They reared fine breed of cattle
both for milk and meat purpose. They domesticated animals like the
buffaloe, bull, sheep, goat, dog, pig, elephant, camel and fowl.
During Indus civilization a number of handicrafts like spinning,

weaving, dyeing, pottery, carpentry, metal industry, etc. existed.
Indus people knew the use of weights and measures. A shell scale
at Mohenjodaro and a bronze scale at Harappa have been discovered.
They also had knowledge of decimal system. Indus people had developed
internal and external trade. Harappa, Lothal, Kalibangan, Rupar,
Surkotada and Chanhudaro were the main centers of trade. They carried
on their trading activity through barter system. Indus seals, art motifs
and their articles have been discovered in West Asia, Egypt and
Mesopotamia. A dockyard at Lothal in Gujarat shows that Indus people
•
carried on external trade through ships. Internally they had trade links
with South India, Rajasthan, and Gujarat etc. They exported ivory,
gold, beads, timber and other goods and imported precious stones,
copper and tin. Bullock carts, donkeys, Elephants and Camels were
used for road transportation.
Religious Condition:
Seals, terracotta figurines
and images of stones narrate
the religious life of Indus
people. Mother Goddess was
their chief deity. They
worshipped Shiva in the form
of Pashupati and Linga. They
also worshipped trees, animals,
birds, serpents and feared
demons.
Art and Sculpture: Dancing girl Bearded Man

Indus people had cultivated
aesthetic tastes. The seals, figurines, amulets, pottery and the bronze
idol of a dancing girl, a statue of bearded man, figures of Pashupati,
attractive designs on pottery, terracotta toys and jewellery are examples
of their artistic skill.
Seals and Scripts:
More than 3000 seals made of terracotta, ivory, stone or steatite
are found. Most of them are square or rectangular in shape and small
in size. On most of them, there are finely engraved figures of various
animals like bull, unicorn, elephant, antelope, human and other
pictographic writing. All of them contain pictorial writing which has
not been deciphered to the acceptance of all. But it seems that the
direction of the writing was right to left. In some cases it was from
right to left in the first line and left to right in the second line.
The End of the Indus Civilization:
Historians have attributed so many reasons for the decline and end
of this civilization. The rivers must have changed their course and ruined
the cities .The drifting of the river away from the cities might have rendered
the place unfertile. Continuous floods might have led to the erosion
of the soil and destruction of life. Over exploitation of the land might
have turned it barren. Spread of epidemics must have wiped-out the
population. The decreased rainfall must have turned the land into desert.
The wealth of the Indus might have attracted barbaric invaders putting
the inhabitants to their swords.
Recent researches have shown that the decline of the Indus
civilization was not sudden but gradual, may be on account oflarge scale
deforestation leading to frequent floods and consequent ecological
imbalance. Aryan invasion also seems to be a plausible reason.
Activity
Compare Indus civilization with other civilizations of the world.
QUESTIONS

1. In which year was the Department of Archaeological Survey
of India established ?
2. What does the word Mohenjodaro mean?
3. Where is the Greatbath of Indus Valley Civilization located?
4. Where was the dockyard of Indus Valley Civilization discovered?
5. Mention the important diety of Indus people.
1. Who discovered Harappa and Mohejodaro?
2. Name any two cities discovered in Indus Civiliization.
3. Mention the methods of disposal of the dead by Indus people.
4. Mention any two imports of Indus people.
5. Mention any two exports of Indus people.
6. Mention any two causes which brought an end to Indus
Civilization.
III.Answer the following in 15 to 20 sentences each.
1. Explain the town planning of Indus Civilization.
2. State the social and economic conditions of Indus people.
IV. Answer the following in 30 to 40 sentences.
1. Enumerate briefly the salient features of Indus Civilization.
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4.1 Vedic Culture
•
CHflPTER-4
ANCIENT PEltlOD
Chapter-4.1
VEDIC CULTURE
Aryans evolved a distinct culture that developed after the Indus
civilization in the Indian subcontinent. It is believed that they came
to India from the North West direction in around 2000 BCE. The early
Aryans have not left behind any archaeological sources, but they have
given very rich Vedic literature, which throws light on their culture.
Vedas are the greatest contributions of the Aryans. Hence this culture
is called the Vedic Culture.
Origin.
There is no unanimous opinion regarding the original home of the
Aryans. It is believed that the Aryans were pastoral nomads, who
originally inhabited the Caspian Sea region of Central Asia. They
migrated to the Indian sub continent in search of pastures. Here they met
strong opposition from the natives, whom they called Dasyus. However
they overcame the resistance and settled on the banks of the river Sindhu
(Sapta Sindhu Region). They occupied Aryavarta (the land of Aryans).
the greater part of Northern India and the Dravidians who were
vanquished migrated to the South. .
Sapta-Sindhu - Region of seven rivers 1. Jhelum 2.
Chenab 3.Bias 4. Ravi 5. Sutlej 6. Saraswati 7. Drishadwati
Opinions of Scholars about Aryan Origin

Historians Place of origin
1. Swami Dayananda Saraswati Tibet.
2. Bal Gangandhar Tilak Arctic Region.
3. Max muller Central Asia.
4. Prof. Macdonell South East Asia.

5. Dr.A.C.Das Punjab.
6. Raj bali Pandey Central India.
7. Pandit Laxmidharshastri Himalayan foot hills.
8. L.D. Kala Kashmir
Aryan means noble or master or a person dependent on Agriculture.

Aryans were quite different from Dravidians. They were fair in
complexion and had a well built body. Vedas, the sacred books of
Aryans are the main sources of study for the Vedic Culture. 'Veda' is
derived from the Sanskrit word 'Vid', which means knowledge. They
composed four Vedas namely, Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and
Atharvanaveda. Rigveda was the first to be composed. This period is
called Early Vedic period or the Rig Vedic period. The remaining three
Vedas namely Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda were composed
later on, which is called Later Vedic period.
Salient Features
Political condition.
The Aryan tribes gradually settled in India. The tribes were called
'Janas'. The head of the tribe was called 'Rajan'. The tribes quarelled
with each other for cattle and territories. Rajan was assisted by the
Purohita, Sangrahatri, Senapati, Vispathis and Gramanis in the
administration. Grama was the smallest unit of administration. Gramani
was the head of the village and Vispathi was in charge of a group of
villages. The primary duty of the king was the protection of his tribe
and he received gifts from the people for this. Sabha (group of Elders)
and Samithi (group of Experts) also assisted the king in the
administration.
During the later Vedic period Janas became powerful and turned
into kingdoms. The kingdoms were divided into provinces and sub
divided into Gopas, Vishayas and Gramas. Kingship became hereditary.
The important kingdoms were Kuru, Panchala, Kashi, Videha,
Vidharbha, etc. Imperialism came into existence resulting in hierarchy
of kings viz Raja, Maharaja, Rajadhiraja, Ekrat, Virat, Samrat,
Chakravarthi, etc. The Kings began to perfrom yagas like Rajasuya,
Ashwamedha and
Vajapeya to establish political supremacy. The King had grown in power

and was to perform many administrative duties including the
protection of his subjects. The kings were assisted by council of
ministers and a number of officers. The Sabha and Samithi
continued to exist.
The military was well organized and consisted of infantry, elephant
force and cavalry. Navy was in little use. Warfare became complicated
in the later Vedic period. The simple weapons of the Early Vedic Age
were replaced in the Later Vedic Age by improved war weapons like
bows and arrows, swords, spears, maces, axes, etc. Helmets and armours
were used for protection. Winning the war became important and they
followed the path of deceit for this purpose.
Social Condition
Joint family system was in existence. Aryan society was patriarchal.
The eldest male member was the head of the family and was called
'Kulapathi' or 'Grihapathi'. Monogamy was in vogue. Polygamy was
confined to royal families. Widow Remarriage was in existence. The
status of women was high and they had equal rights with men. Women
scholars like Vishwavara, Ghosha, Apala, etc. composed hymns. The social
divisions, Chaturvarnas were based on professions. They were
Brahamana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The people could change
professions and hence change the Varnas. Thus there was mobility among
the Varnas.
During Later Vedic period polygamy and polyandry came into
existence. The position of women deteriorated. Women continued to
participate in religious rites. Only the women of higher class received
higher education. But the woman was now under the protection of father
or husband or a son. Varnas turned into many Castes. Caste system
became hereditary. Brahmanas and Kshatriyas enjoyed a high status
compared to the Vaishyas and Shudras. Life of an individual was divided
into four stages called Ashramas. They were Brahmacharya (Student
Life), Grihastha (married life), Vanaprastha (retirement to forest for
meditation) and Sanyasa (ascetism).
Wheat, rice, barley, vegetables, fruits, milk and milk products formed
the diet of the people. Fish and meat were also used. Soma and Sura
were intoxicating drinks used during religious and festive occasions.
Aryans wore clothes made of cotton and wool. Their dress consisted
of Vastra, Adivastra, and Nivi. Both women and men wore ornaments
made of gold, silver and flowers. The ornaments used were necklaces,
earrings, finger rings, bracelets, anklets, bangles, armlets, etc. Women
plaited their hair in different styles.
Gambling, chariot racing, horse racing, music, dancing, etc. were
different forms of amusements. Nagari, Dundhubhi, Veena and flute
were the important musical instruments of that time.
Economic Condition
In the Rigvedic age Aryans lived in the villages. Agriculture was
the chief occupation. Cattle rearing was another important occupation.
The cultivated land was called 'Kshetra'. Simple professions like
carpentry, pottery, weaving, etc. existed. Trade was carried on to a limited
extent. Cattle was considered as wealth. Barter system was in
vogue.
In the later Vedic Age, many villages turned into cities. viz Hastinapura,
Indraprastha, Kousambi, etc. Agriculture continued to be the chief
occupation. Cattle rearing, trade and other professions also continued
to exist. Trade and Commerce gained importance. We come across both
inland and maritime trade. The main articles of trade were cotton, silk,
etc. Barter system continued to exist and Nishka (a piece of gold) was
also used.
Religious Condition
Vedic religion is also known as Sanatana Dharama, Hinduism and
Brahmanical religion. It is one of the oldest religions of the world which
is still practiced. The Early Vedic Aryans were worshippers of nature.
They had belief in several Gods. They worshipped Gods like Indra
,Varuna, Agni, Vayu , Surya, Pruthvi, Soma, etc. Hence they were
polytheists. There was no idol worship. The method of worship was
simple. They praised the Gods by composing hymns. Simple rituals and
performance of Yajnas and Yagas (sacrifices) were in vogue.
In the Later Vedic period the practice of religion became complex
and rigid. The number of Gods increased many fold and Gods were
attributed with different shapes and qualities. Idol worship came into
existence. Gods were graded. New Deities like Brahma, Vishnu,
Maheswara, Ganesha, Kartikeya, Parvati, Laxmi, Kali, Durga, etc. came
into existence. Cow was considered as sacred and its slaughter was
prohibited. The procedure of worship also became complex with the
use of mantras and elaborate rituals. The performance of Yagas and
•
Yajnas also became elaborate. Hence the practice of Vedic religion
became costly. Practices like Evil worship, Black magic and Witch craft
came into existence.
Vamas, Ashramas and Purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, Kama, and
Moksha) are an integral part of Vedic religion. The entire life of a Hindu
is guided by samskaras. Vedic religion believes in the cycle of birth
death-rebirth. It also believes in the concept of the transmigration of
the soul. The objective of the soul is to reach God which is called
'Moksha' (Salvation). Many paths like Bhakti, Jnana, Karma and Yoga are
prescribed to attain salvation. The sacred books of Hindus are many
in number. Some of the important are Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas,
Smrithis, etc. The epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata are given much
importance.
Education and Science

Education was imparted in Gurukulas, Pathashalas, Agraharas and
Ghatikas. Temples were also places of education. Higher education was
imparted in Universities like Kanchi and Thakshashila. Education
commenced with a ceremony called Upanayanam. The position of Guru
was high. Both men and women received education . Gargi, Maitreyi,
Shashwati, Lopamudra, etc. were important women scholars. Vedas,
Puranas, Philosophy, Mathematics, Astronomy, Astrology, Medicine,
Logic, etc. were important subjects taught. Sanskrit was the medium
of instruction. Aryans achieved great progress in Mathematics, Geometry,
Medicine and Metallurgy. Calculations like the distance between the
sun and moon, moon and earth and sun and earth were known to
them. They also had knowledge of the occurrence of eclipses, comets,
etc. They had also achieved great progress in medicine. The cure of
diseases was done by using herbs, roots, leaves, oils, salts and mud.
They followed the lunar calendar.
Activity
Analyze the differences between Vedic Culture and Indus Civilization
QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by the term Arya?
2. From which word is the term Veda derived?
3. What is meant by Veda?
4. Name the first Veda.
5. Who was the head of the family during Vedic period?
6. What was the main occupation of the Aryans?
7. What was 'Kshetra'?
8. What was considered as wealth by the Aryans?
9. What was the ceremony performed to send the child to school?
1. Name any two Vedas.
2. Which two political institutions assisted the king in the
administration during the Vedic period?
3. Name any two Vamas.
4. Name any two Ashramas of Aryans.
5. Mention any two amusements of Vedic people.
6. Name any two women scholars of Vedic period.
III. Answer the following in 15 to 20 sentences each.
1. Give an account of the political condition of Aryans.
2. Explain the social condition of Aryans.
3. Enumerate the Religious condition of Aryans.
4. Write a short note on education and science during Vedic period.
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4.2 The Rise of New Religions
CttfiPTEit 4. 2
TttE itlSE OF NEW itELl<ilONS

India in sixth century BCE witnessed a protest against the exploitation
in religion and social system. There was a movement against caste system,
injustice and rigid practices. The need of the time was simple religion
and spiritual order, which were fulfilled to a great extent by Mahavira
and Buddha.
Factors responsible for the rise of new religions.
a) Complications in Vedic religion: In the beginning, Vedic
religion was very simple without any complexities. Later, due to
the influence of priests, a number of rigidities crept into this
religion. People got dissatisfied and they wanted a change which
they found in new religions.
b) Supremacy of the priestly class: Brahamanas established their
supremacy over other castes. It became impossible for the people
to perform yajnas without priests. The Brahamanas enjoyed a
number of special privileges and regarded themselves as superior
to all.
c) Animal Sacrifices: Animal sacrifices formed a part of rituals,
which were very costly to practice. So the people lost faith in
the existing religion. Rites and rituals of the Rigvedic period
became complex in the later vedic period. For worldly
attainments like getting children, victory in the war, cure from
diseases and also for getting salvation, yagas and rituals were
recommended
. Rationalists regarded them as waste.
d) Chanting of Mantras (Sanskrit Shlokas): Vedic literature was
in Sanskrit, which was mastered by the priestly class. It was
not possible for the common people to understand them. In the
absence of clear understanding, the people lost faith in chanting
of mantras.
e) Caste System: Social system was rigid. There was discrimination
among the different castes. Brahmanas enjoyed high status. The
people became discontented due to inequality in the society.
Shudras had to suffer untold miseries.
f) Birth of Great Personalities: When the people were unhappy
and discontented, there arose two great personalities, namely
Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. They preached simple principles
of life in the language of the common people. The simple path
to salvation preached by the new religions attracted the common
people towards the new faith.
JAINISM.
Jainism is one of the oldest religions in India.
The J ains believe that there were 24 thirthankaras
and Rishabhanatha was the first Thirthankara who
founded Jainism. Parshvanatha was the 23rd and
Mahavira was the 24th of the Thirthankaras.
Swastik is the holy symbol of Jainism.
Parsvanatha attained supreme knowledge at the
age of 30. He preached four great principles
(teachings)
1. Ahimsa - non-violence
2. Satya - truth Symbol of Jainisim
3. Astheya - not to steal

4. Aparigraha - non possession of property more than required
These teachings formed the fundamental doctrines of Jainism.
Vardhamana Mahaveera (599 - 527 BCE)

Early Life
Vardhamana was born in 599 BCE at Kundagrama near Vaishali.
His parents were King Siddhartha and Queen Trishaladevi. Siddhartha
was the head of a Kshatriya clan. Vardhamana married Princess
Yashodha at the age of 18. He had a daughter by name Anojja or
Priyadarshini. Due to the sudden death of his parents, Vardhamana
renounced worldly comforts including clothes. He became an ascetic
and went in search of truth of life. For 13 years Vardhamana lived the
life of self mortification and deep meditation. On the tenth
dayofVaishaka, Vardhamana attained enlightenment at Jrimbhikagrama in
Bihar. He attained the highest spiritual knowledge called 'Kaivalya' and
became Kevalin (omniscent) or a Jina (the conqueror who had
subdued his passions). There after,
Vardhamana came to be known as 'Mahavira'. For the next 30 years
he travelled preaching the principles of Jainism in Kosala,
Magadha,Videha and Anga. He attained Nirvana at Pava near Rajagruha
in South Bihar at the age of 72 in 527 BCE.
Mahavira was the contemporary of Gautama Buddha. But, they never
met each other. He established a religious order, which was open to
both men and women. He accepted the teachings of Parshvanatha as
the basis of Jainism.
Teachings of Mahavira.
Mahavira preached five vows (Panchasheela) and three Jewels for
the attainment of salvation
Five Great vows

1. Sathya - Truth
2. Ahimsa - Non-violence
3. Astheya - Non-stealing
4. Aparigraha - Non possession of property more than required
5. Brahmacharya - Chastity
Three Jewels or Triratnas.
1. Right knowledge
2. Right Faith
3. Right conduct
Mahavira did not believe in the existence of God but believed in
the existence of Soul. He condemned the caste system and sacrificial
rituals. He laid stress on non-violence and believed that even animals,
plants, stones, mud, water, fire, etc too have life and hence no injury
is to be inflicted on any life forms. He advocated severe ascetism and
extreme penance for the attainment of Salvation (Nirvana). He had eleven
disciples or apostles known as Ganadharas.
Spread of Jainism.
In the beginning, Jainism was confined to the kingdoms of Kosala,
Magadha, Videha and Anga. The patronage of Kings Ajathashatru,
Bimbisara and Chandragupta Maurya led to the spread of Jainism all
over India. During the last years of Chandragupta Maurya a famine
broke out in North India. Chandragupta along with Bhadrabahu migrated
to Shravanabelagola. He settled at Chandragiri hills and died by

observing Sallekana. The Kadambas, the Gangas, the Chalukyas and the
Rastrakutas patronized Jainism. Hence, Jainism spread to other parts of
India like Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan also.
Jaina Councils.
Two J aina Councils were organized
1. The First Council was held at Pataliputra in 300 BCE. It aimed
at collecting and reviving the knowledge of sacred Jaina texts.
2. The Second Council was held at Vallabhi in Gujarat in about
512 CE. Here sacred texts were collected and written
systematically.
Sects of Jainism.
Differences of opinion among the followers of Jainism led to the
split of the religion into two sects .
1. The Shwetambaras- Followers of Parshvanatha, who wear white
clothes.
2. The Digambaras - Followers of Mahavira, who do not wear any clothes.
Jaina Literature.
Agama Siddhanta is the holy text of Jains. It contains 45 to 50
volumes. The 'Purvas' containing the original doctrines of Mahavira are
incorporated in 14 texts. Both the Shwetambaras and the Digambaras
agree in calling 12 'Angas' as the first and foremost religious work.
Religious as well as secular works were written by Jaina Scholars.
Kannada literature was also enriched by them.
Contributions of Jainism to art and architecture.

Jainism helped the growth of art and architecture. Jains built caves
for the residence of their monks (Bhikshu grihas). Some of their
important contributions are;
1. Tiger cave at Udayagiri
2. Indra Sabha cave at Ellora
3. Hathigumpa cave in Orissa etc.
The world famous statue of Gommateshwara at Sharavanabelagola
and thousand pillared Basadi at Mudabidre are noteworthy Jaina
monuments in Karnataka.
BUDDHISM
GAUTAMA BUDDHA - (563 to 483 BCE)
Gautama Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. He was born at
Lumbini Garden (now in Nepal) in 563 BCE. His early name was
Siddhartha. His parents were King Shuddhodhana and Queen Mayadevi.
Shuddhodhana was the chief of Shakya clan of Kapilvastu. Mayadevi
died when Siddhartha was a child of seven days. So he was brought
up by his aunt Mahaprajapati Gautami. Siddhartha was brought up in
great luxury. He was married to Princess Yashodhara at the age of 16.
A son was born to them, who was named Rahula. According to a Jataka
story, one evening Siddhartha wandered out of the palace and he saw
an old man, a sickman, a funeral procession and a sage. Siddhartha
saw only sorrows and sufferings in the first three scenes and found
happiness in the fourth i.e., a sage who had renounced the worldly
life. These four sights profoundly affected the life of young Siddhartha.
So he decided to renounce the worldly life. He renounced his wife,
child, parents and the kingdom to find out the root cause for all the
sorrows. This event is known as 'The Great Renunciation'.
Siddartha spent the life of a wandering ascetic. He kept himself
away from sensual desires and realized that, mere penance will not
bring enlightenment. He attained enlightenment under a pipal tree
at Gaya at the age of 35. He then onwards came to be known as 'Buddha'
meaning -the enlightened one. He was also called, 'Thathagatha,
meaning- one who has realized the
truth. The religion he founded, came to
be called Buddhism.
Buddha dedicated the rest of his life
for the good of the people. He proceeded
to the Deer park near Saranath in the
neighbourhood of Benaras and delivered
his first sermon. This was called the
'Dharma Chakra Pravarthana' or
Turning of the wheel of Dharma. 'Dharma
Chakra' is the symbol of Buddhism. For
forty five years Gautama Buddha
roamed around teaching his
principles. His
personality and simplicity attracted the Dharmachakra
people towards Buddhism. Buddha attained Parinirvana at Kushinagara

in U.P. at the age of eighty. Edwin Arnold calls him The light of Asia'.
It is interesting to note that Buddha's birth, enlightenment and death
were all on the full moon day (Poornima). His birthday is famous as
'Buddha Poornima'.
Teachings of Buddha.
Buddha preached his followers four basic principles such as satya
(truthfulness) Ahimsa (Non-Violence). Astheya (Non-stealing) and
Brahmacharya (chastity). He also preached four Noble Truths (Arya satyas).
They are, 1) Worldly Life is full of sorrow. 2) Desire is the root cause
for sorrow, 3) When desire ceases, rebirth ceases. 4) Desire can be overcome
by following 'Asthangamarga'.
Asthangamarga consists of:
1) Right faith 2) Right thought 3) Right speech
4 Right conduct 5) Right effort 6) Right meditation
7) Right livelihood 8) Right mindfulness
Buddha gave importance to conduct and not to rituals and sacrifices.
He opposed caste system and advocated equality. He gave importance
to Ahimsa. He didn't refer to God. Buddha admitted men and women
of all castes into the Sangha.
Spread of Buddhism
Buddhism spread far and wide in India. It crossed the boundaries
of India and spread to China, Tibet, Myanmar, Ceylon, Central Asia
and South East Asia.
Causes for the spread.
1. Simple Teachings: The teachings of Buddha were simple and easy
to follow. So it was accepted by the masses.
2. Vernacular language: Buddha preached in Pali and Prakrit, the
language of the common people which was easily understood by
all and many people accepted Buddhism.
3. The principle of Equality: Buddha opposed caste system and
preached social and gender equality.
4. Personality of Buddha: Lord Buddha was a man of dynamic
personality. His effective way of preaching through parables and
stories was unique. Love, sympathy and compassion made the
religion popular.
5. Role of Buddhist Sanghas:The Buddhist monks and nuns undertook
long and arduous journeys to far away countries and rendered
yeoman service in spreading the message of Buddha. Sanghas became
the preaching centres of Buddhism.
6. Royal Patronage: Great Emperors like Ashoka, Kanishka and
Harshavardhana patronized Buddhism and popularized the teachings
of Buddha.
Buddhist Councils:
1. The First Buddhist Council was held in about 483 BCE at Rajagruha.
It compiled the sayings of Buddha.
2. The Second Buddhist Council was held at Vaishali in 383 BCE.
It tried to remove the differences between Buddhist monks.
3. The Third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra in 250 BCE.
4. The Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Kundalavana (Kashmir
Shrinagar) in 102 CE. It tried to settle the differences among the
monks. But the religion itself came to be divided into two sects
namely Hinayana and Mahayana.
Literature: The teachings of Buddha are collected in Tripitakas
(three baskets). They are - 1. Vinaya Pitaka 2. Sutta Pitaka 3. Abhidamma
Pitaka. These are the most important sacred books of Buddhism.
Contributions.
Buddhism also contributed to the development of art and
architecture. Buddha's disciples built Stupas, Viharas and Chaityalayas
at various places. The statues of Buddha at Amaravati, Nagarjunkonda
and Ajanta are famous. The Stupas at Sanchi, Amaravathi,
Nagarjunakonda etc., are famous. Viharas and Chaityalayas can be
seen at Kanheri, Karle and Nasik. Gandhara art also developed.
Activity
Compare the sects of Buddhism and Jainism.
QUESTIONS

1. Who was the founder of Jainism?
2. Who was the 23rd Thirthankara ?
3. Where was Vardhamana born?
4. Where did Vardhamana attain enlightenment?
5. Where did Mahavira attain Nirvana?
6. Who founded Buddhism?
7. Where was Buddha born?
8. What was the original name of Buddha?
9. What is the meaning of the term 'Buddha'?
10. In which place did Siddartha attain enlightenment?
11. Where did Buddha deliver his first sermon?
12. Where did Buddha attain Nirvana?
1. Who were the parents of Vardhamana?
2. Mention any two among the Trirathnas of Vardhamana.
3. Where were Jain councils held?
4. Which are the sects of Jainism?
5. Who were the parents of Buddha?
6. Mention any two of the Noble Truths preached by Buddha?
7. Name any two kings who patronized Buddhism?
8. Mention any two of the Tripitakas.
9. Name the sects of Buddhism.
1. What were the factors responsible for the rise of new religions?
2. Discuss the life and teachings of Mahaveera ..
1. Sketch the life and teachings of Buddha.
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4.3 Mauryas •
CHAPTER 4.3
MfiClitYfiS [324 180 BCE]
The Mauryan empire was the first great empire of India. Under their
regime a number of small kingdoms were united and brought under
a single rule. India achieved political unity for the first time. The
Mauryans not only liberated north western part of India from the
foreign rule, but also brought uniform administration, which continued
for several centuries. Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of this
dynasty. Pataliputra (modern Patna.) was their Capital. Dharmachakra
was their Royal Emblem.
Origin. Sixteen Mahajanapadas

(some of them were Republics)
There are many theories Janapadas Capitals
regarding the origin of Chandragupta 1 Anga Champa
Maurya. 2 Magadha Rajagriha,
1. Vishakadatta's Mudrarakshasa Pataliputra
calls Chandragupta Maurya as 3 Kashi Varanasi
Mayurasutha. 4 Kosala Saketha
2. The Jain literature says that he 5 Vajji Vajji
belonged to a tribe of Mayura 6 Malla Kushinagara
Poshakas or Peacock tamers 7 Chedi Tisvathirati
3. The word 'Maurya' is derived 8 Vatsa Kausambi
from 'Mura' supposed to be the 9 Kuru Indraprasta
concubine of Nanda king of 10 Panchala Kampila
Magadha. l l Matsya Viratanagara
4. According to the Buddhist 12 Surasena Mathura
literature Mahavamsha, he was of 13 Asmaka Potana
a Kshathriya clan known as 14 Avanti Ujjaini
'Mariya', which ruled at 15 Gandahara Taxashila
Pipalavana. Many historians have 16 Kamboja Rajapura
accepted this opinion.
Sources.
The important sources which help us to know about the history
of the Mauryas are,
1. Arthashasthra of Kautilya
2. Indica of Megasthanes.
3. Mudrarakshasa of Vishakadatta.
4. Ashokan edicts.
5. Monuments.
6. Ceylonese chronicles- Deepavamsha and Mahavamsha.
Chandragupta Maurya. 324-300 BCE

Chandragupta Maurya is the founder of this dynasty. However, very
little is known about him. He had lost his father, was taken away by
Chanakya, a Brahmin of Takshashila who gave him the necessary
education. He helped Chandragupta Maurya in the establishment of
Mauryan Empire.
Conquest of Punjab and Magadha.
Chandragupta built a strong army under the guidance of
Chanakya. He defeated the petty rulers of Punjab and captured it.
Thereafter he marched against Magadha. He killed Dhanananda, the last
ruler of Nandas and ended his oppressive rule and laid the foundation
for the Mauryan Empire.
War with Seleucus.
Alexander had established his suzerneity over the north western
parts of India and had nominated his representatives to rule over them.
Chandragupta Maurya defeated them and annexed the territories to
his empire. After Alexander's death Seleucus became the master of
the Greek empire over Central Asia. In 305 BCE, he crossed the Indus
to reconquer Alexander's Indian possessions. Chandragupta Maurya
defeated him. Hence, Seleucus had to conclude a treaty with him.
Accordingly he gave Chandragupta Maurya a large territory, which
included Kabul, Afghanisthan, Kandahar and Baluchisthan. He also
gave his daughter in marriage to Chandragupta Maurya. In return
Chandragupta Maurya presented him with 500 elephants trained in
warfare. Seleucus maintained friendly relations with Mauryas and sent
Megasthanes as ambassador to Pataliputra.
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4.3 Mauryas
It is said that Chandragupta Maurya undertook many other military

conquests and established a large empire. But, we do not have a clear
picture of all such conquests. Similarly, the extent of his empire cannot
be clearly demarcated.
According to the Jain tradition, in the last days of his reign,
Chandragupta abdicated the throne and embraced Jainism under the
influence of Jain scholar Bhadrabahu. He spent his last days at
Shravanabelagola in Karnataka and died by performing 'Sallekhana'
in 300 BCE. The hill on which he stayed is known as Chandragiri and
the temple built by him as Chandragupta Basadi.
Kautilya (Chanakya).
Kautilya was a famous statesman of ancient India. He was also
known by other names-Chanakya and Vishnugupta. He played an
important role in the dethronement of Nandas and the establishment of
Mauryan empire. He was also largely responsible for setting up of a well
organized administrative system. Kautilya wrote Arthashasthra in
Sanskrit. Dr. Shamashastri, the Librarian of Oriental Research
Institute, Mysore discovered the text in 1905 and published its English
version in 1909. Its contents can be divided into three main parts.
1. The first part deals with the King, his Council and the Government.
2. The second part deals with Civil and Criminal law.
3. The third part deals with Interstate Law, Diplomacy and War.
Arthashasthra outlines the seven limbs of the state (Sapthanga),
namely - Raja(Kingship), Manthri (Council), Janapada (Population and
Land), Durga (Fort), Kosha (Treasury), Bala (Army) and Mithra (Allies).
Bindusara.
The successor of Chandragupta was his son Bindusara. He ruled
from 300 to 273 BCE. Nothing much is known about Bindusara. His
son Ashoka became the King after Bindusara.
Ashoka the great. [273- 232 BCE]
Ashoka was the greatest ruler of the Mauryas and one of the
renowned rulers of the world. He is mentioned in his edicts as
'Devanampriya' and 'Priyadarshi'. They indicate his great personality.
He came to power in 273 BCE, but his coronation was celebrated

in 269 BCE. The history from 273-269 BCE is not clear. Historians
believe that during this period there was a struggle for succession
between Ashoka and his hundred brothers.
The Kalinga war: 261 BCE

During the reign of Ashoka, Kalinga was a powerful kingdom.
Ashoka wanted to extend his imperialism over Kalinga. So he marched
upon Kalinga. A fierce battle was fought between them. XIII Rock Edict
gives us details about the conquest of Kalinga and its results. It tells
that about 1,00,000 soldiers were killed and 1,50,000 were captured as
prisoners of war. Ashoka was so filled with sorrow at the sight of
bloodshed that, this became his last war as he decided not to wage wars in
future. Ashoka changed his foreign policy. Instead of 'Digvijaya' (military
conquests), he adopted the policy of 'Dharmavijaya' (winning the hearts
of the people). Thus, the war of Kalinga became a turning point in
the life of Ashoka. He embraced Buddhism under the influence of Upa
Gupta, a Buddhist saint.
Ashokan Empire extended from Kashmir and Afghanisthan regions
in the North to Karnataka (Suvarnagiri) in the South, and from Bengal
in the East to Sindh and Baluchisthan in the West.
Edicts of Ashoka
Ashoka was the first to issue edicts in India. They have been found
throughout the length and breadth of the empire. The edicts help us
to know about his ideals and outlook besides throwing light on the
religion, society and administration of the Mauryas. The language of
the edict is Prakrit, Pali and Greek and the script used is Brahmi and
Kharoshti. Brahmi script, which was a riddle for a longtime was
deciphered by James Princep in 1837. The edicts are classified into major
rock edicts, minor rock edicts, pillar inscriptions and cave
inscriptions.
Edicts in Karnataka
A number of Ashokan edicts have been discovered in Karnataka.
They have been found at
1. Maski in Raichur district.
2. Gavimatha and Palkigonda in Koppala district.
MAURYAN EMPIRE UNDER

ASHOKA
Ujjain
• •
Sar nath
eSanchi ,
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+-1,.'' • Bay of
Bengal
Arabian
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T' ----Extent oftheEmpire

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'
Indian Ocean
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s
3. Brahmagiri, Siddapura and Jatingarameshwara in Chitradurga

district.
4. Nittur and Udayagollam in Bellary district
5. Sannathi in Kalaburagi district.
The edicts referred to the King as 'Devanampriya' or 'Priyadarshi',
which created doubts among the historians regarding the King who
issued them. The Maski edict, along with Calcutta edict refers to the
king as 'Devanampriya Ashokasa'. This confirmed that Devanmpriya and
Priyadarshi Raja was none other than Ashoka himself.
Religion
Ashoka made a great contribution to religion. According to him the
law of piety consisted of the following virtues.
1. Parents must be obeyed and teachers must be respected.
2. Everyone should speak the truth.
3. Servants, Youngsters and dependents must be treated with love.
4. No injury should be caused to men and animals.
5. One must suppress anger, cruelty and extravagance.
Measures adopted for the spread of Buddhism

Ashoka was responsible for the spread of Buddhism not only in
India but also outside India. He took many measures for the spread
of Buddhism. They are,
1. He visited the Buddhist holy places such as Lumbini Garden,
Kapilavastu, Gaya, Saranath and Kushinagar and arranged discourses
on religion.
2. He built a large number of monasteries all over the empire and
spent large sums of money in endowing them.
3. He spread the doctrines of Buddha by engraving them on rocks,
pillars and on the walls of the caves throughout the vast empire.
4. He appointed officers called Dharmamahamathras, Yukthas and
Rajjukas to spread Dharma among the people. He also appointed
Sthree Adhyaksha Mahamatra to take care of women and bring
religious awareness among them.
5. He organised the third Buddhist Council at Pataliputhra in 250

BCE to settle the internal differences among the monks.
6. Ashoka sent missionaries to preach Buddhism in Afghanisthan,
Burma, Srilanka, and Europe. He sent his son Mahendra and
daughter Sanghamithra to Srilanka with a Bodhi sapling as a symbol
of peace.
7. He undertook many welfare activities. He dug wells, built rest houses,
planted fruit bearing trees along road sides, constructed hospitals
for men and animals and established schools. He made arrangement
to feed the poor and physically unfit people. He was like a father
to his subjects. His motto was 'Service and sacrifice'.
Ashoka established a large empire in India. He is the only king
in the history of the world to renounce war even after victory. The effects
of Kalinga war moved him to such an extent that he gave up Digvijaya
and adopted Dharmavijaya and dedicated his entire life for the peace
and welfare of his subjects. H.G. Wells states that "Amidst the tens
of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history,
their majesties and royal highness and the like, the name of Ashoka
shines and shines almost alone like a star".
Contributions
1. Mauryan Administration.
The Mauryans established an efficient system of administration. They
were the first to establish an uniform administrative system
throughout their empire. Arthashastra played an important role in
the administration of the Mauryas.
The Central Government.

King: The king was the head of the state. He was the chief source
oflegislative, executive, judicial and military powers. The King was
bound by the Dharma. The main duty of the king was to work for the
welfare of the people.
Manthri Parishad: There was a council of ministers called 'Manthri
parishad' to assist the king in the administration. The ministers were
appointed by the king after considering the merits and abilities. The
number of ministers varied from 4 to 12. Each minister was in charge
of one or more departments. All the matters were considered and discussed
in Manthriparishad. The King could supersede the advice of the
Mantriparishad.
Secretariat: Administrative matters of the central government were
divided into 30 departments, each under a superintendent. They dealt
with activities of state such as irrigation, market, education, famine relief,
etc.
Administration of justice: In the Mauryan Empire, the king was
the highest court of appeal. The Mauryan empire had two types of courts
called - Dharmastheyas which dealt with civil cases and Kantakashodana
which dealt with criminal cases. These courts existed in all towns and
cities. Village assemblies and its headmen were responsible for justice
in their areas. Megasthanes observed that punishments were severe,
which included beheading and amputation of limbs.
Revenue administration: Land revenue was the main source of
income of the state. 1/6 of the produce was fixed as the tax. Taxes
were collected both in cash and kind. They were collected by local
officers. Taxes were also levied on professions, houses, cattle, livestock,
forest products and sales tax, etc.
Provincial government: Mauryan Empire was divided into five
provinces with their capitals at Gimar, Takshashila, Ujjain, Tosali and
Suvarnagiri. Each province was put under the charge of a governor
belonging to the royal family or one of the relatives of the king. The
provinces were further divided into districts that were governed by
'Sthanikas'. Gramika was the head of the village. The official in charge
of ten villages was called 'Gopa'. Ashoka appointed Dharmamahamathras
both at the centre and in the provinces.
City administration: The Greek ambassador Megasthanes gave a
very detailed description about the administration of Pataliputra. The
administration of the city was entrusted to a committee of thirty members
divided into six boards of five each. They looked after roads, markets,
hospitals, temples, schools, water supply, etc.
Military administration: The military administration of Chandragupta
was very efficient and well organized. The king personally led the army
during wars. The army of Chandragupta consisted of 6,00,000 infantry,
30,000 cavalry and 9,000 elephants. The war office was administered
by six boards, each consisting of five members. They were 1. Navy, 2.
Transport, 3. Infantry, 4.Cavalry, 5. Chariots and
6. Elephant force.
2. Art and Architecture.

Mauryas built
various buildings,
palaces and
monuments. The
buildings prior to
Ashoka were built
of wood. Ashoka
gave up the use of
wood and brick and
started using stone.
Stupas: The Stupas
were dome like mounds
of brick or stone, built
in honor of Buddha or
over the relics of Sanchi Stupa

Buddha. It is believed
that Ashoka built about 84,000 Stupas all over his empire. They have
perished in course of time. The only surviving stupa is at Sanchi in
Madyapradesh. It is the biggest stupa.
Palaces: Chandragupta Maurya's palace at Pataliputra was famous.
The Chinese piligrim Fahien who came to India gives us a vivid
description of the foundation of the palace. He exclaimed that it was
created by God.
Caves: Ashoka and his grandson Dasharatha built caves for
meditation of the Buddhist monks. The caves in Barabur mountains
near Gaya and Nagarjuna hills belong to this age.
Pillars: The stone pillars in various designs were built during the
reign of Ashoka. It is believed that Ashoka built more than 30 pillars.
Each stone pillar weighs 50 tons and measures 30 feet in height. The
most important among them is the pillar at Saranath. It consists of
an inverted lotus, the Dharmachakra and on the abacus four lions are
seated back to back. The Capital of Saranath pillar is the national emblem
of India.
SHATAVAHANAS.
After the decline of the Mauryas the Shatavahanas, who were the
feudatories of Mauryas, declared independence. Their kingdom lasted
for about 400 years. It is very difficult to determine the exact date of
the establishment of the Sathavana kingdom.
Simukha was the founder of this dynasty. Prathisthana (modern
Paithan in Maharastra) was the capital of the Shatavahanas. Some of
the important rulers of Sathavahana kingdom were- Hala,
Gautamiputra, Satakarni, Vashistiputra Pulamayi and Yajnashri. The
seventeenth king of Sathavahana dynasty was Hala. He himself was a
great scholar and he wrote 'Gathasapthashati' in Prakrit language.
Gautamiputra Sathakarni - 106 -130 CE

The Sathavahana power received a set back at the hands of the
weak successors of Hala. Gautamiputra Sathakarni re-established the
power and prestige of the Shatavahanas. He is described as the destroyer
of Saka, Yavana and Pahalvas. He defeated Saka king Nahapana and
restruck the silver coins with his emblem. His achievements are recorded
by his mother Gautami Balashri in the Nasik cave inscription. She claims
Gautamiputra Sathakarni to have performed 'Ashwameda'. His important
titles were 'Tri samudra toya peetha vahana' and 'Shaka-Yavana-Pahlava
Nisudhana'.
The contribution of Shatavahanas in the field of Art and architecture
was enormous. They constructed several Buddhist Stupas, Viharas and
Chaityas. These are found in Amaravathi, Nagarjunakonda, Karle, Nasik,
Kanheri, etc.
Activity
Mark the extent of Ashokan Empire on the outline map of India- Mark
the places of Edicts of Ashoka.
QUESTIONS.

•
1. Who founded the Mauryan dynasty?
2. Name the capital of Mauryas.
3. Which was the Royal emblem of Mauryas?
4. Who wrote Mudrarakshasa?
5. Who wrote Arthashasthra?
6. Who wrote Indica?
7. Who helped Chandaragupta to establish the Mauryan empire?
8. Who was the Nanda ruler defeated by Chandragupta Maurya?
9. Who sent Megasthanes as ambassador to the court of
Chandragupta Maurya?
10. Name the Greek ruler defeated by Chandragupta Maurya.
11. Name the Mauryan ruler who followed Jainism.
12. Where did Chandragupta Maurya spend his last days?
13. Who was the greatest ruler of Mauryan dynasty?
14. Which Ashokan edict speaks about Kalinga war?
15. Name the Mauryan ruler who accepted Buddhism.
16. Where was the Third Buddhist council held?
17. Which is the biggest Stupa built by Ashoka?
18. Which is the National emblem of India?
19. Who was the founder of Shatavahana dynasty?
20. Which was the capital of Satavahanas?
21. Who wrote 'Gathasapthasati'?
22. Which was the inscription issued by Gautami Balashri?
1. Name any two important sources which help to know about
Mauryan dynasty.
2. Name any two places where Ashokan inscriptions have been

found in Karnataka.
3. Which were the two types of courts that existed in the Mauryan
period?
4. What is the importance of Maski edict?
5. Who was Megasthanes? Name his work.
6. Who was Kautilya? Which is his famous work?
7. Which ruler appointed Dharmamahamathras? What was their
duty?
8. Name any two important rulers of Sathavahanas.
9. Name any two architectural centres of Sathavahanas.
1. Write about the achievements of Chandragupta Maurya.
2. What were the measures taken by Ashoka for the spread of
Buddhism?
3. Describe the administration of Mauryas.
4. Explain the contributions of Mauryas to Art and Architecture.
Explain the life and achievements of Ashoka.
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period- 4.4 Kushanas
CHAPTER 4.4
KOSHfiNfiS
The Kushanas were originally a nomadic race known as 'Yueh-chi'
and they lived in China. This race was driven out of their homeland
by powerful tribes like the Huns. The Kushanas occupied Bactria and
then moved into the Kabul valley and seized Gandhara. They replaced
the Sakas, the Greeks and others and established hold over the Indus
and greater part of Gangetic plains around the year 40 CE. The Kushana
period was not only an era of political unity, but it also marked a new
era in the cultural development of India.
Political history:
The first Kushana ruler was Kujula Kadphisis or Kadphisis I. He
was followed by Kadphisis II, who was also known as Wema Kadphisis.
Kanishka was the third King of the Kushana dynasty.
Kanishka.
Kanishka was the greatest King of the Kushanas. We do not have
definite information about his early life. Similarly there are controversies
about the date of Kanishka's accession. Dr. V.A. Smith opines that
Kanishka came to the throne in 120 CE. There is also another school
of thought (Rapson and Thomas) which project Kanishka as the founder
of Saka Era. This would place the date of his accession at 78 CE.
Purushapura (modern Peshawar in Pakistan) was his capital.
Conquests.
Kanishka was a great warrior who extended the boundaries of his
empire in all directions ve:ry rapidly, after his accession. His Empire
consisted of Bactria, Persia, Afghanistan, Punjab and a large portion
of Sindh. Kanishka extended his empire by his conquests.
Kashmir: Kanishka conquered Kashmir, where he built many
monuments. He laid the foundation of a town 'Kanispura'. It was also
known as Kanishkapura. Today it is known as Srinagar.
Magadha: Kanishka is claimed to have waged a war against

Magadha and captured it. But many scholars opine that he captured only
some parts of Magadha.
War against Saka-Sathrapas : In Northern India the Saka
Sathrapas were still powerful. Kanishka waged a series of battles against
Saka Satrapas of Punjab and Mathura and finally established his
supremacy.
War with China: After the conquest of the Northern India Kanishka
turned his attention towards China. Kadphises II had suffered a defeat
at the hands of the Chinese general Pan-chao and as a result of this
defeat the Kushanas had to pay annual tribute to the Chinese King.
Kanishka stopped paying the tribute and invaded China. But, the Chinese
general Pan-chao defeated him. This was a setback to the political
ambitions of Kanishka for some time. However, after making
preparations, Kanishka made a fresh attack on China. At this juncture, the
great Chinese general Pan-chao had died and his son Pan-chiang was
the new general. Kanishka registered a victory over the Chinese forces
and annexed three Chinese provinces into his empire. These three
provinces were- Kashgar, Yarkhand and Khothan. Kanishka was the first
Indian ruler who established territories outside the Indian subcontinent.
The boundaries of his empire touched Kashgar in the North to Sindh
in the South and Benaras in the East to Afghanistan in the West.
Religion:
The Kushanas, who belonged to the Yueh-chi tribe followed the
tribal religious customs. After their settlement in India they adopted
Indian culture and Hinduism. They primarily worshipped the Sun god
along with other deities. Kujula and Wema Kadphises were the followers
of Hinduism.
Kanishka was also a follower of Hinduism. His early coins bear the
images of Persian, Greek and Hindu gods. In course of time, he embraced
Buddhism under the influence of Ashwaghosha. After this, like Ashoka
he took many measures for the spread of Buddhism and it was due
to his efforts that Buddhism spread into China, Tibet, Japan and Central
Asian countries. The measures undertaken by Kanishka for the spread
of Buddhism were:
1. Buddhism was given Royal patronage and it was also extended to
the Buddhist monks.
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period- 4.4 Kushanas
2. Viharas and Monasteries were built for the use of the monks.
3. A large number of missionaries were sent to foreign countries like
Japan, Tibet and parts of Central Asia for the spread of Buddhism.
4. He conducted the fourth Buddhist council at Kundalavana in Kashmir
in 102 CE. It was presided over by Vasumithra. The main purpose
of this council was to settle the disputes existing in Buddhism at
that time. A commentary on the Holy books, (Pitikas) was
prepared. These were later brought together in the form of a book
called 'Mahavibhasa'. It is one of the authoritative works on
Buddhist Philosophy.
Gandhara Art
Kanishka was a great patron of art. His important buildings and
constructions of art are found mostly at Gandhara, Mathura,
Kanishkapura and Takshashila. The Kushana period is important for
the growth of Gandhara art or otherwise known as the Greeko-
Buddhist style. With close contact between two civilizations - the
Indian and the Greek, there arose a new school of art called- "the
Gandhara School of art". This school represented a blending of
Indian and Greek art. It is called as Gandhara art because, this style
originated in Gandhara region. This region is situated in the present
Afghanistan.
Chief Characteristics of the Gandhara school of art:

1. In this school of art the life size statues of Gautama Buddha were
carved. Until then, the Buddhist existence was shown in the form
of symbols like lotus, umbrella, etc..
2. While carving the statues utmost care was given to the symmetry
of the body including the muscles and moustaches which were shown
in a natural setting.
3. In the specimens of the craftsmanship of this art-the folds and turns
of the clothes were exhibited with minute care and skill.
4. In this art the ornaments that were carved on the statues received
much attention which added to the physical beauty of the statue.
5. Polishing the statues is an important feature of this art.
6. The specimens were mostly prepared in stone, terracotta and clay.
7. The technique used in making the statues was Greek but, the idea,
inspiration and personality all were Indian.
In the words of Dr. R.C. Muzumdar- ''The Gandhara artist had
the hand of a Greek but, the heart of an Indian". It is for this reason
that in the statues and images made under this art, an attempt was
made to carve Lord Buddha like the Greek God Appolo.
Activity
Compare the Gandhara Art with Mathura, Greek and Roman Styles of Arts.
QUESTIONS.

1. Which was the original home of the Kushanas ?
2. Who was the first ruler of the Kushanas?
3. Who was the greatest king of the Kushanas?
4. Name the Chinese general who defeated Kanishka.
5. Which was the capital of Kanishka?
6. Who influenced Kanishka to embrace Buddhism?
1. Why was the fourth Buddhist council held? when?
2. Write any two measures of Kanishka for the spread of Buddhism.
1. Explain the achievements of Kanishka.
2. Describe chief characteristics of the Gandhara School of art?
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4.5 Guptas •
CHAPTER 4.5
GCIPTfiS (300-600CE)
After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, there was no strong political
authority in North India for nearly a century. The whole of North India
was divided into petty principalities. There were some monarchical
kingdoms such as the Vakatakas, the Nagas, Maukharis and Guptas.
There were also a few Republican states like Lichchavis, Yaudheyas,
Malvas, etc. They were engaged in mutual struggle until the Guptas
emerged as a strong state around 300 CE. Guptas were the powerful
monarchs. They ruled a large part of India and achieved political unity
for the second time after the Mauryas. There was tremendous progress
in the fields of religion, literature, science, art and architecture. The
Gupta age is known as the 'Golden age' in the history of India.
Some important sources which help us to study the Gupta history
are,
1. Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudra Gupta.
2. Works of Kalidasa.
3. Mudrarakshasa and DevichandraGuptam of Vishakadatta.
4. Kavyamimamse of Rajashekara.
5. Writings of Fa-hien and Itsing.
Political history:
Sri Gupta was the founder of this dynasty. His son was Gatotkacha
Gupta. 'Gupta Era' commenced with the accession of ChandraGupta
I, who- ruled from 320 to 335 CE. He was the first important king
of the Gupta dynasty. Pataliputra was his capital. He strengthned his
position by marrying Princess Kumaradevi of the Lichchavi clan. He
was succeeded by his son Samudragupta.
Samudragupta:- 335 to 375CE
Samudragupta was the greatest king of the Gupta dynasty who
ruled for 40 years. He was an ambitious ruler and wanted to be a
'Chakravarthi' (emperor).
C• onquests:
Samudragupta is known for his military conquests. He had to wage

many wars in order to establish a vast empire. He followed a policy
of expansion and aggression.
The Allahabad pillar inscription is a reliable source to know about
Samudragupta's conquests and great qualities. The composer of this
inscription was Harisena, the court poet and commander in chief of
the army of Samudragupta. The conquest of Samudra Gupta may be
divided into four groups.
1. North Indian campaign.
2. Conquest of forest kingdoms.
3. South Indian campaign.
4. Conquest on Border States.
1. North Indian Campaign: The early years of his regime were spent
in subduing the provinces of Gangetic plain called 'Aryavartha'.
According to the Allahabad inscription he defeated 9 kings in his
northern campaign and annexed them into his empire. He called
it as 'Digvijaya'. The nine kings of Aryavartha defeated by
Samudragupta were Nandin, Balavarman, Chandravarman,
Nagadatta, Nagasena, Ganapathinaga, Achutha, Mathila and
Rudradeva.
2. Conquest of Forest Kingdoms: Samudragupta conquered the forest
kingdoms of Jabbalpura, Reva, Nagapura and Bhaghelkhand in the
Vindhya region (central India).
3. South Indian Campaign: After firmly consolidating his authority
in the north, Samudragupta turned his attention towards the south
and he launched an expedition and his army travelled for about
3,000 miles. Samudra Gupta defeated the Twelve Kings of South
India. But they were reinstated in their respetive positions. These
Kings became his vassals and they accepted to pay tributes. He
called this as - 'Dharmavijaya'.
Twelve South Indian kings defeated by Samudragupta:
1. Mahendra of Kosala 2. Vyagraraja of Mahakanthara
3. Mantharaja of Kowrala 4. Mahendra of Pistapura
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4.5 Guptas
GUPTA EMPIRE UNDER

SAMUDRAGUPTA
Arabian Bay of
Sea Bengal
1\
OUn ----Extent of the Empire
N
-7-7-7--Route of Southern
W
Campaign of
.
E
Samudragupta
Indian Ocean
*
.
CD Indian History - II PUC Text Book
5. Swamydatta of Kottura 6. Damana of Yarandapalli

7. Vishnugopa of Kanchi 8. Hasthivarman of Vengi
9. Neelaraja of Avamuktha 10. Ugrasena of Palakkad
11. Kubera of Devarasthra 12. Dhananjaya of Kustalapura
4. Conquests of Border States: The boundary states conquered by

Samudragupta were Kamarupa in Assam, Samatata in Bengal,
Karthripura in Punjab and Rohilkhand.
After these conquests,
Samudragupta performed
'Ashwamedha sacrifice' to
commemorate his victory.
He took the title
'Ashwameda Parakrama'.
He issued gold coins with
the figure of horse on
them. They were one
among the eight types of
gold coins issued by him.
His empire extended
from Kashmir in the North Coins of Samudragupta

to Tamilnadu in the South
and Punjab in the west to Bengal in the East. Samudragupta was not
only a conqueror but also a musician, poet, scholar and a patron of
literature. He had the title 'Kaviraja'. Harisena was a great scholar and
his court poet.
Chandragupta II 375-415 CE
ChandraGupta II ascended the throne after the death of
Samudragupta. The notable achievement of Chandragupta II was that
he defeated the Shaka ruler Rudrasena and annexed his kingdom. He
strengthened his empire by matrimonial alliance with Nagas and
Vakatakas. He was also known as Vikramaditya. He was a great
patron of scholars and poets. Nine great scholars (Navarathnas)
adorned his court. Ujjain became the second capital during his
regime.
Fabien's visit 399-414 CE

Fahien was a Chinese traveller. He visited India during the reign
of Chandragupta II. He came to India to study Buddhism, in the land
of its birth. He has recorded his observations in his book- 'Gho-ko
ki'. The book throws light on religious, economic and social conditions
of those times.
Golden Age.
Gupta period has a unique position in the history of India. Due
to the all-round development in this age, the European writers have
compared it with the age of Pericles of Greece, Augustus Caesar of Rome
and queen Elizabeth of England. The achievements in the fields of
Religion, Education, Literature, Art and Architecture, Science and
Technology were extra-ordinary.
Revival of Hinduism: Revival of Hinduism is one of the outstanding
features of the Gupta age. The Gupta emperors were the followers of
Hinduism. Yet, they were tolerant towards other religions like Buddhism
and Jainism.
The Hindu religion received great encouragement. It became the
State Religion of Guptas. The worship of Vishnu, Shiva and Durga
became very popular. The Gupta rulers performed vedic rites and
sacrifices. The vedic rituals like Ashwameda, Vajapeya and Rajasuya
yagas were performed with all splendor. Many Vishnu temples were also
constructed during the Gupta age. They assumed the title-
'Paramabhagavatha' which indicates their devotion to Lord Vishnu.
Shaiva and Shakthi cult were also popular.
Education: Education greatly flourished under the Guptas. The kings
themselves were great scholors and educationalists. They paid special
attention to education. There were a number of universities during the
Gupta age. The universities attracted not only Indians but also foreign
students. Takshashila, Nalanda, Ajantha and Saranatha were well known
Gupta universities. Pataliputra and Vallabhi were great centres of
education. The important subjects taught were Puranas, Literature,
Philosophy, Arithmatic, Astrology and Science.
Literature: Religious literature, including the Vedas which were
in the form of hymns were brought into writing during the Gupta
period. The Gupta age is called 'The Golden age of Sanskrit
literature'.
Samudragupta has been described as a King among poets in Allahabad

inscription. He was also a gifted musician and a great scholar of the
Vedas. There were 'Navarathnas' in the court of ChandraGupta II. Among
them, Kalidasa was the greatest Poet and Dramatist of Ancient India.
He wrote famous dramas like Malavikagnimithra, Vikramorvashiya and
Shakunthala, great Epics like Raghuvamsha and Kumarasambhava and
lyrical poems like Meghaduta and Rithusamhara.
Names and works of Navarathnas

1. Kalidasa - Shakunthala
2. Varahamihira - Brihathsamhithe
3. Ghatakarpara - Gatakarparakavya
4. Vararuchi - Vyakarana
5. Amarasimha - Amarakosha
6. Dhanvanthri - Ayurvedha Nighantu
7. Shanku - Shilpashasthra
8. Kshapanaka - Jyothishyashasthra
9. Vethalabhatta - Manthrashasthra
Important scholors and their works

1. Shudraka - Mrichakatika
2. Bharavi - Kiratharjuneeyam
3. Dandi - Kavyadarsha and Dashakumara charithe
4. Vishakadatta - Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam
5. Vishnusharma - Panchatantra
6. Bhavabuthi - Uttararamacharithe
7. Charaka - Charakasamhithe
8. Shushrutha - Sushruthasamhithe
9. Shanku - Shilpashasthra
10. Amarasimha - Amarakosha
Science and Technology: Tremondous progress was achieved in the
fields of Science, Mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine and Metallurgy.
Aryabhatta was the greatest Mathematician and astronomer of this period.
He discussed in his book - 'Suryasiddhantha' as to howthe earth revolves
on its axis and as to how lunar and solar eclipse occur. 'Aryabhatia'
was his another book. He has described about the decimal system in
this work.
Brahmagupta was another Mathematician. He showed the importance
of Zero. Varahamihira was one of the greatst scientists of this age. He
wrote- 'Panchasiddanthika', 'Brihat Jataka' and 'Brihat Samhite'. He was
an authority on Astronomy, Botany, Mathematics and Geography.
'Brihathsamhithe' deals with the movements of heavenly bodies. In the
field of medicine, Charaka and Sushrutha wrote 'Samhithes'. Dhanwanthri
was regarded as the 'Father of Indian medicine' (Ayurvedha). Vaghbhata
wrote 'Asthangasangraha'. The Meharauli Iron pillar discovered near
Delhi is an outstanding example of their metallurgical skill. It is a miracle
that even after being exposed to sun and rain for centuries, the iron
pillar has not rusted or lost its strength.
Art and Architecture: The basic structural features of Indian temple
architecture were developed during the Guptas. Mathura, Benaras, Patna,
Udayagiri, Devgarh, etc. were the centers of their artistic activity.
Dashavatara temple of Devagarh was the first temple of the Gupta period.
Shiva Temple of Bhumara and Brick temple of Bittirgaon were the other
temples of the Guptas. A number of statues of Lord Buddha were also
erected. The fine Sulthanganj Buddha statue of 7 ½ feet height is now
preserved in the museum of Birmingham.
The Guptas gave special encouragement to painting. The finest
examples of Gupta paintings are on the walls of Bagh near Gwalior.
Gupta rulers built many cave temples in Ajantha. The Gupta painters
painted the scences from the life of Buddha. The painting of 'Mother
and child' in cave XVII is quite realistic and beautiful among the Ajantha
Paintings.
Activity
Prepare an album of Gupta Art and architecture.
QUESTIONS.

1. Who was the founder of the Gupta dynasty?
2. When did the Gupta Era commence?
3. Who composed the Allahabad pillar inscription?
4. Which inscription of Samudragupta reveals his expeditions?
5. Who is the author of Kavyamimamse?
6. Who was the greatest king of the Gupta dynasty?

7. Which Gupta ruler performed Ashwameda sacrifice?
8. Who had the title 'Kaviraja'?
9. Who wrote Shakunthala?
10. Who wrote Aryabhatia?
11. Who had the title Vikramaditya?
12. Who wrote Amarakosha?
13. Who wrote Brihathsamhite?
14. Who wrote 'Gho-ko-ki'?
15. Name the author of Kiratarjuniyam.
16. Who is called 'The Father of Indian Medicine'?
17. In which place is the Iron pillar of the Gupta age found?
1. Which were the two capitals of the Guptas?
2. Which inscription describes the conquests of Samudragupta?
Who composed it?
3. Name any two poets of the Gupta period.
4. Mention any two works of Kalidasa.
5. Who was Fa-hien? Why did he come to India?
6. Name any two sources which help us to know about Gupta History.
7. Name any two North Indian rulers defeated by Samudragupta.
8. Name any two South Indian kingdoms defeated by Samudragupta.
9. Name any two well known universities of the Gupta period.
10. Name any two works of Varahamihira.
11. Name any two architectural centers of Gupta period.
III. Answer the following in 15 to 20 sentences.
Explain the conquests of Samudra Gupta.
Why is Gupta age called 'The Golden Age' in Indian History?
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4.6 Cholas
-
CHAPTER 4.6
CHOLflS
SANGAM AGE
Chola dynasty was the most ancient among the South Indian
Dynasties. The History of Cholas begins with the Sangam Age. Sangam
refers to Tamil 'Literary Union' 'The three literary unions'. between 200
BCE to 500 CE is called the Sangam age. The Pandays of Madurai
patronized Sangam literature. 'Tirukkural', 'Silappadigaram' and
'Manimekhalai' are the famous works of Sangam Age.
The Sangam literature and Ashoka's inscriptions help us to know
the political history of Cholas. Hain Chola was the first king of Cholas.
Uraiyur was his capital. Karikala Chola (190 CE) was a valiant king.
He defeated the Cheras and Pandyas. He went on a conquest upto
Ceylon with a powerful Navy. He built the Kalhane Dam for irrigational
purpose. After him there was political chaos. Sengunnian was the last
ruler of the Sangam Age. The Sangam age came to an end by 3rd C
CE when the Pallavas came to prominence.
Among the Medieval Cholas, Vijayala Chola was the most prominent.
He killed the Pallava king Aparajitha Varma in 850 CE and established
the supremacy of the Cholas. Tanjore became the capital of the Cholas.
After him, Aditya Chola I and Paranthaka I came to power respectively.
Uttarameruru Inscription of Paranthaka-I issued in 919 CE and 921
CE help us to know the village administration of the Cholas. The 'Takkolam'
battle was fought between the Cholas and Rastrakutas in 949 CE. The
Cholas were defeated in this battle. This led to the collapse of the Chola
empire. Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola who came to power later
extended the Chola Empire.
Rajaraja Chola I : (985-1014 CE): Rajaraja Chola I, the son of
Paranthaka II was the greatest ruler of the Cholas. He strengthened
the Chola Empire which had been weakened by the invasions of
Rastrakutas.
-
Military achievement:
Southern Conquests: Rajaraja Chola I took an expedition to the

South of the Kingdom and fought with the kings of Pandyas, Cheras
and Ceylon. He defeated the Pandya king Amarabhujanga and arrested
him. He destroyed the powerful navy of the Cheras. He occupied the
northern portion of Ceylon. To commemorate this victory, he constructed
Shiva temple at Polennaru.
Northern Conquests: In 101 lCE, he conquered the prominent areas
of Gangas, Gangawadi and Nolambawadi. He named Talakadu as
'Rajarajapura' . Later he faced Sathyashraya, the Kalyani Chalukyan
ruler. But we do not get definite information about his victory.
Victory over the Chalukyas of Vengi: Rajaraja Chola interfered
in the internal politics of Vengi Chalukyas and made Shaktivarma, the
ruler ofVengi and gave his daughter Kundevva in marriage to his brother
Vimaladithya. This matrimonial alliance strengthened the relationship
between Chalukyas and Cholas. He donated much of the wealth that
he got from the Vengi Chalukyas to Rajarajeshwara Temple at Tanjore.
Later he went on a campaign as far as Kalinga and won it.
Rajaraj Chola I took an expedition and won Lakshadweep and Maldives
islands. He had good relation with the Shailendra (Srivijaya) empire,
of Sumatra. He gave permission to Srimara Vijayottungavarman, the
king of Shailendra to build Choodamani Buddhist vihara at
Nagapattanam. Thus the credit for expanding the Chola empire goes to
Rajaraja Chola. His empire extended upto Ceylon in the South, Orissa in
the North, Coorg and Konkan in the West and many Islands in the East.
He had many titles. They were 'Shivapadashekhara', 'Cholendra Simha',
'Mummadi Choladeva', 'Jayagonda', 'Chola Martanda', etc. He was a
patron of art. He built the famous Rajarajeshwara temple at Tanjore
and made donations to many other temples.
Rajendra Chola I (1012-1044 CE):
He was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was crowned Yuvaraja in
1012 CE. He took over the power in 1014 CE after the death of his
father. As ambitious as his father, he raised the dignity and honour
of the Chola empire.
Achievements: Rajendra Chola I defeated Mahendra V (Mohinda).
the Ceyclonese king in 1018 CE. and imprisoned him. He took the
Royal Emblem and Kings crown of the Pandya King which was in his -
possession. After the death of Mahendra Vin prison at Tanjore, Ceylon
became the part of Chola empire.
He declared a war on J ayasimha II of Kalyani Chalukyas in 1021CE
and defeated him in Masangi (Maski). Vijayaditya of Vengi who came
to the support of Jayasimha was defeated and expelled from the empire.
Rajendra Chola placed Rajaraja Narendra on the throne of Vengi and
gave his daughter Ammangadevi in marriage to him. Then he rushed
towards Orissa and defeated Mahipala I of Bengal.
The Chola army continued till the Ganga River under the leadership
of the commander in chief and brought the holy Ganga water to the
empire. In memory of this victory, Rajendra Chola took the title
'Gangaikonda Chola' (Conqueror of Ganga Area) and built a new capital,
Gangaikonda Cholapuram. He built a tank named Cholagangam and
it is learnt that he mixed the holy Ganga water in it.
In 1025 CE Rajendra Chola took an expedition to Shailendra (Srivijaya)
in South East Asia with his powerful navy and army. Crossing the Bay
of Bengal he conquerd Jawa, Sumatra and defeated Sangrama
Vijayottunga Varman, the king of Shailendra. In memory of this victory,
he constructed the Gangaikonda Chola Shiva temple at Shailendra.
Rajendra Chola I was an able administrator and also a patron of
learning. He established a higher education centre at Ennayiram (South
Arcot District)in 1025CE. Free boarding and lodging facility was
arranged for 340 students who were studying in this education centre.
Rajednra Chola I had many titles like 'Pandita Chola' , 'Gangaikonda
Chola' and 'Kedarakonda Deva' etc., He increased his dignity and
hounour by sending his ambassadors to China in 1033 CE.
Chola administration:
Cholas had good administrative system. They had a centralised
administrative system. King was not absolute. The practice of crown
prince becoming the king was in vogue. A council of Ministers assisted
the king. The intimate group of the King was called 'Udanakootam'.
The empire was divided into many divisions (Mandala). During the time
of Rajraja Chola I there were eight Mandalas. Mandalas were divided
into Nadus (Kottam). Nadus in turn were divided as 'Olanadus'. Village
administration was looked after by Grama Sabha.
- Indian History - II PUC Text Book
Village administration: An important feature of the Chola

administration was village autonomy. People of the village looked after
the administration through their own elected representatives. This
administrative system became famous during the Chola period.
Uttarameruru inscription of Paratanka I gives us clear information about
the village administration. According to this inscription, Uttarameruru
village was divided into thirty parts (Kudumbu). One representative from
each unit was elected for a period of one year. The members were elected
through Kuduvalai (Lucky Draw) system. Villagers assembled in the
temple on the day of election. The names of candidates to be elected
were written on palm leaves and put in a pot. Then a small boy was
asked to pick leaves one after the other in the presence of everybody
and thus the representatives were elected.
Elected representatives had to work in the Annual Committee, Garden
Committee and Tank Bund Committee. These committees were called
'Variyam'. The representatives were called 'Variya Perumakkal'. These
committees worked for 360 days. The village committees performed
duties like the protection of village property, collection of taxes and the
protection of temples, lakes, groves and forests etc. The resolutions of the
Committee were written. The central administration did not interfere in
the village administration unnecessarily.
Minimum Qualifications of members.

1. The candidate should possess a minimum of ½ acre of taxable land.
2. Should reside in his own house built in his own site.
3. Should be more than 35 years and less than 70 years of age.
4. Should possess knowledge of Vedas, Brahmanakas and Commerce.
5. Should possess good character.
Disqualifications
1. Disqualified for re-election if he is a member of any committee
continuously for the previous 3 years.
2 Those in the committee who do not submit accounts and his close
relatives.
3. Wicked, cheat, alcoholic, thieves, accused of murdering Brahmins
and committing adultery.
This way certain minimum qualifications and disqualifications were
-
followed in the village administration. Scholars have termed the Chola
villages administration as 'Small Democratic States'.
Art and Architecture of the Cholas:
Cho las have
given the best
contributions to art.
They followed the
Dravida style of
Pallavas and built
many temples.
Building of huge and
grand temples and
Shikharas are
specialities of
Chola art.
The special
features of Chola
art can be seen in Brihadeshwara Temple, Tanjore
their temples at
Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Their temples have
Garbhagriha, Mahamantapa, Ardhamantapa, Nandi Mantapa and
Vimanas. The Rajrarajeshwara (Brihadeshwara) temple was built
by Rajaraja Chola I in 1009 CE at Tanjore. This temple has the biggest
and tallest Shikhara in India. The Shikhara on the Garbhagriha is 200
ft high. The Shivalinga in the Garbagriha is attractive. The Nandi
Sculpture is in front of it. The sculptures of Dwarapalakas attract the
attention of the onlookers.
The temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram was built by Rajendra Chola
I. This temple has a Shikara of 150 ft high.The 50 pillared Sabhamantapa
of the temple is artistic.
Other temples of Cholas - Ramaeshwara at Honnehalli,
Kolaramma at Kolar, Koranganatha at Srinivasa Nalluru,
Nonabeshwara at Nonavinakere, Airavatheshwara and
Nandi Mantapa at Darashuram etc.,
- Indian History - II PUC Text Book
Sculpture: The Cholas sculpture has a special place in the Indian

art. Themetal idols of Shiva, Brahma, Vishnu, Kalingamardhana, Nataraja
Sreedevi etc., in different temples are very attractive . The bronze statue
of Nataraja is their best contribution to art.
Activity
Compare the local self-Government of Cholas with that of present
village administration.
QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by Sangam?
2. Who was the first Chola king of Sangam age?
3. Who built the Rajarajeshwara temple at Tanjore?
4. Which inscription tells about the Chola village administration?
5. What is meant by 'Kuduvalai'?
6. What is meant by 'Varriam'?
1. Name any two famous works of the Sangam age.
2. When and between whom did the battle ofTakkolam take place?
3. Mention any two titles of Rajendra Chola I.
1. Sketch the achievements of Rajaraja Chola I.
2. Describe the achievements of Rajendra Chola I.
3. Describe the village administration of the Cholas.
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4. 7 - Vardhanas and Early Chalukyas - Pallavas -
CHAPTER 4.7
VflitDHflNflS AND EflitLY CHflLCIKYflS - PflLLflVflS

Vardhanas: After the Guptas, there was political disunity in North
India. Some small kingdoms became independent because of the
invasions of Huns. One such independent state was that of Vardhanas of
Pushyabhuthi lineage. Sources like 'Si-yu-ki' of Hieuntsang,
'Harshacharite' of Banabhatta and the copper plate inscription of
Harshavardhana help us to know the history of Vardhanas. It is learnt
that Pushyabhuthi was the originator of the Vardhanas. Harshavardhana
of this dynasty united the small kingdoms of North India and achieved
political unity.
Harshavardhana (606-647 CE) : Harshavardhana was the greatest
ruler of the Vardhanas. He came to power in 606CE. Prabhakara Vardhana
and Yashomathi were his parents. He had an elder brother Rajavardhana
and an younger sister named Rajashri. He was also called 'Shiladitya'.
Thaneshwar was his capital.
Yashomathi, pained by the death of her husband, committed Sati
in 605 CE. Devagupta of Malwa killed Rajashri's husband Gruhavarma
and imprisoned her at Kanauj. Raja Vardhana who went to get her
released was killed by Shashanka of Gaudadesha. Harshavardhana came
to power under such painful circumstances. The release of Rajashri
and revenge on Shashanka were his main aims.
Achievements: Rajashri escaped from prison and went towards
Vindhya mountains. Harshavardhana who came to know of this, searched
her with great difficulty and prevented her from jumping into the pyre.
Then he added Kanauj to his empire and made it his second capital.
Harshavardhana, with the help of Bhaskara Varma of Kamarupa
attacked Shashanka of Guadadesha (Bengal) and took revenge. But as
long as Shashanka was alive, he couldn't defeat him completely. Then
he defeated Devagupta of Malwa and annexed it to his kingdom. By
612 CE, he achieved complete control over Pancha Sindhus of Punjab.
Kanauj, Bihar, Orissa and other places were added to his kingdom.
He defeated Dhruvasena II of Vallabhi. Later he gave his daughter in
marriage to him and established a good relationship with him.
After the death of Shashanka of Gaudadesha, Harshavardana won
Orissa, Magadha, Vodra, Kongonda (Ganjam) and Bengal (Gaudadesha).
Later he defeated the ruler of Nepal and received tributes from him.
He established his supremecy by defeating North-Indian Kingdoms. In
commemoration of these achievements he took the title
'Uttarapatheswara'.
War with Pulakeshi II: Harshavardhana tried to extend his empire
in the South beyond the river Narmada. The battle of Narmada took
place between Harahavardhana and Pulakeshi II in 634 CE.
Harshavardhana was defeated in this battle. Pulakeshi, who won, took
the title "Parameshwara'. Aihole inscription says that Harsha's Harhsa
Uoy) flew away seeing his war elephants falling in the battle field.
Hieuntsang also mentions about Harsha's defeat. Narmada river
became the border between these two empires.
Harshavardhana called himself the king of Maghadha in 641 CE.
His fame spread in foreign countries also. He exchanged ambassadors
with China. The credit for uniting North India after the Guptas goes
to Harshavardhana. His empire extended from Punjab in the West to
Bengal and Orissa in the East and Himalayas in the North to Narmada
river in the South.
Harshavardhana and Buddhism: Harshavardhana, a devotee of

Lord Shiva later embraced Buddhism. He prevented animal sacrifices in
the empire and prohibited the practice of non vegetarian food. He built
stupas in the prominent places of Buddhism. The opponents of Buddhism
and characterless people were punished by him. He brought the remains
of Buddha's teeth from the king of Kashmir and keeping it inside built
a stupa over it at Kanauj.
Religious council at Kanauj 643 CE: Harshavardhana conducted
a huge Buddhist council at Kanauj for religious debate and to felicitate
Hieuntsang. Hieunthsang presided over this council. 20 kings, 1000
Scholars, more than 3000 Buddhist monks, 3000 Brahmins and Jains
participated in this council. A golden statue of Buddha, as tall as the
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4. 7 - Vardhanas and Early Chalukyas - Pallavas •
king was installed in the Auditorium. This council went on for 23 days.
Hieuntsnag explained the philosophy of Mahayana in this council.
Prayag (Allahabad) Buddhist Council - 643 CE : Harshavardhana
organised a conference known as Mahamoksha Parishat at Prayag which
comes once in five years. Hieuntsang was invited to this council. The
council went on for 75 days. He gave donations to poor people of all
religions. In this council the procession of Buddha's idol along with
that of Shiva and Surya were taken.
Among the Vardhanas of Thaneshwar, Harshavardhana occupies a
high position. Harhsavardhana is one of the achievers of Ancient India.
He was an able administrator, a valinat soldier.a patron of literature
and cared for the welfare of the people. He himself was a scholar. He
wrote dramas 'Ratnavali', "Priyadarshika' and 'Nagananda' in Sanskrit.
He patronised famous poet Banabhatta who wrote an invaluable work
called 'Harshacharita' about Harshavardhana. A patron of learning, he
gave lot of donations to the Nalanda University.
Nalanda University
Nalanda University was the mostfamous university of ancient
India. It was established by the Gupta king Kumara Gupta
I. Later Gupta rulers built many buildings for this university.
This university spread Mahayana Buddhist philosophy.
This university became very famous during
Harhshavardhana's period. He gave land revenue of 700
villages as donation to this university. There were 10,000
students and 1500 teachers here. Hieuntsang and Itsing
studied in this university. The library area was called
'Dharma Gary". The library buildings were called
Rathnodhadhi, Rathnararyaka and Rathnasagara. This
university was destroyed by Mohammed Bhaktiar khi[ji' s
invasion
Hieuntsang - A Buddhist pilgrim from China, he was bom
in 600 CE at Tahin-Likan. He became a Buddhist monk
at the age of 20. Buddhist ideas in Chinese language did
not give him satisfaction. So he came to India to collect
the original Buddhist religious texts and to visit the original
places connected with Buddha's life.
He started his Journey to India through Siyam in 629 CE

and reached Gandhara in 630 CE. Then he visited
Kashmir, Kanauj, Nalanda, Andhra, Kanchi, Badami and
other places.
He visited Nalanda again in 643 CE and met
Harshavardhana. He started his journey back to his country
in 644 CE. While going back from India, he took 150 of
Buddha's mortal remains, Gold, Silver, Sandalwood Idols
of Buddha and manuscripts of Buddhism on 20 horses.
But on the way, he was looted by dacoits. He wrote Si
yuki, in which he describes his experiences in India.
Early Chalukyas:
Background: Kadambas of Banavasi and Gangas of Talakadu, two
small kingdoms of Karnataka preceeded the Chalukyas of Badami, who
were the first Imperial rulers. Kadambas were the first to establish a
Kingdom in Karnataka and they ruled from 4th to 6th century C.E.
Mayuravarma was the founder and famous ruler of the dynasty. The
first Kannada Inscription Halmidi was issued during the Kadamba period.
It was during their period that Education was encouraged and Agraharas,
Brahmapuris and Ghatikas became the centres of Education. Talagunda,
Balligave, Bankapura and Kapatturu Agraharas were famous during this
period. They were also the forerunners of temple architecture in
Karnataka.
Gangas of Talkadu ruled for 6 centuries and made notable
contributions to Karnataka culture. Durvinitha was the most distinguished
ruler of this dynasty. The Gangas have contributed to the growth of
Literature, Art and Architecture. Jainism saw its hey day during this
period. Their contributions in the fields of Art and Achitecture are
noteworthy. The Kapaileswara (Manne), Mahalingeswara (Varuna),
Pataleswara and Maruleswara (Talakadu), Bhoganandishwara (Nandi)
and other temples are the examples of their Architecture. Beautiful
pillars called 'Manasthambas' and 'Brahmasthambas' are the
unique contributions of Gangas. Atakuru stone inscription and
Doddahundi stone inscription reveal their sculptural excellence.
The colossal monolithic statue of Gommateswara at Shravanabelagola in
Hassan distrct
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4. 7 - Vardhanas and Early Chalukyas - •
Pallavas
is the most beautiful sculpture and has immortalized their name in
the art histo:ry. It was erected by Chavundaraya the famous Ganga
minister in 983 C.E.. It is 58 feet high and one of the largest
monolithic statues in the world.
Chalukyas of Badami are called Early Chalukyas. They rose to power
in the Kannada region during 6th centu:ry CE. Badami (Vatapi) in
Bagalkot District was their capital. Varaha was their royal emblem.
Jayasimha was their originator. His son was Ranaraga. They have called
themselves as Haritiputras of Manavyagotra in their inscriptions.
Pulakeshi I was the first historical personality of Badami
Chalukyas. He was the son of Ranaraga. He started his independent
rule at Badami and built the Badami fort. Badami inscription informs
that he performed Ashwamedha yaga. He had two sons named
Keerthivarma and Mangalesha.
Pulikeshi II (609 -642 CE): He was the greatest of the rulers of
Chalukyas of Badami. The son of Keerthivarma, he was a minor when
he came to power. Hence his uncle Mangalesha looked after the
administration. Hieuntsang's 'Si-yu-ki', Banabhatta's, 'Harshacharite'
Aihole inscription, etc., give us information about Pulikeshi II.
Achievements: Even after Pulikeshi II came to proper age, Mangalesha
did not transfer power to him, but tried to bring his own son to power.
Enraged by this, Pulakeshi killed Mangalesha in the Elapattusimbige
war and came to the throne in 609 CE.
When Pulikeshi II was in a civil war with Mangalesha, Rastrakuta
chiefs Appayika and Govinda attacked the Chalukyan areas. Pulakeshi
defeated them on the banks of river Bhima. Frightened Appayika ran
away from the battle field and Govinda surrendered to Pulakeshi II.
Then he won Banavasi, the capital of Kadambas. He defeated
Mau:ryas of Konkana, Alupas of South Canara and Gangas of Talakadu.
After winning over smaller kingdoms in the South he went towards the
North and defeated the rulers of Lata (Gujarath),Malwa and Gurjaras. He
appointed his brother Jayasimha as the head of the Gujarath Branch.
War with Harshavardhana - 634 CE: Harshavardhana along with
his army started from Kanauj and camped on the banks of the river
Narmada. Pulakeshi II prepared to face Harshavardhana whowas famous
as 'Uttarapatheshwara'. A fierce battle was fought between the two in
634 CE. Harshavardhana was defeated in this battle. Pulikeshi who
won, took the title 'Parameshwara'. Then a friendly relation developed
CHALUKYAN EMPIRE UNDER

PULIKESHI II
The Empire of
Harshavardhana
River Narmada
eAjantha
W Badami
.E @
s
Arabian
*
.
Sea
Indian Ocean
B
----
Extent of
the
Empire
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4. 7 - Vardhanas and Early Chalukyas - Pallavas •
between the two and Narmada river became the border of their respective
empires.
Pulikeshi II proceeded towards the East where the rulers of South
Kosala and Kalinga surrendered to him. Later he won Pistapura and
conquered Vengimandala. He appointed another brother Kubja
Vishnuvardhana as the king of Vengi province. This laid the
foundation for the Vengi Chalukya dynasty.
Pulikeshi invaded Kanchi and defeated the Pallava ruler Mahendra
Varman I at Polliluru. He camped at Kanchi for a few days and
performed pooja in the temples. This invasion of Pulikeshi II was the
beginning of Pallava-Chalukya conflicts. Then he defeated Chola and
Chera rulers and received tributes from them and returned to his
capital.
During the last days of Pulikeshi II, he invaded Kanchi to conquer
it, but Narasimhavarman-I defeated Pulikeshi in the battles at Pariyala,
Manimangala, and Suramara in 642 CE. It is believed that Pulikeshi
II died in this battle. After this, Narasimhavarman conquered Badami
and took the title 'Vatapikondan', Badami was looted by the Pallavas.
Chalukyas were under the control of the Pallavas for the next few years.
Pulikeshi II was one of the greatest rulers of Ancient India.
Hieuntsang has called Pulikeshi as a very valiant Emperor. His empire
extended upto the Narmada in the North, Mysore in South, Bay of
Bengal in the East and Arabian sea in the West. Persian king Khusru II
and Pulikeshi II exchanged ambassadors. The painting of the
ambassador giving gift to Pulikeshi-II can be seen in cave No. 1 at
Ajantha. He had titles like 'Dakshinapatheswara', Maharajadhiraja',
'Parameshwara', 'Pruthvivallbha', 'Satyashraya', etc.,
Chalukya-Pallava conflict: The Chalukya-Pallava conflict went on
for about a century. Pandyas played an important role in this conflict.
A long drawn conflict went on between the two to establish control
over the Krishna-Tungabhadra Doab region.
The conflict which began during Pulikeshi II's period went on till
the period of the last Chalukyan ruler. In the first stage, Pulakeshi
II defeated Mahendravarman I. But later, he lost to Narasimhavarman
I, son of Mahendravarman. Therefore Badami went into the hands of
Pallavas for a few years.
Vikramaditya I, the son of Pulakeshi II conquered Badami which
was under the Pallavas for 12 years. He defeated the Pallava rulers
Narasimhavarman I, Mahendravarman II and Parameshwaravarman I.
Later, his son Vinayaditya defeated Mahendravarma II and conquered
Kanchi. His grandson Vijayditya who came to power later defeated the
Pallava. Since he had peace with Narasimhavarman II, many temples
were built at Kanchi.
Pallava-Chalukya conflict started again during the time of
Vikramadiya II, the son of Vijayaditya. He invaded Kanchi thrice. He
defeated the Pallava ruler Parameshwara Varman II at Vilanda in 731
CE. He invaded Kanchi again in 735 CE and conquered it by defeating
Nandivarman. He donated immensely to the Rajasimha temple at Kanchi
and got an inscription composed about his victory. By 740 CE Pallavas
lost completely. After the Rashtrakutas reduced the influence of the
Chalukyas, the continuous conflict between the Chalukyas and Pallavas
ended. This Chalukya-Pallava conflict which went on for nearly 100
years led to the downfall of both the empires.
Cultural contributions of the Chalukyas:

Religion: Chalukyan kings were tolerant towards all religions.
Though they were staunch devotees of Vishnu, they patronised Shaivism,
Jainism and Buddhism. The cave temples at Badami reflect their religious
tolerance. They built many temples and gave donations to them. They
gave patronage to priests and respected them. They encouraged yagnas
and yagas. Hieuntsang informs us that Buddhism existed during the
Chalukyan period.
Literature: Badami Chalukyan rulers gave patronage to many
scholars. Many inscriptions in Kannada and Sanskrit have been composed
during their period. Mahakuta pillar inscription describes the
achievements of Keerthivarman-I. Vijayamahadevi (Vijjika,
Vijayabhattarika). the daughter-in-law of Pulakeshi-II wrote 'Kaumudi
Mahotsava'. Ravikeerthi, the court poet of Pulakeshi-II composed the
Aihole inscription. It describes the achievements of Pulakeshi-II. Hence
it is called 'Aihole Prashasthi'. Badami inscription of Pulakeshi-I, Kappe
Arabhatta's Badami inscriptions, Mangalesha's Mahakuta inscription etc.,
denote the literary development of Chalukyas.
Art andArchitecture: The Chalukyas of Badami have given marvellous
contributions to Indian Art and Architecture. Building of Sthambha
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4. 7 - Vardhanas and Early Chalukyas - •
Pallavas
Mantapa (Navaranga) and Sukhanasi along with the Garbhagruha was
a unique contribution of the Chalukyas. They built many temples
following the Nagara or North Indian Style and Dravida or South Indian
style. They built their temples using red sandstone. They experimented
many things in temple building. They built small models of temples and
based on that, built the main temples. The Chalukyan art took its birth
at Aihole and developed in Badami and Pattadkallu. In this background.
Percy Brown has called their architecture as 'cradle of Indian temple
architecture'. Badami, Aihole and Pattadakallu were the centres of their
art.
Important Characteristic features of Chalukyan architecture.

(i) Small base design, (ii) horse shoe base, (iii) Square Garbhagriha,
(iv) Inner pradakshinapatha, (v) Mukhamantapa, Navaranga, Sukhanasi
and Pyramidical Shikhara on the Garbhagruha (vi) Ekakuta, Dwikuta,
Trikuta temples.
Cave temples of
Badami: Chalukyas
have built four rock
cut cave temples at
Badami, which attract
the attention of the
visitors. They have
Mukhamantapa, large
Rangamantapa and
Garbhagriha. Cave
No 1 belongs to
Shaivism. The
sculptures of
Ardhanareeshwara and
Nataraja here are very
attractive. Cave Cave Temple of Badami
No. 2 and 3 belong to
Vaishavism. Varaha and Vamana bas- reliefs in cave No. 2 are
noteworthy. Cave No. 3 is the biggest of all and was built by
Mangalesha. The Earth Goddess, Vishnu sitting on Shesha and
Narasimha, Vamana, Balarama, Harihara sculptures attract the
attention of the onlookers. Cave No.
4 is the smallest. It is a Jain cave. Here we can see the sculptures
of Mahveera, his disciple Gautama and Parshvanatha, the 23rd
Thirthankara. In course of time the above Basadi came to be called
Melana or Mena Basadi.
Though Badami is
famous for cave temples,
we can see a few
artistic temples here.
Among them,
Malagitti Shiva,
Bhuthanatha,
Lakumeesha and
Virupaksha temples are
important.
Aihole: Another
centre of Badami
Chalukyan art, Aihole
was once a famous
trading centre. We can
see a number of
temples of Chalukyan Durga Temple, Ihole

art here.
Ladhkhan temple: It is the first of the temples of Chalukyan art.
It has a Mukhamantapa, Garbhagruha with a Nandi idol in front of
the temple. Garbhagruha on top of the Garbhagruha is a special feature
of this temple. Henry Cousins, the art critic called it a Vaishnava temple,
because of the sculpture of Garuda on the door of the Garbhagriha.
But the Nandi Idol shows that the Garbhagriha had Shivalinga. Since
a Muslim saint by name LadhKhan lived here for a number of days
people called it Ladh Khan temple.
Durga temple: Is a very special temple among the temples at Aihole.
This is a Sun temple designed on the model of Horse shoe and Buddhist
Chaityalaya. The Shikara of this temple resembles the sikhara of Orissa
temples. Rangamantapa with two rows of pillars and the Verandah on
the two sides go till the Garbhagruha and merge in a semicircle, which
amazes the onlookers. Since the temple is surrounded by the fort wall,
it is called the fort (Durga) temple.
A group of Konthi temples are seen in front of the fort temple.
They are also the ancient temples of Badami Chalukyas and were model
temples built as an experiment.
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4. 7 - Vardhanas and Early Chalukyas -
Pallavas
4D
Huchchimalligudi: Is a small temple with simple style. It has square
pillars.
Meguthi Jain temple: Which is situated on a small hill near
Aihole was built by Ravikeerthi. On the eastern wall of this temple is
written the Aihole inscription. This temple which has a
Mukhamantapa, Madhyarangamantapa and Garbhagruha is built in
the Dravid style. It is called Melagudi as it is built on the hill.
According to scholars, gradually Megudi became Meguthi.
Shivalinga, Varaha, Kali and Nataraja bas-reliefs in the Ravalgudi
cave at Aihole attract our attention. The other important temples of
Aihole are Jyothirlinga, Mallikarjuna and Siddheshwara etc., The
Ramalinga temple, half a mile away from Aihole has three Garbhagrthas.
Pattadakallu: The ancient
name of Pattadakallu was
'Kisuvolalu'. Many temples of
Badami Chalukyas are here.
Kasi Vishwanatha,Papanatha,
Jambulingeshwara temples
etc., are in Nagara style and
Sangameshashwara, Virupaksha,
Mallikarjuna temples are in
Dravida style.
Virupaksha Temple
(Lokeshwara temple): It is
the most important among the
temples at Pattadakallu. In
memory of 3 victories over the Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakallu
Pallavas by Vikramaditya II, his
queen Lokamahadevi built this temple. The architect of this temple
was Anirvathachari Gunda. It is 224 ft long and 105 ft broad. The
temple looks like being held by lions and the elephants holding the
beams. There is a huge sculpture of Nandi in the Nandi mantapa in
front of the temple. This temple which has a Mukhamantapa,
Mahamatapa and Garbagriha has a Shikhara in Dravida style. The idol
of Surya murthy in the Ardhamnantapa is the most beautiful.
Mallikarjuna (Trailokeshwara): Mallikarjuna temple, which resembles
this temple is situated next to it. This temple was built by
Trailokamahadevi another queen of Vikramaditya-II.
Mahakuteshwara temple at Mahakoota also shows the Chalukyan

art.
Pallavas:
Pallavas came to power after the Satavahanas. The history of Pallavas
begins with Shivaskanda Varma. Kanchi was their capital and 'Nandi'
was their Royal Embelm. The History of Pallavas is clear from the time
of Simhavishnu who came to power in about 3rd C CE. His successors
were- Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I, Mahendravarman II,
Prameshwaravarman I, Narasimhavarman II, Prameshwaravarman II,
Nandivarman, Dantivarman, Nandivarman III and Aparajithavarman.
The most importannt contribution of Pallavas was in the field of
Art and Architecture.
Pallava art and architecture: Pallavas occupy a prominent place
in the history of South Indian art and architecture. Dravida style of
art blossomed during their period. Pallava kings loved and patronised
art. We can see the proficiency of their art in Kanchi and Mahabalipuram.
Important Features of Dravida (Pallava) style. (i) Pillared hall, (ii)
Creation of Lion structure at the base of the pillars, (iii) Pyramidical
Shikhara (iv) Square shaped enclosure (compound) surrounded by wall
(v) creation of stone chariots.
Kanchi: Kanchi has been called a city of temples. The prominent
temples here are Kamakshi, Ekambaranatha, Varadaraja,
Mahakaleshwara, Kailasanatha. etc. Kamakshi was the family diety of
Pallavas.Kanchi is called Shivakanchi, Vishnukanchi and Jaina
Kanchi. Shiva temples at Shiva Kanchi, Vishnu temples at Vishnu
Kanchi and Jain temples at Jaina Kanchi are in large numbers.
Mahabalipuram: It is near the river Parla. It was the capital of
Narasimhavarman I. Many temples, mansions and palaces here attract
the lovers of art. Ten rock cut Mantapas and chariots, carved in rockhill
are world famous for their beauty and artistic talent. The mythological
sculptures carved on the walls of the mantapas, attract attention. Varaha
mantapa, Mahishasuramardhini mantapa sculpture are very attractive.
The sculptural bunch carved on the big stone boulders is the special
contribution of Pallava art. It was at first called the stone bunch of
Arjuna's penance. But it was called the scene of Devagange coming
down to earth. The stone chariots, world famous as seven Pagadas is
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4. 7 - Vardhanas and Early Chalukyas -
Pallavas
4D
the greatest contribution of Pallava art. There are eight stone chariots.
Each chariot is carved in the style of a temple. These chariots are named
after Pandavas and Draupadi. 'Draupadi chariot is small, Dharmaraya
chariot is big. The sculptures in the chariot are known for their beauty.
Activity
Compare Dravida style with Hoysala style
QUESTIONS.

1. Who was the greatest ruler of the Vardhanas?
2. Which was the capital of Harshavardhana?
3. Who was the sister of Harshavardhana?
4. Who wrote Harshacharita?
5. Who was famous as 'Uttarapatheshwara?
6. Who presided over the religious conference at Kanauj?
7. When was the Buddhist Council at Prayag held?
8. Who was the founder of Kadamba dynasty?
9. Which is the first Kannada inscription?
10. Who was the famous ruler of Gangas?
11. Which was the capital of Early Chalukyas?
12. Who was the famous ruler of Badami Chalukyas?
13. Which was the Royal Emblem of Badami Chalukyas?
14. Who was famous as 'Dakshinapatheshwara'?
15. Who composed the Aihole inscription?
16. Name the work composed by Vijayabhattarike.
17. Which was the work of Hieuntsang?
1. Who were the parents of Harshavardhana?
2. Name any two literary works of Harshavardhana.
3. Who erected the Gommateshwara statue and where?
4. Name any two titles of Pulikeshi II.

5. Name any two temples of Aihole.
6. Name any two temples of Pattadakallu.
7. Name any two important architectural centres of Pallavas.
1. Describe the achievements of Harshavardhana.
2. Explain the Chalukya - Pallava conflict.
3. Write about the contributions of Chalukyas of Badami to art
and architecture.
1. Describe the achievements of Pulikeshi II
Chapter 4 -Ancient Period - 4.8 - Rashtrakutas
CHAPTER 4.8
ltflSttTltAKOTflS
Rasthrakutas established a large empire in South India and ruled
for a long time. They ruled from 753 to 978 CE. In the beginning they
were the feudatories of Chalukyas of Badami. The word 'Rashtrakuta'
denotes power. 'Rashtra' denotes country and 'Kuta' means head. They
called themselves 'Lattaluru puravaradheeshwaras' in their inscriptions
and hence it is said that they belonged to Lattaluru (Laturu) in
Maharashtra. Garuda was their Royal Emblem. Manyakheta (Malakheda)
in Gulbarga district was their capital.
Dantidurga was the first ruler of Rashtrakutas. He defeated the
Chalukyas of Badami. Krishna-I succeeded him. He completely defeated
the Chalukyan king Keerthivarman. He built the monolithic Kailasanatha
temple at Ellora. Govinda-11, who came to power after him, was weak
and hence Dhruva dethroned him and came to power.
Dhruva (780-793 CE):

Dhruva was prominent among the early Rashtrakuta rulers. He spread
his fame in North India. When he came to power, the political condition
in North India was chaotic. The rulers of Prathihara and Bengal had
an eye on the throne ofKanauj. Vathsaraja of Prathihara attacked Kanauj
and defeated lndrayudha. During the same time, Dharmapala of Bengal
went to conquer Vathsaraja but was not successful. Under these
circumstances, Dhruva went on a conquest of North India with his
children, Indra and Govinda-111 and defeated Vathsaraja and
Dharmapala. As a result of this Ganga and Yamuna basin came under
the control of Dhruva.
After his victory over North India, he invaded Vengi. But
Vishunavardhana-IV, the Vengi ruler did not fight, but gave his daughter
Sheelabhattarike in marriage to Dhruva. Dhruva defeated the Ganga
ruler Shivamara at Mudugundura and imprisoned him. He appointed
his elder son Sthambha as the head of Gangawadi province. He defeated
Nandivarma II, the Pallava ruler of Kanchi and received many elephants
as tribute. He had titles like 'Dharavarsha', 'Sri Vallabha',, 'Narendrasena'
and 'Kalivallabha'.
Govinda-111 (793-814 CE):

After Dhruva, his son Govinda-III came to power in 793 CE. But
his brother Sthambha opposed it. Gangas and Pallavas helped Sthambha.
Angered by this, Govinda-III defeated Sthambha and imprisoned him.
But later released him and made him the head of Gangawadi. He had
released Ganga ruler Shivamara who was in prison. But since he helped
Sthambha, he was sent back to jail again.
Political choas continued in North India even during the time of
Govinda-III. Nagabhatta, the Prathihara ruler, Dharmapala of Bengal
and Chakrayudha of Kanauj were trying to extend their supremacy.
Govinda-111 started his conquest of North India in 800 CE.
Nagabhatta-II, who feared Govinda-III ran away from the battle field.
Chakrayudha surrendered to Govinda. Dharmapala backed away from
the battle and paid tributes.
The army of Govinda III marched upto Himalayas. The inscriptions
tell that Govida's horses drank the water flowig at the foot hills of
Himalayas and his elephants bathed in the Ganges.
The Gangas along with Pandyas and Kerala rulers attacked the
Rashtrakutas in 803-04 CE. Govinda III defeated them and captured
their Royal Emblems.
Govinda III defeated Pallava ruler Dhantivarma and secured tributes
from him. At the same time the Simhalan ruler surrendered to Govinda
III by sending his statue.
During the time of Govinda-III the Rastrakuta empire extended from
Himalayas in the North to Kanyakumari in the South and Saurashtra
in the West to Bengal in the East. The whole of India came under the
influence of the Rashtrakutas. He had titles like 'Jagattunga',
'Prabhuthavarasha', 'Sri Vallabha' and Tribhuvanadhavala'.
Amoghavarsha I (814-878CE):
The son of Govinda-III, Amoghavarsha came to power in 814 CE.
He was called Sharva. He was a minor when he took over the reins.
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4.8 - Rashtrakutas
RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE
UNDER GOVINDA III
•
Kanauj
Malwa
• Ellora
Bay of
Bengal
Arabian •Badami
Sea chi
----Extent of the Empire
Indian Ocean
Hence his uncle Karka looked after the administration for a few years
(814-821). Amoghavarsha is considered the greatest among the
Rashtrakuta kings. His cultural achievements are greater than his militaiy
achievements.
Achievements: Amoghavarsha defeated the Vengi Chalukayan ruler
Gunaga Vijayaditya-III at Vingavalli in 830 CE and forced him to retreat.
The Northern parts of Ganga empire were under the control of
Bankesha, the commander of Amoghavarsha. Though the Ganga king
Rachamalla tried to conquer these places, he was not successful.
Bankesha had his influence till Kaidala (Near Tumkur).
Neethimarga Ereyanga, who came to power after Rachamalla
defeated Amoghavarsha in the Rajaramudi battle (near Kolar) in 856
CE.
Amoghavarsha gave up conflicts with the Ganga and other kings
and developed matrimonial alliances. He gave his daughter Chandralabbe
in marriage to Ganga Bhutuga (son of Ereyanga), Sheela Mahadevi was
married to Vishnuvardhana, the son of Vijayaditya of Vengi and another
daughter Sankha was married to Nandivarma III, the Pallava ruler of
Kanchi.
The Neelagunda and Shirur inscriptions tell us that Amoghavarsha
was respected by the rulers of Anga, Vanga, Magadha, Malwa, Vengi
and neighbouring states.
During his last days Amoghavarsha had to face the rebellion of
Yuvaraja Krishna. His commander Bankesha faced this rebellion ably
and made Krishna to repent and change. In memory of this victory
Amoghavarsha built 'Bankapura' in the name of Bankesha and made
him the governor of Banavasi.
Amoghavarsha was tolerant to all religions, peace loving and a
scholar himself. Sanjan inscription says that he cut off his left thumb as a
sacrifice to Kolhapur Mahalakshmi to protect his subjects from famine.
Himself a poet, he wrote 'Prashnottara Ratnamala' in Sanskirt. He
patronised scholars like Jinasenacharya, Mahaveeracharya, Shaktayana,
Srivijaya and others. 'Kavirajamarga' is the first known Kannada work
written by Srivijaya. Manyakheta, the capital became very famous during
his period. Sulaiman, the Arab traveller visited his capital in 851 CE.
He says that the Rashtrakuta empire is one of the four great empires
of the world (Baghadad, China and Constantinople being the other three).
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4.8 - Rashtrakutas
Amoghavarsha had titles like 'Athishayadhavala', 'Nrupatunga',
'Veeranaryana', 'Sri Vallabha', 'Rattamartanda', etc.,
Successors of Amoghavarsha - Krishna-II, Indra III, Amoghavarsha
II, Govinda-lV, Amoghavarsha-III, Krishna-III and Karka II.
Cultural Contributions:
Religion: Rashtrakuta rulers had the great quality of religious
tolerance. Though they were followers of Vedic religion, they patronised
Jainism and Buddhism also. Amoghavarsha was a staunch devotee of
Kolhapur Mahalakshmi. Brahmanas were engaged in performing Yangas
and yagas. The kings gave donations and respected them. It is learnt
that there was a Buddhist Sangha in Kanheri near Mumbai.
Literature: Rashtrakuta kings were patrons ofliterature. Some Kings
were writers themselves. The number of Kannada inscriptions increased.
'Kavirajamarga', the first Kannada work was composed by Sri Vijaya.
Kavirajamarga informs us that Kannadanadu extended from Cauvery
to Godavari.
Literature developed immensely during their period. Ponna, who
lived in the court of Krishna-III, wrote 'Shantinathapurana' and
'Bhuvanaikya Ramabhyudaya'. He had the title 'Ubhayakavi Chakravarti'.
Pampa, who was in the court of Arikesari-II, the feudatory ofRashtrakutas
at Vemulavada, wrote 'Vikramarjuna Vijaya' (Pampa Bharatha) and
'Adipurana', He is called 'Adikavi' of Kannada. Shivakotyacharya wrote
'Vaddaradhane', It is called the first prose work of old Kannada. Sanskrit
literature also developed well.
Shaktayana - Shabdanushasana.
Mahaveeracharya - Ganithasarasangraha.
Amoghavarsha - Prashnottararatnamala.
Trivikrama - Madalasachampu.
Jinasenacharya - Adipurana, Parshvabhyudaya.
Asaga - Vardhamana Purana.
Halayudha - Mruta Sanjeevini, and Kavirahasya etc were the
important Sanskrit works of this period.
Art and Architecture: Rashtrakuta rulers have given wonderful
contribution to Art and Architecture. They built structural temples,
cave temples and Basadis. Ellora, Ajantha and Elephanta are the
centres of their art.
Ellora - Kailasanatha Indra Sabha, Jagannatha Sabha

temple: There are 34 cave cave temples are also here.
temples at Ellora in
Aurangabad district of
Maharashtra and 5 of them
belong to Hinduism. The
monolithic stone temple of
Kailasanatha is world
famous. This temple was
built by Krishna-I in 770
CE. The temple is 164 ft
long, 109 ft wide and
92 ft high. The
temple which has a
Mahadwara, quadrangle,
shikara and Linga is in
Dravida style. The sculpture of
Shivaleela in this temple
attract the attention of the
tourists. Two pillars and two
huge elephants have been
carved near the temple. There
is Nandi mantapa in front.
There
are five temples of subordinate
deities around the
Garbhagruha. Sculptures of
Asthadikpalakas, Ganga-
yamuna, Saraswati have been
carved. Ravana holding the
Kailasa mountain is attractive
and hence the temple gets the
name Kailasanatha. Dr.V.A.
Smith has called this temple as
one of the greatest artistic
works of the world.
The other Hindu temples at
Ellora are Ravana's cave,
Dasavathara, Rameshwara,
Dumarlena caves etc., Apart
from them, Neelakantha cave,
Kailasanatha Temple, Ellora
Thrimurthy Sculture,
Elephanta
Chapter 4 -Ancient Period - 4.8 - Rashtrakutas
Elephanta: Elephanta, which is an island 6 miles from Mumbai,
has 7 caves. Its ancient name was Goravapuri. The Portugese called
the huge elephant here as Elephanta and hence the name. The Trimurthy
sculpture in the central cave is related to the three incarnations (Creation,
Protection and destruction) of God. The idol which is 18 ft high is carved
between two half pillars. Dwarapalaka, Ardhanareeshwara, Shiva-
Parvathi and other bas- reliefs have been beautifully carved.
The paintings in the cave temples of Ellora are a witness to the
fact that they patronised painting.
The other important temples of Rashtrakuta period were -

Savadi-Brahmadeva and Narayana temple, Rona
Someshwara temple, Kukkanuru - Navaligeshwara temple,
Manyakheta-Shiva, Vishnu and Jain temples, Sannati -
Chandralamba temple, Sanduru-Kumaraswamy temple.
Activity
Collect information about the dynasties with which Amoghavarsha had
matrimonial alliances.
QUESTIONS.

1. What was the royal emblem of the Rashtrakutas?
2. Which was the capital of the Rashtrakutas?
3. Who was the first king of the Rashtrakutas?
4. Who was the greatest ruler of the Rashtrakutas?
5. Who was the foreign travaller who visted the court of
Amoghavarsha ?
6. Which was the first literary work in Kannada?
7. Who was called 'Ubhaya Kavichakravarthi'?
8. Who patronized Ponna?
9. Who is called Adikavi of Kannada?
10. Who patronized Pampa?

1. Who built the Kailasanatha temple? Where was it built?
2. Name any two titles of Dhruva.
3. Write any two titles of Govinda III.
4. Write any two titles of Amoghavarsha.
5. Name any two works of Ponna.
6. Name any two works of Pampa.
1. Describe the achievements of Govinda III
2. Describe the achievements of Amoghavarsha.
1. Describe the cultural contributions of Rashtrakutas.
Chapter 4 - Ancient Period - 4.9 - Later Chalukyas and Hoysalas
CHAPTER 4.9
LfiTEit CHfiLCIKYfiS AND HOYSfilfiS
Later Chalukyas.
Later Chalukyas were the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. They
were also called Chalukyas of Kalyana. Tailapa II was the founder of
this dynasty. Manyakheta was their first capital. Someshara I shifted
the capital to Kalyana.
Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126 CE).

VikramadityaVI was the greatest ruler of this dynasty. He ruled for
50 years. He suppressed the revolt of his brother Jayasimha at Banavasi.
Later he had to face revolts of Hoysala rulers Ballala I and
Vishnuvardana. He foiled Kulottunga Chola's attempt to capture Vengi
and defeated the Paramaras.
He was successful in suppressing the revolts of the Kadambas of
Goa and Shilaharas of Karaada. Later he established matrimonial
relations with them. He sent his ambassador to the court of Ceylonese
King Vijayabahu. His empire stretched from Narmada in the North to
Kadapa in the South and the two seas in the East and West. The
Lakshmeshwara inscription gives details of all his achievements. He had
the titles 'Permadideva', and 'Tribhuvanamalla'.He started anewera-called
'Chalukya Vikrama Era' in 1076 CE to commemorate his accession.
Vikramaditya VI was succeeded by Someshwara III. The other rulers of
this dynasty were Jagadekamalla, Tailapa III, Tribhuvanamalla and
Someshwara IV.
Cultural Contributions.
The Chalukyas of Kalyana followed the great tradition of the
Chalukyas of Badami and made rich contributions to the culture of
Karnataka, especially in Literature, Art and Architecture.
Literature
Kannada and Sanskrit literature developed during this period.
Jain writers composed scholarly literature in Kannada. The famous
Kannada poet Ranna was patronized by Sathyashraya. His famous works
are 'Ajitanatha Purana' and 'Sahasa Bhima Vijaya' (Gadhayuddha). He
was honoured as 'Kavichakravarthi' by his patron. The other important
authors and works of this period were:
Chavundaraya II - Lokopakara deals with astronomy, astrology,
sculpture and Medicine.
Sreedharacharya - Jaatakatilaka. This is the first authentic

astrological
Work in Kannada.
Bilhana - A Kashmir poet was the court poet of Vikramaditya

VI. He wrote 'Vikramankadeva Charitham'
Someshwaralll - Wrote 'Abhilashithartha Chintamani' or

'Manasollasa', which is considered as the first
encyclopedia in Sanskrit.
Nagavarma-II - Who was Jagadekamalla's tutor, has written

'Kavyavalokana', (work on poetics,) 'Bhasha
Bhushana' (a work on Grammar) and
Abhidhanavastukosha, (the first dictionary in
Kannada),
Durgasimha - Panchatantra.
Chandraraja - Madanatilaka.
Shatinatha - Sukumara Charithe.
Kirthivarma - Govaidya.
Nayasena - Dharmamrutha.
Vignaneshwara- 'Mitakshara-Samhita' (a work on Hindu law) etc.
Art and Architecture

Chalukyas of Kalyana were great patrons of art and architecture.
They continued the architectural styles of the Chalukyas of Badami.
The important temples of their period are:
Place ... Temple
Kukkanur Kalleshwara
Abbaluru Brahmeshwara
Kuruvatti Mallikarjuna
Lakkundi Bramha-Jinalaya, Kashi Visheshwara
Laxmeshwara Shankhabasadi, Someshwara
Dambala Doddabasaveshwara
Hirehadagali Kalleshwara
Haveri Siddeshwara
Hanagal Tharakeshwara, Ganapati
Balligavi Kedareshwara, Thripurambaka
Itagi Mahadeva.
Chandralekha, the Queen of Vikramaditya VI was an expert in
dance, music and other fine arts. Hence she had the title 'Nrutya
Vidyadari' and 'Abhinaya Saraswathi'.
HOYSALAS OF DWARASAMUDRA
Hoysalas were the feudatories of Chalukyas of Kalayana.
Dwarasamudra (Halebeedu) was their capital. Shashakapura or Sosevuru
(Angadi in Chikmaglur district) and Belur were their capitals at different
times. Sala was the founder of this dynasty. Sala killing a tiger was
the royal emblem of the Hoysala dyanasty.
A Jain saint Vardhamana Sudattacharya was meditating

in the Vasanthika Devi Temple at Shashakapura. The
temple was surrounded by a dense forest. A tiger appeared
from theforest and createdfear among the devotees of the
temple. The Jainamuni gave an Iron weapon to Sala and
orderd him to kill it as 'Poi-Sala' (Sala kill it).He killed the
tiger. The saint blessed Sala and Sala is said to have
established the kingdom. Hence the dyanasty was called
Hoysala dyanasty and the emblem was 'Sala killing a
Tiger'.
He was succeeded by Vinayaditya and Ballala-1. Ballala-I was

instrumental in the rise of the Hoysala power. He was one of the important
feudatories in the court ofVikramaditya VI. He attempted to revolt against
Vikramaditya VI to gain independence, but failed.
Vishnuvardhana (Bittideva) (1108-1152 CE).

Vishnuvardhana was the greatest among the Hoysala kings. He
had taken part in many wars during his brother Ballala's regime. He
gained a lot of experience in administration as the Governor ofNanjangud
province. By his ability and might he became the most powerful king
in South India. He had many titles .They throw light on his victories.
He completely routed the Cholas from Gangavadi in the battle of
Talakadu in 1114 CE. and took the title Talakadugonda'. In
commemoration of this victory he built the Kirtinarayana temple at
Talakadu and the Channakeshava temple at Belur (Velapura). The
coins issued by him after this victory contain the title 'Sri
Talakadugonda'. Later he conquered Kongu, Nangali, Nolambavadi and
Hanagallu. The Malavalli inscription tells us that he uprooted the Cholas
from Kolar. Later he drove the Cholas upto Kanchi and earned the title
Kanchigonda. He invaded Madurai and defeated Pandyas. He also
defeated Pandyas of Uchchangi and marched upto Rameshwaram. In
all these campaigns of Vishnuvardhana his commander Gangaraja
played an important role.
Vishnuvardhana attained fame by driving away Cholas out of

Karnataka. He later defeated Kongalvas and the Cholas who were ruling
at Nidugal. The Kongalva King gave his daughter Chandaladevi in marriage
to Vishnuvardhana. He also defeated the Alupas of Alwakheda.
Vishnuvardhana tried to overthrow the overlordship of the Chalukyas
of Kalyana. But he was defeated by Vikramaditya VI in 1118 CE in
the Battle of Kannegala. The Chalukyan suzerainty continued till the
death of Vikramadithya VI. After the death of Someshwara III, the
successor of Vikramadiya VI, Vishnuvardhana invaded upto River
Tungabhadra in the North. In 1140 CE he won over Hanagal, Uchchangi,
Bankapura and Banavasi. In 1142 CE he won over Lakkundi. He died
in 1152 CE. Vishnuvardhana had titles like 'Mahamandaleshwara',
'Chalukya-mani-Mandalika Chudamani', 'Tatpada Padmopajivin',
'Maleparolganda', etc.
Chapter 4 -Ancient Period - 4.9 - Later Chalukyas and Hoysalas
Cultural Contributions of Hoysalas

The Hoysala rulers have given rich contribution to the fields of
religion, literatute, art and architecture. A unique style of architecture
and sculpture was developed during this period. Their period is known
as 'The Golden Age of Temple Architecture' in Indian History.
Religion : Hoysalas patronised Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Jainism.
Many kings followed Jainism. Bittideva (Vishnuvardhana) was a Jain.
He was influenced by Shri Ramanujacharya and converted to
Shrivaishnavism. He changed his name from Bittideva to
Vishnuvardhana. His Queen Shantala devi and many of his generals were
jains. This shows the religious tolerance of Vishnuvardhana.
Literature : Kannada and Sanskrit literature developed during this
period. Important litrary works of the Hoysala period were,
Kannada works.
Nagachandra Mallinathapurana, Ramachandra Charitha Purana
and Pampa Ramayana.
Rajaditya Kshethra Ganitha, Vyavahara Ganitha, and
Leelavathi.
Nayasena Dharmamrutha.
Raghavanka Harischandrakavya, Siddaramapurana.
Harihara Girijakalyana, Pampashataka, and
Shivaksharamale.
Janna YashodraCharitre and Ananthanatha purana.
Keshiraja 'Shabdamanidarpana.
Sanskrit works.
Thrivikrmapanditha Ushaharana.
Narayanapanditha Madhava Vijaya and Manimanjari.
Sakala Vidyachakravarthi III : Rukminikalyana.
Art and Architecture : Hoysalas combined Vesara and Dravida
styles and developed a new style of Architecture called 'Hoysla style'.
The main features of this style are:
1. Star shaped base.

2. A star platform Uagati) of about 4 feet
high.
3. The Jagati around the temple is the
open pradakshinapatha.
4. Polished pillars with variety of designs.
5. Elaborate carvings and beautifully
carved Madanika figures
6. Spacious Navaranga (Central hall)
7. The Bhuvaneshwari (carved ceiling)
8. The Vimana (Shikara) in a
pyramidical shape.
9. Garbhagruhas ranging from one to five Madanike
(Ekakuta, Dwikuta, Thrikuta,
Chathushkuta and Panchakuta.)
They have built more than
100 temples. Important among
them are, Channakeshava
(Ekakuta) at Belur,
Hoysaleshwara (Dwikuta) at
Halebeedu, Keshava (Thrikuta) at
Somanathapura, Lakshmi
(Chathuskuta) at Doddagaddavalli.,
Panchalingeswara (Panchakuta) at
Govindanahalli, Keerthinarayana
at Talakadu, Harihareshwara at
Harihara, Shiva at Bankapura,
Amrutheshwara at Amruthapura, Channakeshava Temple, Belur
Veeraballala temple at Arasikere
etc. They renovated many Jain Basadis and built new ones.
Vishnuvardhana's queen built the Savathi Gandhavarana Basadis at
Shravanabelagola.
Both instrumental and vocal music along with dance developed
during the Hoysala period. Many Queens were dancers. Shantala, the
Queen of Vishnuvardhana was famous as 'Natya Saraswathi'.
Activity
Collect information about important temples of Hoysalas and Later
Chalukyas
QUESTIONS

1. Who was the founder of Chalukyas of Kalyana?
2. Which was the first capital of Chalukyas of Kalyana?
3. Who was the patron of Ranna?
4. Who had the title 'Kavichakravarthi'?
5. Which work is considered as The First Encylopaedia' of Sanskrit?
6. Who was the founder of Hoysala kingdom?
7. What was the Royal Emblem of Hoysalas?
1. Who started 'Vikrama Era' and when?
2. Mention any two titles of Vikramditya VI
3. Name any two works of Ranna.
4. Who was the court poet of Vikramditya VI? Name his work.
5. Name any two capitals of Hoysalas.
6. Mention any two titles of Vishnuvardhana.
7. Name any two famous temples of Hoysalas.
1. Explain the cultural contributions of Chalukyas of Kalyana.
2. Describe the achievements of Vishnuvardhana.
3. Illustrate Hoysala contributions to Religion and Literature.
4. Explain the main features of Hoysala Architecure.
*****
CHAPTER 5
MEDIEVAL PERIOD
Chapter-5. 1
DELHI SULTANATE
After the death of Harshavardhana, North India underwent a great
change. The absence of a strong political power gave rise to many
independent principalities like Tomars in Delhi, Chauhans in Ajmer,
Rathors in Kanauj, Chandelas in Bundelkhand, Paramaras in Malwa,
Sisodiyas in Mewar, etc. There were about 70 independent principalities
in North India during the 8th to 12th centuries C.E. These states were
ve:ry rich but were quarrelling among themselves. This disunity led to
foreign invasion.
Arabs were the first among Muslims to invade India. They extended
their power upto Sindh. Mohammad-bin-Quasim, the Governor of Basra,
invaded India in 712 C.E. The Turks were the second among the Muslims
to invade India. Mohammad of Ghazni led 17 expeditions to India
between 1000 to 1027CE. His repeated attacks were to plunder the
wealth of the big towns and the rich temples. The 15th expedition
was carried on the famous Somanath temple in Gujarath. Alberuni, a
Persian Scholar accompanied him in one of the expeditions. He wrote the
famous book Kitab-Ul-Hind.
After the death of Mohammad Ghazni in 1030 C.E. India was free
from any invasions for about one and half centuries. In 1175 C.E. Shahab
ud-din Mohammad Ghori invaded India. In 1191 C.E Mohammad Ghori
was defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan in the first battle of Tarain. In the
second Battle of Tarain in 1192 C.E. Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated
and captured. After this war Ghori captured Ajmer and Delhi and
established Muslim rule in India. The Turkish rule extended over the
Ganga-Yamuna Doab after the defeat of J ayachandra, the Gahadvala
King of Kanauj. Mohammed Ghori entrusted the administration of his
Indian possessions to his trusted slave and general Qutub-ud-din-Aibak.
Chapter 5 - Medieval Period - 5.1 - Delhi Sultanate
Mohammad Ghori died in 1206 C.E. After this Qutub-ud-din Aibak
secured from the Caliph of Baghdad Manumission and declared
independence. Therefore, Qutub-ud-din Aibak is known as the founder
of the 'Mamuluk' or Slave dynasty. Mamuluck means 'slave'. Qutubud
din-Aibak was famous for the construction of Qutub Minar at Delhi.
The Sultanate of Delhi was ruled by 5 dynasties viz,

1. The Slave dynasty (1206 - 1290 C.E)
2. The Khilji dynasty (1290-1320 C.E)
3. The Tughalak dynasty (1320-1413 C.E)
4. The Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451 C.E)
5. The Lodhi dynasty (1451-1526 C.E)
Important Sultans of Slave Dynasty: (1) Qutub-ud-Din

Aibak, (2) fltumish (3) Razia Begum (Sultana) was the first
Muslim woman ruler of Medieval India. (4) Balban(5)
Kaiqubad.
Khilji Dynasty: (1290-1320 CE)

The term, Khilji in Turkish language means 'Swords men'. Jalaluddin
Khilji was the founder of Khilji Dynasty. He came to power in 1290
CE. He was murdered and succeeded by his ambitious nephew Alla
Ud-din Khilji in 1296 CE.
Alla-ud-din Khilji (1296 to 1316 CE)

Alla-ud-din Khilji's early name was Aligurshap. He lost his father
at a very young age. Jalal-ud-din brought him up with affection.
Alla-ud-din married the daughter of Jalal-ud-din. Jalal-ud-din
appointed him as the governor of Khara province. In 1292 CE Alla-ud-
din invaded Malwa and captured the town of Bilsa. He proceeded
against Devagiri in the Deccan without taking the permission of the
Sultan. Ramachandradeva of Devagiri was defeated by him. Alla-ud-
din Khilji returned to Khara with heavy amount of booty of gold,
silver, pearls and precious stones. The aged Sultan came hurriedly to
Khara to receive the victorious Alla-ud-din. Alla-ud-din killed his uncle
Jalal-ud-din Khilji and proclaimed himself as the Sultan of Delhi.
Achievements of Alla-ud-din Khilji.

I. Conquest of North India:
Conquest of Gujarat: (1297 CE)

Gujarat was ruled by Rajput King Kamadeva. In 1297 CE. Ulugh
Khan and Nazarath Khan, the generals of Alla-ud-din attacked Gujarath
and captured Anhilwada, Somanatha and Cambay and looted the wealth.
King Kamadeva fled to Devagiri along with his daughter Devaladevi.
The generals captured Kamaladevi, the queen of Kamadeva. Alla-ud
din Khilji married her. During this expedition an eunuch named Malik Kafur
was purchased for one thousand dinars. Hence he was popular as
'Hazar Dinari'.
Conquest of Ranathambore (1301 CE):

Raja Hamira Deva was the ruler of Ranathambore. He had given
shelter to some 'Neo Muslims'. This offended Alla-ud-din. Ulugh Khan
and Nazarath Khan invaded Ranathambore. It was captured after a siege
of 11 months. Hamirdeva lost his life in the battle.
Conquest of Mewar (Chittor) (1303 CE):

The Sisodias of Mewar enjoyed great respect among the Rajputs.
Their fort of Chittor was considered unconquerable. Tradition maintains
that the immediate cause of Alla-ud-din's attack was his desire to carry
away Padmini, the beautiful wife of Rana Ratan Singh. When defeat
seemed certain, Padmini and other Rajput women committed 'Jauhar'.
Chittor was captured and Sultan's eldest son Khizer Khan was made
the governor of Chittor (capital of Mewar).
Jauhar: Rajput women, to protect their honour from the

enemies, Jumped into the fire andsacrificed their lives.
This was known as Jauhar
Other Conquests:
Malwa, Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar, Chanderi and Jolur were conquered
and by 1305 CE Alla-ud-din completed his Northern conquests.
The Mangol Raids:

Alla-ud-din had to face more than six Mangol invasions between
1296 and 1308 CE. Frequent raids by the Mangols were a constant
threat to the empire. Neo Muslims were also helping the Mangols. Alla
ud-din took a series of measures like building roads and forts and garrison
at regular intervals, stationing sufficient trained soldiers, mercilessly
massacring Neo Muslims, etc., to face the Mangol raids.
Neo Muslims: A group of Mangols had been allowed to
settle near Delhi after embracing Islam by Jalal-ud-din
Khilji. They were called as 'Neo Muslims'. They plotted to
take the life of Alla-ud-din Khilji. But it Jailed. Hence Alla-
ud din massacred 30,000 Neo- Muslims near Delhi.
II South Indian Campaign

Alla-ud-din Khilji was the first Muslim ruler to attempt the conquest
of South India. He deputed his able general Malik Kafur for the South
Indian campaign. The enormous wealth of South India and his ambition
to conquer it were the causes for his campaign.
Expedition to Devagiri (1307 CE):

Ramachandradeva, the king of Devagiri had given shelter to Karnadeva
and his daughter Devaladevi and had also not paid the annual tribute
for three years. Allaud-din sent Malik Kafur against Devagiri with an
army of 30,000 soldiers. He defeated Ramachandradeva and captured
Devaladevi. She was married to Khizer Khan, the eldest son of Alla
ud-din Khilji. Ramachandradeva agreed to pay an annual tribute.
Warrangal Expedition: (1309 CE)

Malik Kafur marched towards Warrangal via Devagiri and besieged
the fort. King Prataparudradeva of Warrangal was forced to surrender
and he sued for peace. Golden statue of King Prataparudradeva, 100
elephants, 7000 horses and large quantities of gold and silver jewels
and money were carried away to Delhi' by Malik Kafur. Amir Khusru
says "Malik Kafur proceeded to Delhi with booty on a thousand camels,
groaning under the weight of treasure".
Conquest of Dwarasamudra (1310 CE):

Malik Kafur attacked Dwarasamudra (Halebidu) which was ruled
by Vira Ballala III. The Hoysala King was surprised by the sudden attack
of the Muslim army and could not defend his capital. It was looted.
A number of temples were axed by Malik Kafur. Veera Ballala III
surrendered some elephants, horses and treasure and offered to pay
annual tribute to the Sultan.
Conquest of Madhurai (1311 CE) :

There was a civil war at Madhurai, between the brothers Sundara
Pandya and Veera Pandya. Malik Kafur marched towards Madhurai and
plundered all the important towns and temples on the way to Pandya
Kingdom. He reached as far as Rameshwaram and destroyed the great
temple and built a mosque there. He came back to Delhi in 1311 CE
with rich spoils.
Second Expedition on Devagiri: (1312 CE)
The last war of the South Indian expedition of Malik Kafur was
against Shankaradeva of Devagiri. Shankaradeva had withheld the tribute
and tried to reign independently. So Malik Kafur marched against Devagiri
and defeated and killed him. Devagiri was annexed to the Delhi empire.
Alla-ud-din's empire extended from Lahore in the North to Madhurai
in the South and Bengal in the East to Gujarat in the West. By 1312
CE Alla-ud-din had become the master of the whole of India. He had
an ambition to conquer the whole world. But had to be satisfied in
conquering the entire India. Even then he issued the coins with the
title 'Sikandar' (Alaxander II).
III. Reforms of Alla-ud-din Khilji.

Administrative Reforms :
Alla-ud-din Khilji was a strong and efficient ruler. He set up a strong
central government. He was the highest authority of the state and he
believed in the theory of divine right. Hence, the Sultan considered
himself a representative of God or 'Shadow of God' on earth. He took
various measures for the prevention of rebellions, such as restricting
matrimonial relations among nobles and officers, prohibiting secret
meetings and parties, appointing spies to keep an eye on them,
THE EMPIRE OF
ALLA-UD-DIN KHIWI
Kara
Arabian Bay of
Sea Bengal
----Extent of the Empire

• -7-7--Route of Malik kafur's
Southern Expedition
confiscating their excess wealth, prohibiting wine and gambling and

himself refraining from them and preventing the interference of Ulemas
in administration.
Military Reforms:
(a) Alla-ud-din maintained a strong and huge standing army to safeguard
his empire.
(b) He introduced the system of branding of horses (dagh) and
maintenance of descriptive register of soldiers to prevent false
musters and corrupt practices.
(c) He abolished the Jagir system and paid the salaries in cash.
(d) He fixed the pay of soldiers at 234 tankas a year, with an additional
78 tankas for a soldier maintaining two horses.
(e) Ariz-i-Mumalik was in charge of the appointment of soldiers.
Revenue Reforms:
(a) Alla-du-din Khilji introduced scientific method of measurement of
land for the assessment of land revenue.
(b) He imposed heavy taxes on the Sardars, Jagirdars and Ulemas.
(c) Jazia was imposed on non-Muslims. They had to pay it along with
other taxes like pilgrim tax, octroi etc.,
(d) In order to check bribery and corruption among revenue officials
the salaries were increased.
(e) The post of a special officer called 'Mustakhraj' was created to collect
land revenue from the peasants.
(f) He took steps to safeguard the peasants from the demands of corrupt
revenue officials by imposing strict punishments even for petty
offences.
Economic Reforms : (Market Regulation)

Alla-ud-din introduced the market regulation to help soldiers and
to make ends meet. Prices of all articles of common use were fixed.
Separate department and special officers were appointed to regulate
the market. The price fixed in the capital was applicable to all towns.
Price List
(1) Wheat per mana 7½ jitals (2) Rice per mana 5 jitals
(3) Pulses per mana 5 jitals (4) Barley per mana 4 jitals
(5) Sesamum per 3 sers 1 jital (6) Ghee per 2½ sers 1 jital
(7) Sugar per 1½ sers 1½ jitals (8) One horse 100 To 200 Tankas
(9) One Cow 4 to 5 Tanlcas (1OJ Male slave 100 to 200
(11) Female slave 40 to 50 Tankas Tankas
Grains were stored in government granaries. The storage was meant

for emergencies like times of scarcity and famine. Any trader or vendor
who cheated in weights and measurements were punished with cutting
of an equal weight of flesh from his body (thigh).
The last days of Alla-ud-din were unhappy. He was poisoned by
his trusted general Malik Kafur and the Sultan died in 1316 CE.
Successors of Delhi Sultanate: Shihab-ud-din Umar,
Kutub-ud-din Mubarak Shah and Nasir-ud-din Khusro
Shah.
The Tughalak Dynasty

Ghiyasuddin Tughalak founded the Tughalak dynasty in 1320 CE.
He was an experienced warrior, statesman and an able administrator.
He liberated various harsh measures imposed by Alla-ud-din and restored
peace and order in the Kingdom.
Muhammad-bin-Tughalak (1325-1351 CE)

In the year 1325 CE Prince Jaunakhan, the son of Ghiyasuddin
Tughalak ascended the throne with the title Muhammad-bin-Tughalak.
He was an outstanding ruler of Tughalak dynasty. He is known for
his military, economic and administrative experiments.
Military campaign
Muhammad bin-Tughalak led a successful campaign against Nagarkot
in 1337 C.E. Though his expedition of Karajal on the foot hills of Himalayas
was successful his army suffered heavy losses because of severe cold.
He also led a campaign against Kampili Raya and Veeraballala III of

Hoysalas. During his rule there were rebellions by Hindu chiefs and
Muslim provincial governors who were ruthlessly suppressed.
Administrative Experiments (Reforms)

Increase of taxes in the Doab:
The area between the river Ganges and Yamuna (Doab) being very
fertile, Muhammad-bin-Tughalak decided to increase the taxes in this
area to enhance the revenues of his empire. Although it was a practical
decision, the tax hike was too steep and introduced at a time when
lack of rainfall had already created much unhappiness. When the farmers
were unable to pay, they were ruthlessly punished. This measure made
Muhammad-bin-Tughlak very unpopular.
Transfer of Capital (1327 CE):

To safeguard the capital from the Mangol invasions, the Sultan
decided to shift the capital from Delhi to Devagiri. He built a new city
near Devagiri and named it as Daulatabad. The other causes for
shifting the capital were the proximity of Delhi to the border and the new
capital being in the centre of the empire. He desired to shift the entire
population. Barani says "Not a cat or a dog was left". Ibn Batuta says "a
blind man and a cripple who were unwilling to move were dragged to the
new Capital." The reasons for the move were very practical, but the
method adopted was impractical. The entire population of Delhi was
made to travel to Daulatabad (1120 km). The tiresome journey passing
through the dense forest, heavy rains, diseases, dacoits attacks, hunger,
etc, resulted in death and sufferings of the people. Realizing that he had
made a mistake Sultan ordered all the people to march back to Delhi
again causing many more casualties. The entire incident made him
highly unpopular.
Token Currency Reforms (1329-32 CE)

Muhammad-bin-Tughalak carried out experiments on coinage and
currency. His main aim was to save precious metals like gold and silver
and introduce more money in circulation. For this reason Copper coins
were issued which had the same value as the silver tanka. Minting
the copper coins was not retained as a monopoly of the government.
Hence the empire was flooded with thousands of counterfeit copper

coins. People paid taxes with these counterfeit coins. Copper coins lost
their value as a medium of exchange. Trade suffered a lot. The Sultan
therefore, recalled copper coins. The people were asked to exchange
their copper coins with silver and gold coins. Hence the royal treasury
became empty. Thus the currency reform of the Sultan utterly failed.
His character traits and achievements have elicited much discussion
and controversy. Dr.V.A Smith says that he was a "compound of
contradictions". He was a learned scholar, an excellent speaker, a talented
calligraphist and a devout Musalman. He possessed sound knowledge
of mathematics, astronomy, philosophy and logic. But his policies,
though well meant, were ill planned and badly executed. They made him
very unpopular, giving him the reputation of being 'A mixture of
opposites".
Muhammad-bin-Tughalak died at Tatta (in Sindh) in 1351 CE. The
nobles chose Firoz Shah Tughalak as his successor. The sultanate had
slowly begun to decline. The Tughalaks were followed by the Sayyids
and the Lodhis. The last Lodhi ruler Ibrahim Lodhi was defeated in
the first Battle of Panipat in 1526 CE by Babur the founder of Mughals.
Sayyid Sultans (1414-1451 CE): Khizar Khan, Mubarak
Shah, Syed Mohammad Shah and Alla-ud-din Alam Shah.
Lodhi Sultans (1451-1526 CE): Bahalal Lodhi, Nizam
Khan, Sikandar Lodhi and Ibrahim Lodhi.
Contributions of the Delhi Sultanate

1. Administration: The Kingdom of Delhi sultanate was a theocratic
state. 'Shariat' (Islamic law) were the rules of the state. The 'Ulema'
(a body of Islamic shcolars) controlled the state and administration. The
sultans called themselves Naib (deputy) of Kalifa (head of the Islamic
state and religion of the world.)
Central Government:
Sultan was the fountain-head of administration. He exercised the
legislative, executive and judicial powers. He was often guided by the
Ulemas. However, Alla-ud-din Khilji kept the Ulema away from the state
affairs. The Sultan carried the aministration with the help of a number
of ministers. They were incharge of departments like foreign affairs,
revenue, royal correspondence, agriculture, markets, military, justice,
finance etc.
Important Central officers

1. Wazir
Prime Minister, next to the Sultan
incharge of revenue and finance.
2. Ariz-i-Mamlik
Head of the military department.
3. Amir-i-Mazlis
Officer incharge of Royal forts and
conferences.
4. Barid-i-Mumalik
Head of the state news agency.
- Head of the royal correspondences.
5. Dabir-i-Mumalik Dealt with thereligious matters and
endowments.
-
Chief Justice.
6. Sadar-us-Sadur
7. Kazi-ul-Qazat
Revenue: Land revenue, the war-booty, annual tributes, house, water,

religious and poll taxes (Jaziya). etc, were the various sources of income
to the state. Land revenue could be paid either in cash or kind.
Justice:
The Sultans administered justice with the help of Kazi-Ul-Qazat (The
chief justice). The chief Kazi was helped by a Mufti (interpreter oflslamic
law). The towns and cities had courts headed by Kazis and assisted
by Muftis. Kotwal was the police officer in charge of law and order.
Army:
The Sultans maintained a strong army. It consisted of cavalry, infantry
and elephant forces. The sultanate was primarily a military state. The
Sultan was the supreme commander. All ministers and officers except
the chief justice and the Khazis were to render both civil and military
duties. Diwan-I-Ariz was incharge of army organization and administration.
Provincial Administration:
The Sultanate was divided into a number of provinces called
'Iqtas'. Each was under a governor called 'Naib sultan'. The governor
enjoyed absolute powers in his province. He looked after the
administration, collected the revenue and maintained law and order in
his province. He maintained an army of his own. Some sultans had the
habit of transferring the governors and punishing them very severely if
they revolted against the sultan.
Each province was divided into 'Shiqs' and 'Paragans'. They were
looked after by 'Shiqdars' and 'Amils' respectively. Village was the
primary unit of administration. It had traditional officers such as the
Chaudhari, the Patwari, the Chaukidar etc.
2. Literature:
This period witnessed the growth of Persian and Vernacular literature.
Persian poets of Central Asia sought shelter in the court of the sultans
of Delhi. Amir Khusru was the most outstanding writer. He was called
the 'Parrot oflndia'. Khazyan-ul-Futuh and Tarkish-i-Alai were his works.
Amir Hasan Dehalvi wrote sonnets. Badr-ud-din, Maulana Muyyin-ud
din, Umrani and Hassan Nizami were some of the great Persian writers.
Muhammad-bin-Tughalak and Firoz Shah Tughalak were great scholars.
Zia-ud-din Barani and Ibn Batuta were great historians of the Tughalak
period. 'Shams-i-Siraj Afif completed the work Tarik-i-Firoz-shahi which
had been left incomplete by Barani.
The Bhakthi movement provided scope for the development of
vernacular literature (Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, and Gujarati). Chand
Bardai wrote 'Prithiviraja Raso' and Malik Mohammad Jaysi wrote
'Padmavati'. There was encouragement for translating works from
Sanskrit to Persian.
3. Art and Architecture:

The heritage of Indian architecture was enriched by the Sultans
of Delhi. They caused the development of a new style of architecture
called 'Indo-Islamic'. It represents a synthesis of the two religious ideals,
viz, Hinduism and Islam. The important features of the Indo-Islamic
monuments are minarates, arches, domes, Hazaras, large gate ways,
etc. Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque at Delhi and Adai-dinka-Jhampara mosque
at Ajmer were earliest creations. The

Qutub Minar was a great achievement
of the early period. It was commenced
by Qutub-ud-din Aibak and
completed by Iltumash. Itltumash
built Hauz-i Shamsi, Jami Masjid
and Shamsi Idgah. The Jami Masjid
is one of the largest and most
beautiful of his buildings. Alla-ud-
din Khilji built the palace of Hazar
situm (palace of thousand pillars),
the fort of Siri, the Jamait Khan
Masjid and the Alai
Darwaza at Delhi. The Tughalaks
showed keen interest in building of
cities and forts. Firoz Shah was the
greatest of the builders. He laid out
the cities of Firozabad, Fatehbad,
Hissar and Janpur. Kutub Minar, Delhi
Activities
(1) Make a list of Administrative expiriments of Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq.
(2) Collect the pictures on art and architecture of Indo-Islamic
monuments of Delhi Sultanate.
QUESTIONS.

1. Who were the first among the Muslims to invade India?
2. Name the famous book of Alberuni.
3. Who was the founder of the Slave dynasty?
4. Who was the founder of the Khilji dynasty?
5. Who was the commander of Alla-ud-din Khilji who led the
Southern expedition?
6. Who was called 'The Parrot of India'?
7. Who was the founder of the Tughlak dynasty?
8. Who was the famous Sultan of Tughlak dynasty?
9. Who shifted the capital from Delhi to Devagiri?
10. Who introduced token Currency?
11. Who commenced the construction of Qutub Minar at Delhi?
1. In which year did the second battle of Tarain take place? Between
whom was it fought?
2. Name any two dynasties of Delhi Sultanate.
3. Name any two important monuments constructed by Alla-ud-
din Khilji.
4. Why did Alla-ud-din Khilji call himself as 'Sikandar'?
5. Name any two generals of Alla-ud-din Khilji.
6. Give any two causes for the transfer of capital by Mohammad
bin Tughlak.
7. Name two historians of Tughalak period.
8. Who started the writing of 'Tarik-i-Firozshahi'? Who completed
it?
9. Name two books of Amir Khusrau.
m. Answer the following in 15 to 20 sentences each.
1. Write a note on the South Indian expedition of Alla-ud-din Khilji.
2. Explain the reforms of Alla-ud-din Khilji.
3. Why is Mohammad bin Tughalak called a 'Mixture of Opposites'?
IV. Answer the following in 30 to 40 sentences each.
1. Describe the achievements of Alla-uddin Khilji.
2. Critically examine the administrative experiments ofMohammad
bin-Tughalak.
3. Give an account of the contributions of Sultanate of Delhi.
CHAPTER 5.Z
THE MOGHfiLS
During the later medieval period, there was another invasion on
India from Central Asia. In the first battle of Panipat in 1526 CE Babur
defeated, killed Ibrahim Lodhi and established the Mughal rule in India.
Babur was a great poet, and prose writer. His autobiography is 'Babur
Nama'. His son and successor was Humayun. He lost his authority to
Shershah Sur and could regain it after 15 years. He died suddenly
in 1556 CE and was succeeded by his son Akbar.
Akbar the great (1556-1605 CE)

Jalal-ud-din Mohammad Akbar was the son of Humayun and Hamida
Banu Begum. Humayun had lost his kingdom and was wandering from
place to place along with his wife and very few followers. At this
juncture Akbar was born at Amarkot in 1542 CE under the shelter of the
Rana. His childhood was spent in great miseries pestered by Humanyun's
enemies and untrustworthy followers. Hence Akbar was deprived of
education and political training. He was forced to acceed at an early
age of 14 years after the death of his father. As he was a minor, Byram
Khan became the regent.
Military achievements of Akbar:

The Second Battle of Panipat (1556 CE)
Hemu, the prime minister of Mohammad Adil Shah of Bengal,
attacked and captured Delhi and Agra from the Mughal governor Tardi
Baig and assumed the title Raja Vikramaditya. Akbar was in Punjab
and his political condition was critical. Byram Khan helped Akbar to
fight against Hemu in the second battle of Panipat in 1556 CE. When
Hemu was on the verge of victory he was struck in the eye by an
arrow and became unconscious. The leaderless army of Hemu fled away.
Chapter 5 - Medieval Period - 5.2 - The Mughals
Byram Khan killed Hemu. After this battle Akbar reoccupied Delhi and
Agra.
Conquest of Gondwana:
Akbar Sent Asaf Khan to subdue the Kingdom of Gondwana. Rani
Durgavati was ruling over this kingdom as the regent of her son
Veeranarayana. She died fighting and Gondwana was annexed to the
Mughal Empire.
Conquest of Gujarat:
The wealth and prosperity of Gujarath and its importance for sea
trade made Akbar to attack Gujarath. Its ruler Muzaffar Shah was
defeated and Gujarath was occupied. Akbar built a new capital called
Fathepur near Sikri in memory of this conquest.
Conquest of Bengal and Orissa:

The governor of Bengal Daud Khan declared independence.
Therefore Akbar sent his army to suppress him. Bengal and Orissa were
occupied and they became a part of the Mughal Empire.
Annexations of Kabul and Kashmir:

Akbar's step brother Hakim Mirza was ruling over Kabul. After his
death in 1585 C.E. Akbar annexed Kabul into his Empire. Later he
conquered Kashmir also.
Rajput Policy:
Rajputs were the powerful enemies of the Mughals. Akbar realized
that the valour and loyalty of Rajputs were essential for the consolidation
of the Mughal empire. Therefore he tried to win their support by adopting
measures like friendly relations, co-operation, entering into matrimonial
alliances and appointing many of them as Mansabdars. Akbar married
Jodha Bai, the daughter of Biharimal of Ambar (Jaipur). Raja Surjan
Rai of Ranathambore voluntarily accepted the overlordship of Akbar.
Ramachandra, the ruler of Kalinjar surrendered to Akbar in 1569 CE.
The rulers of Jodhpur and Bikaner also accepted the sovereignty of
Akbar.
The only Rajput state which refused to accept Akbar's overlordship
was Mewar. Akbar captured Chittor, the capital of Mewar by defeating
its ruler Uday Singh in 1568 CE. But Uday Singh continued to fight
against the Mughals till his death. His son Rana Pratap Singh also
continued to fight after the death of his father. The most important
battle fought between the Mughals and Rajputs was the battle of
Haldighat in 1576 CE. Ranapratap Singh suffered heavy losses in this
battle. Mewar was completely occupied by Akbar only after the death
of Ranapratap Singh. Rajput Kings were allowed to retain internal
autonomy. The important Rajput commanders of Akbar were Raja
Todarmal, Raja Mansingh, Raja Baghavandas and others.
Conquests of South India:

After his North-Indian conquest Akbar sent political missions to
South Indian states like Bidar, Khandesh, Ahmed Nagar, Golkonda and
Bijapur to accept his suzerainty. Except Khandesh, the remaining states
rejected his proposal. Hence he followed the path of war to conquer
them. In 1595 CE Chand Bibi, ruler of Ahamednagar, bravely fought
against the Mughal attack, but failed. Thus Akbar conquered Bidar and
Ahmed Nagar.
Akbar's empire extended from Himalayas in the North to the
Godavari in the South and Bengal in the East to Kabul in the
West.
Akbar's Administration:
Akbar provided a very good system of administration. This continued
all through the Mughal period with very few changes. Mughal
administration under Akbar was centralized. He was the fountain head
of all the powers. The Mughal emperor was called 'Padishah' or
'Badshah'. He was considered as 'Shadow of God' and he ruled in
accordance with Islamic principles. Emperor had a cabinet of ministers,
who helped him in the matters of administration. Some of the important
ministers were:
(a) Vakil - Chief Minister
(b) Diwan-i-Ali - Finance Minister
(c) Mir Bakshi - Official for the distribution of salaries.
(d) Sadar-us-sadar - in Charge of charities.
(e) Khan-i-Saman - Home minister
(f) Dewan - Revenue Minister etc.,
(g) Qazi - Chief justice.
MUGHAL EMPIRE
UNDER AKBAR
Arabian • Bijapura
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Extent of
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All of them worked under the emperor's guidance. He could dismiss
any of them at any time.
Akbar's empire consisted of 16 provinces called 'Subhas'. Each province
was headed by a governor called Subhadar. He was held responsible
for collection of revenue and maintaining law and order. Some of the
important officers of the provinces were Diwan, Bakshi, Sadar, Faujdar,
Kotwal, Quazi, etc., Subhas were further divided into Sarkars (districts)
and again into Paraganas (Taluks). Kotwals were incharge of city
administration. Village was the lowest unit of administration. The
administration of the Village was carried out by the village panchayat.
The Mansabdari System:

Akbar introduced a new system of military and civil administration
known as 'Mansabdari system'. The word 'Mansab' means rank or
position. It originated from the Persian concept 'Nasabkardan'. It
means fixing a particular person to a particular place. Mansabdars were
therefore holders of these places or ranks in the services of the King.
In 15 71 C.E., Akbar, with the help of his Mir Bakshi set up the
Mansabdari system. The mansabdars could be transferred from one place
to another.
There were various ranks of mansabdars who commanded 10 to
10000 soldiers. In later times this number went upto 50,000. All the
officers of the Kingdom held mansabs and had to recruit a certain number
of soldiers under them. The Emperor could appoint, promote and dismiss
mansabdars at his will.
The Mansabdari system consisted of Zat and Sawar. Zat indicated
the number of soldiers a Mansabdar was expected to maintain while
Sawar meant the actual number of horsemen that he maintained. The
salaries of Manasbdars were high. They were generally not paid in cash
but were allotted Jagirs yielding their respective salaries. As time passed
some of the Mansabdars became powerful and troubled the emperor.
Akbar was dependent upon Mansabdars for military support as his
standing army consisted only 25,000 soldiers.
Revenue system of Raja Todarmal:

Akbar setup an excellent land revenue system. In the year 1581
Akbar's revenue minister Raja Todarmal reorganised the whole land
revenue system. This system was also known as 'Zabti System' or 'Ain
Dah-Sala'. The revenue policies of Alla-ud-din Khilji and Shershah Sur
formed the base for the Mughal revenue policy. The chief features were:
According to this system land was measured and classified on the
basis of fertility of soil as (i) Polaj - Land always in cultivation. (ii) Parauti
- Land which was left to fallow for one or two years. (iii) Chachar -
Land that is left uncultivated for 3 to 4 years. (iv) Banjar - Land that
was not cultivated for over 5 years. Based on the average crops grown
for ten years the revenue was fixed. It was 1/3 of the average produce.
The revenue could be paid in cash or kind.
Todarmal's Bandobast system:

In the harvest season the officials went round, examined the condition
of agricultural lands and offered suitable suggestions to the farmers.
The government gave loans to the farmers. They could be repaid in
instalments. This was called 'Bandobast system'.
Religious Policy of Akbar :

Akbar was one of the most enlightened and liberal monarchs of
Medieval India. In 1563 C.E., he abolished the pilgrimage tax that all
Hindu pilgrims had to pay. He also abolished the Jaziya. People were
allowed to build places of worship without restrictions. Hindus were
appointed to high posts and he took part in the celebrations of various
Hindu festivals. His Hindu wives exercised remarkable influence on him.
He prohibited Child marriages and Sati. He also encouraged widow
remarriages.
Din-i-Ilahi (1581-82):
Akbar founded a new religion 'Din-i-Ilahi' (Tauhid-i-Ilahi or divine
monotheism). His new religion was based on the principle of peace for
all. It was an attempt to unite the people of different faiths into
brotherhood.
In 1582 he built the 'Ibadat Khana' at Fatepur Sikri. The religious
leaders of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity and Islam would
meet here and hold religious discussions. Akbar assimilated the general
principles of various religions and founded the new religion. The
followers of this religion were expected to respect all religions, worship fire,
celebrate their birthday in the company of people of other religions and
not to marry old women or minor girls. Akbar did not force anybody to
follow his new religion. It lost its importance after the death of
Akbar.
Patronage to Literature:
A large number of books in Sanskrit and other languages were
translated into Persian during Akbar's period. Mahabharatha (Nagib
Khan), Ramayana (Haji Ibrahim), Atharva veda and Leelavathi (Faizi),
Rajatarangini, Panchatantra and story of Nala Damayanthi were most
important works that were translated. The popular scholars in Hindi
were Tulasidas, Surdas, Abdul Rahim, Rakshan and Birbal.
Ramacharitamansa of Tulsidas and Sursagar of Surdas are outstanding
works. A large number of historical works were produced during this
period. 'Ain-i-Akbari' and 'Akbar Nama' of Abul Fazal', Muntakhab -
ul-Tawarik of Badauni, etc were important among them.
Nine Jewels or Nav-Ratnas of Akbar
(1) Abdul Rahim, (2) Abul Fazal (3) Birbal (4) Faizi, (5) Hamid
Human (6) Rqja Manshigh (7) Shaikh Mubarak (8) Tansen
(9) Todarmal
Art and architecture:

Akbar built many palaces at Ambar, Bikaner and Jodhpur. He
constructed tanks and gardens. The most impressive buildings built
by Akbar were to be found at Fathepursikri. Buland Darwaza, Tomb
of Salim Chisti, Panchamahal, Jodhabai's palace, Diwan-i-Am, Diwan
i-Khas, Agra fort, etc., were most remarkable buildings built by him.
Akbar was the greatest among the Mughal Emperors. He had an
attractive personality. Though Akbar was illiterate, he had profound sense
of grasping the details and had a wonderful memory. He had acquired
knowledge of philosophy, Literature, history and other sciences. He was

a great conqueror and statesman. Hence Akbar is called 'Akbar the
Great'.
Jahangir (1605 - 1627 C.E.). He was the son of Akbar.

He too pursued a career of conquest. He fell under the
influence of his wife Nwjahan. She became the virtual
sovereign. Because of this Shah Jahan revolted against his
father.
Shah Jahan (1627-1658 C.E.) ShahJahan is remembered

for his contribution to art and Architecture. He married
Mumtaz Mahal. Tajmahal was built in her memory.
Aurangazeb (1658-1707 CE) He assumed the title 'Alimgir'.

His extensive conquests in North and South India obtained
him a very large empire. He had to face many religious
revolts and incursions. After the death of Aurungazeb in
1 707,the decline of the Mughal empire set in. Struggles of
succession and internal fights among the nobles were the
main causes for this. With the deposition of Bahadur Shah
II to Rangoon after Sepoy Mutiny, in 1857 the Mughal
dynasty came to an end.
Contributions of Mughals
Education and Literature:
The Mughal rulers established Madarasas and colleges. Akbar
arranged for the education of Hindus also. Shahjahan gave
scholarships to students. Girls education was not encouraged. Scholars
were patronized by emperors.
The spread of education led to the growth of literature. Some of
the important literary works in Turkish, Persian, Sanskrit and Hindi
languages are - Bahar wrote 'Babarnama'. Ramayana, Mahabharatha,
Atharva Veda, Panchatantra etc., were translated from Sanskrit to Persian,
Daro, son of Sahahjahan, translated Upanishads to Persian. Abul Fazal's
Ain-in-Akbari and Akbar Nama, Gulbadan Begum's Humayunnama,
Jahangir's autobiography 'Farhang-1 Jahangir' etc, were important works
on history in Persian language. Malik Mohammad's 'Padmavathi', Abdul
Jaisy's Rahim's Sat Sai (dohas), Tulsidas's Ramacharitha Manasa and
Surdas's (the blind poet) Sursagar were important literary works in Hindi.
Art and Architecture: The Mughals were great builders and lovers
of art and architecture. The important features of the Mughal
architecture are domes, tall pillars, gate ways with domes, arches, minars
etc. Important monuments of the Mughals are as follows.
SI. Emperor Monuments

No.
Place.
1 Bahar
Kabul Baugh Panipat
Jumma Masjid Sambhal
2. Akbar
Buland Darwaza Fathepur-Sikhri
(highest gate way of India)
Jamma-i-Masjid Fathepur-Sikhri
Tomb of Shaikh Salim Chisti Fathepur-Sikhri
Panchamahal Fathepur-Sikhri
Palace of Jodhabai Fathepur-Sikhri
Diwan-i-Am Fathepur-Sikhri
Buland Darwaza Diwan-i-Khas Fathepur-Sikhri
3. J ahangir Badashahi mosque Lahore.

4. ShahJahan Tajmahal Agra
Moti Masjid Agra
Jama Masjid Delhi
(Red fort in Delhi)
Diwan-i-Am Delhi
Diwan-i-Khas Delhi
Red fort Delhi
'The Peacock throne Delhi
(it was in Red Fort)
Shah Jahan's period is considered as Golden Age of Mughal
architecture.
Taj Mahal: The best

and the finest of Shah
Jahan's buildings is the Taj
Mahal. It is considered as
one of the wonders of the
world. This was built in
memory of his wife,
Arjumand Banu Begum
(Mumtaz Mahal). The
master architect of the Taj
was Ustad Isa. The
Tajmahal is built on the
banks of the river Yamuna
in white marble. Taj Mahal, Agra
Peacock Throne:Shah Jahan built one of the glorious and

costly thrones in the world. It was built under the supervision
of Bebadal Khan. The cost of the throne was estimated
to be one crore rupees. Its pillars were also made of solid
gold. It is said that one lakh Tolas of gold(1000 KGs) and
50000 rubies, diamonds, emerald and pearls were used
to construct this throne. The roof of the throne was
surmounted by the .figures of two peacocks. Between the
peacocks, there was a tree set with precious stones. There
werejewel studded steps to the emperor's seat on the throne.
It was placed in Diwan-i-Khas of Red Fort in Delhi. It was
carried away by Nadir Shah, the Afghan Noble in 1737
The art of painting greatly developed under the Mughal emperors

and combined both native and foreign elements. Jahangir was the greatest
patron of painting among the Mughals. The famous painters at his court
were Ustad Mansur, Murad, Bishan Das, Manohar etc. He was an expert
painter and had extraordinary ability to identify the painters by their
style of painting. Portrait and miniature painting developed immensely
during his period.
Music: Music developed to a great extent during the Mughal period.

Except Auragzeb, all Mughal emperors patronized music and musicians.
Akbar was the greatest patron of music. Tansen, Ramdas, Briju Bavara
and Surdas were the famous musicians of his court. Bahar, Jahangir
and Shahjan were good singers and composed many lyrics.
Activity
lndentify the policies of Aurangazeb leading to the down fall of Mughal Empire.
QUESTIONS.

1. When did the First Battle of Panipat take place?
2. Who was the founder of Mughal dynasty?
3. Who was the queen of Gondwana?
4. When did the battle of Haldi Ghat take place?
5. Which was the new religion introduced by Akbar?
6. Who was the famous revenue minister of Akbar?
7. Who wrote the book 'Humayun Nama'?
8. Who wrote the book 'Akbarnama'?
9. Who wrote the book 'Ain-i-Akbari'?
10. Who was the Master Architect of the Taj-Mahal?
1. Between whom was the second battle of Panipat fought?
2. Where and when was Akbar born?
3. Name any two famous historians of Akbar's period?
4. Which were the capitals of Akbar?
5. Name any two types of lands classified by Todarmal.
6. Name the two works of Abul Fazal..
7. Who built Taj-Mahal? Where is it?
8. Name any two famous musicians of Mughal period.
9. Mention any two famous Mughal monuments at Delhi.
1. Describe the religious and Rajput policy of Akbar.
2. Briefly write about the administration of Akbar.
3. Describe the contributions of Mughals to literature and Art and
Architecture.
1. Describe the achievements of Akbar.
Chapter 5 - Medieval Period - 5.3- The Rise of Marathas
CHAPTER 5.3
RISE OF MfiRfiTHfiS
The decline of Mughals led to the rise of independent states in
different parts of India. Among them the Marathas were prominent.
Shivaji was the founder of Maratha Kingdom.
Shivaji
Early Life: Shivaji was born at
Shivaneri in 1627 CE. Some historians
claim the year of birth to be l 630CE.
His parents were Shahaji Bhonsle and
Jijabai. Shahaji served under the Sultan
of Ahamednagar and later the Adil
Shahis of Bijapur as a general in the
army.
Shahaji had been granted the
J ahagir of Poona. It was looked after
by Jijabai, while Shahaji himself stayed
at his another Jahagir in Bengaluru.
Jajabai a lady of courage and pious
temperament, infused in her son
heroism, spiritualism and chivalry. She
narrated stories from the epics of
Ramayana and Mahabharata which made Shivaji
him courageous. Shivaji's tutor and guide
was Dadaji Kondadeva. He trained Shivaji
in the art of administration and
warfare.
Shivaji was also influenced by saints like Ramdas and Tukaram. The
Mavalis living in the hilly tracts, became his friends and followers.
Achievements of Shivaji
Conquests:
Shivaji entered into military career even before attaining the age
of 20. He captured the fort Torana with the help of Mavalis. He also
captured many forts like Chakana, Kondana, Simhagad and
Purandhara from Adil shah of Bijapura. The Sultan of Bijapura,
having incurred heavy losses imprisoned Shahaji. Shivaji through his
diplomatic intelligence got the release of his father. Then Shivaji turned
his attention to Konkan coast and occupied the region of Javali. Here
he built the new fort of Pratapagadha.
Shivaji and Afzal Khan: 1659 CE

Shivaji's military activities against the Adil Shahi's continued. So
the Sultan of Bijapur wanted to punish Shivaji and sent Afzal Khan
against him. Shivaji very tactfully (with the help of 'Tiger's Claw) killed
Afzal Khan and looted his camp. In 1661CE, the Sultan of Bijapur made
peace with Shivaji and recognised his conquests.
Shivaji and Aurangazeb

Shjivaji conquered many territories and forts belonging to
Aurungazeb. To check his expansion Aurangazeb appointed Shaista
Khan as the new governor of Deccan. Shaista Khan succeeded in
occupying a vast Maratha territory, (Konkan and Chakan forts) including
Poona. Then Shaista Khan stayed in the house where Shivaji had spent
his childhood at Poona. In 1663, Shivaji entered the city of Poona with a
few hundred soldiers, disguised as a marriage party. Finding his way into
the house easily, Shivaji attacked Shaista Khan. Khan lost his fingers, but
escaped with his life. This increased the fame of Shivaji.
Attack on Surat
In 1664 CE Shivaji attacked and plundered Surat, the richest port
on the West coast. By this he collected one crore rupees. The English
who supported the Mughals were beaten back. On hearing the arrival
of the Mughal force he fled from Surat.
Aurangazeb sent Raja Jaisingh against Shivaji. Jai Singh captured
many of Shivaji's forts like Purandhara, Raigadh, etc., by his lightning
raids. The treaty of Purandar was signed in 1665 CE by which Shivaji
surrendered 23 forts to the Mughals and retained 12 forts. He agreed
to pay tribute to Aurangazeb. It was decided that Shivaji's son Sambaji
would be appointed as a Mansabdar of 5000.
Due to the compulsion of Jaisingh, Shivaji visited the Mughal court
at Agra. But Aurangazeb insulted and imprisoned him (1666 CE). Shivaji
pretended to be ill and sent out baskets of sweets to be donated in
charity. Finding an opportunity he escaped with Sambaji by hiding in
the baskets. He reached his kingdom in the guise of a saint. Afterwards
Shivaji looted Surat twice. He conquered all the forts surrendered earlier
to the Mughals. Aurangazeb was unable to subdue him.
Shivaji's coronation
Shivaji was crowned as King in 1674 C.E. His coronation took place
at Raigadha with pomp and as per the Vedic rites. He took the title
'Chatrapati'.
Sometimes later Shivaji occupied Hubli, Jinji and Vellore. He brought
under his control, his step brother Venkoji, the ruler of Tanjore. Shivaji
died in the year 1680 C.E.
Administrative system of Shivaji

Central Government
Shivaji not only built the Maratha Kingdom but also organised his
administration on efficient lines. He was the sole head of the government
and all authority was concentrated in him. He formed a council of
ministers. The council had eight ministers known as 'Ashtapradhanas'.
1. Peshwa - The Prime minister whose duty was to look after the general
welfare and interst of the state.
2. Amatya - Finance Minister
3. Mantri - Chronicler - He kept a diary of the King's daily activities.
4. Sumant - was incharge of foreign affairs.
5. Sachiva - who looked after the royal correspondence.
6. Pandit Rao or Danadhyaksha- In charge of religious matters and
donations.
7. Senapati or Sar-i-Navbat - commander in chief of the army.
8. Nyayadhish - Chief justice who was responsible for civil and military
There were 18 departments in the government which were under

various ministers. They worked under the supervision and guidance
of the king.
Provincial Government
Shivaji had divided his kingdom into four provinces which were
called 'Swarajya'. A viceroy called 'Sardeshmukh' was appointed for each
province. The swarajya were sub divided into a number of 'pranths'
(group of districts). The districts were called 'Desh' whose head was
'Deshmukh' or 'Deshpande'. The districts were again subdivided into
'Paraganas'. They were looked after by an officer called 'Desai'. Village
assembly was the smallest unit of administration. Shivaji abolished the
granting of J ahagirs to his officers and began to pay the salaries in
cash.
Revenue System
Shivaji classified the land according to its fertility and yield. The
land revenue was fixed at 30% of the produce. But later it was increased
to 40%. The revenue had to be paid either in cash or in kind. Whenever
there was famine or any other natural calamities the land revenue was
exempted. Shivaji collected the two other kinds of taxes or military
contributions. They were 'Chauth' and 'Sardeshmukh'.
Chauth: The neighbouring areas of Shivaji's Kingdom which were

not under the direct rule of Shivaji were to give ¼ of their land revenue
collection to him. This was known as Chauth. In lieu of this he provided
military protection to them.
Sardeshmukhi: The ryots or tenents along with regular taxes to

local revenue officers, had to pay additional levy of 10% directly to
Shivaji or central administration.This was known as Sardeshmukhi
Military System:
Shivaji's kingdom was a military state. Hence importance was given
to military. The king was the head of the military. Under him there
was the Senapathi. The military of Shivaji consisted of Infantry, cavalry
and artillery, camels and elephants. Infantry was specially trained in
guerilla and mountain warfare. Soldiers were not permitted to take
women to the battle field. They were not to ill-treat women, Merchants,
Brahmins, cows, and agriculturists. Apart from the infantry and cavalry
there were different grades of military officers, Viz, Naiks, Hawaldars,
Jumladars, Hazaris and others. Shivaji maintained a powerful Navy of
200 ships. Kanhoji Angrey was the famous admiral of the Marathas.
Judicial system:
King was the highest court of appeal. The civil cases were decided
by the village panchayats and criminal cases by district officers and
governors. The judgements of the village courts had royal recognition.
The king and Nyayadhisha heard over the appeals. Nayayadhisha was
responsible for civil and military justice.
Activity
Make a list of Forts of Shivaji .
QUESTIONS.

1. Who was the founder of the Maratha Kingdom?
2. Name the treaty signed between Shivaji and Jai Singh.
3. What was the title of Shivaji?
4. In which year did the coronation ceremony of Shivaji take place?
5. What is meant by 'Chauth'?
1. Where and when was Shivaji born?
2. Who were the parents of Shivaji?
3. Name two persons who influenced Shivaji.
4. Name any two important forts of Shivaji.
5. Which were the two important taxes collected by Shivaji?
1. Describe the conquests of Shivaji.
2. Give an account of the administrative system of Shivaji.
*****
CHAPTER 5.4
THE VIJAYANAGAltA EMPlltE

The establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire has been regarded
as one of the greatest events in the history of India. This empire at
its zenith, ruled the whole of Southern part of India. The empire which
was founded in 1336 CE not only safeguarded the religion and the
culture but also developed it. Hampi, also called as Vijayanagara, on
the banks of Tungabhadra was the capital of this empire. The term
Hampi is derived from the goddess Pampambika. Presently Hampi is
in Hospet taluk of Bellary district. 'Sri Virupaksha' was the royal deity
of the empire and the royal seal of the rulers. 'Varaha' was their Royal
Emblem.
Foundation
The Sangama brothers Harihara, Bukka, Kampana, Marappa and
Muddappa were great adventurers. Among these the first two brothers
Harihara and Bukkaraya founded the Vijayanagara Empire. This empire
was founded at Anegondi in the vicinity of Hampi and they made it
their earlier capital.
Origin
There is no doubt that Harihara and Bukkaraya were the founders
of the Vijayanagara Empire. But there are various arguments among
the scholars about the place of origin. According to one theory, Harihara
and Bukkaraya were the officials under Prataprudra, the King of the
Kakatiyas of Warrangal in Andhra. These two brothers revolted against
the Delhi Sultan Muhammad -bin- Tughluq and founded the Kingdom
at Hampi. According to another theory Harihara and Bukkaraya were
officials at Hampi region under Hoysala Veeraballala III. According to
one more theory, Sangama was a relative of Kumara Rama, a great
courageous ruler of Kummatadurga near Kampili. His sons Harihara
and Bukkaraya founded the Vijayanagara Empire. Thus, there is no
clarity regarding the origin.
Chapter 5 - Medieval Period - 5.4 - The Vijayanagara Empire
Political history
The Vijayanagara Empire was ruled by four successive dynasties.
They are:
1. Sangama dynasty 1336-1485 CE
2. Saluva dynasty 1485-1505 CE
3. Tuluva dynasty 1505-1570 CE
4. Aravidu dynasty 1571-1646 CE
Sangama Rulers: Harihara Raya I, Bukka Raya I,
Harihara Raya II, Deva Raya I, Deva Raya II,
Mallika,juna Raya and Virupaksha Raya II
Saluva Rulers: Saluva Narasimha
Tuluva Rulers: Narasanayaka, Veeranarasimha,
KrishnadevaRaya, AchyutaRaya and SadashivaRaya ,
Aravidu Rulers: Aliya Rama Raya, Tirumala Deva Raya,
Sriranga I , Venkata II, Venkata III and Sriranga III
Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529 CE)

Krishnadevaraya was one of the greatest emperors of South India.
He was the son of Tuluva Narasanayaka and Nagaladevi. He came to
the throne on the birthday of Lord Krishna in the year 1509 CE.
Timmarasa was his Prime Minister, whom he called Appaji.
Military achievements:
The war of 1510 CE
Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah of Bijapura and Sultan Mahammed Shah
of Bidar attacked Vijayanagara. In the war that took place in 1510 CE.
Krishnadevaraya repulsed them. Yusuf Adil Shah lost his life.
Krishnadevaraya then occupied the fort of Raichur along with Krishna
Tungabhadra doab.
Siege of Ummatturu -1513 CE

Gangaraja, the Nayaka of Ummatturu revolted against Vijayanagara.
Krishnadevaraya won Penugonda and laid siege to the Ummaturu fort.
The rebellion was subdued and the forts of Shivanasamudra and
Shrirangpattana were captured.
Kalinga expedition -1513-1518 CE

Krtshnadevaraya made an expedition on Kalinga to defeat the
Gajapati ruler Prataparudra of Orissa. This expedition was conducted in
five stages.
► In the first stage, Udayagiri fort was captured. Then he went to
Tirupathi along with his two queens Tirumalamba and Chinnamba
to worship Lord Vekanteshwara. The idol ofBalakrishna was brought
from Udayagiri and installed at Hampi and a gorgeous temple was
constructed.
► In the second stage, the King seiged the fort of Kondavidu and defeated
the Reddies, who were the supporters of King Prataparudra. Due
to this Krtshna region of Andhra came under Krtshnadevaraya. The
administration of this region was entrusted to Salva Thimma.
► In the third stage, Krtshnadevaraya captured the forts of Vijayawada
and Kondapalli. The Gajapati King, who came face to face with
Krishnadevaraya, was forced to flee from the battle field.
► In the fourth stage, he captured the forts of Anantagiri, Kanakagiri,
Devarakonda and others in the Telangana region. To commemorate
this victory, a pillar of victory was erected at Potanur.
► In the fifth stage, he laid siege to Cuttack, the capital of Prataparudra.
Then Prataparudra sued for peace. Krtshnadevaraya gave back all
the territories to the north of river Krishna and married his daughter
Jaganmohini.
Battle of Raichur -1520 CE

When Krtshnadevaraya was fighting against Kalinga, Ismail Adil
Shah of Bijapura recaptured the fort of Raichur. Therefore
Krtshnadevaraya once again fought a battle in the year 1520 CE and
recaptured the fort. In this battle, the Portuguese musketeers helped
Vijayanagara. Satisfied with this help, Krtshnadevaraya sanctioned the
monopolized business of supplying the Persian horses to the
Vijayanagara army to the Portuguese.
Krishnadevaraya went as far as Bijapura. From here he went to
Gulbarga and defeated Amir Barid. Then he went upto Bidar and released
the Bahamani sultan from the prison and placed him on the throne.
Hence he assumed the title 'Yavanarajya Pratishthapanacharya'.
VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE UNDER

KRISHNA DEVARAYA
& BAHAMANI KINGDOM
Bay of
Arabian Bengal
Sea
----Extent oftheEmpire
Indian Ocean
Peace in Ceylon :
There was political instability in the Island of Ceylon (Srilanka).
There were revolts against King Vijayabahu. Krishnadevaraya intervened
in its political affairs and peace was established. Bhuvanaikyabahu,
the son of Vijaybahu was brought to power.
The last days of Krishnadevarya were unhappy. His only son,
Tirumala died under mysterious circumstances in 1524 CE. The King,
who was grieved by this incident died in 1529 CE.
Krishnadevaraya was the greatest King of Vijayanagara. He
himself was a poet and wrote Amuktamalyada, J ambavati Kalyanam
and Usha Parinayam. There were eight poets called Ashtadiggajas in
his court. As soon as he came to the throne, he abolished the marriage
tax. He was a devotee of Lord Venkateshwara ofTirupati. In memory of
his mother Nagaladevi, he built a new city called Nagalapura (Hospet).
He honoured the great scholar Vyasateertha, by placing him on the
throne. He built Purandara Mantapa at Hampi. He honoured Allasani
Peddanna by placing him on the royal elephant. Krishnadevaraya built
many tanks and canals for both drinking water and irrigation
purposes. The tanks built by him are being used by the farmers even
today. A huge tank was constructed for the people of Hampi and
drinking water was supplied through canals. The King himself was an
artist and inspired others. For instance the King himself acted as
Krishna in the Sanskrit drama called Jambhavati Kalyanam, during the
Chaitra festival of Lord Virupaksha. This show was appreciated by the
people. He had many titles like Kannadarajyaramaramana, Kavipungava,
Karnatakandhrabhoja, Yavanarajya Pratishthapanacharya, etc.
Battle of Talikote - 1565 CE

The battle ofTalikote was a decisive battle in the history
ofVijayanagara empire. The battle was fought in a range of 40 kms. This
battle was fought between the villages of Rakkasagi and Tangadagi, near
Talikote. Hence it is called the battle ofTalikote or Rakkasa-Tangadi.
Some scholars believe that the decisive battle was fought at Krishna-
Bannihatti. Hence it is also called the battle of Bannihatti. Aliya
Ramaraya was the leader of the Vijayanagara troops. On the opposite
side was the coalition army of Shahi Sultans. This grand army comprised
the troops of Adil Shahis of Bijapura, Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar,
Kutub Shahis of Golkanda and Barid Shahis of Bidar.
Causes for the battle
1. Supremacy over the Doab region:
The fertile Doab region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra
became a bone of contention between the two powers and hence
responsible for this battle.
2. Religious differences:
The religious and cultural differences between the Vijayanagara and
Shahi Sultans became one of the causes for the battle.
3. The policy of Aliya Ramaraya :
Ramaraya of the Aravidu family married the daughter of
Krishnadevaraya and became famous as Aliya Ramaraya. He became
a 'defacto' ruler during the reign of Achyutaraya and Sadashivaraya.
He interfered in the internal disputes of the Shahis. He followed
the policy of divide and rule with the Shahis of Bijapura and
Ahmadnagar. The Shahis forgot their enemity and united through
various alliances and matrimonial relations. All these events led to
the formation of the Grand Shahi confederacy, consisting ofBijapura,
Ahmadnagar, Golkonda, and Bidar.
4. Immediate cause:
Ali Adil Shah of Bijapura demanded the return of Raichur from
Aliya Ramaraya. Ramaraya refused and asked the Sultan to take
it in the battle field. This was the immediate cause for the battle.
Course:
The battle was fought on Tuesday, 23 rd January, 1565 CE. Aliya
Ramaraya, who was about 90 years old fought bravely in the battle.
In the beginning Vijayanagara forces gained upper hand. But Ramaraya
who was captured by the Shahi soldiers was beheaded and his head
was paraded in the battle field. This created panic among the Vijayagara
soldiers. They ran away from the battle field. The Shahi Sultans won
the battle. Thus the decisive battle in the history of South India came
to an end within a day.
Results:
1. The Vijayanagara empire lost its glory. The successful Shahi army
looted the city of Vijayanagara for many months.
2. The Portuguese were restricted to Goa region without the support

of Vijayanagara. It was a setback to their trade.
3. Religious endowments to centers like Sringeri, Tirupati, Shrishaila
and Kalahasti stopped. This was an obstacle to the development
of the religion.
4. Aravidu dynasty, which started its rule from Penugonda and
Chandragiri in Andhra Pradesh, was unable to gain control over
the region of South India.
5. The feudatories of Vijayanagara empire like Nayakas and Palegars
became independent. This led to the disintegration of Vijayanagara
empire.
Cultural contributions
1. Administration
The Vijayanagara rulers provided a good system of administration.
They also provided internal peace to the empire and protection from
external threats. The rulers of Vijayanagara introduced a strong central
government along with decentralization of power.
Central administration
Monarchy was the existing system. King was the Head of the state.
Protection and welfare of his subjects was his duty. The King was the
chief law maker and the highest court of appeal. The Vijayanagara Kings
were known for their judicious judgments. Death sentences,
imprisonment and fines were imposed upon the criminals. Sometimes
criminals were cast down before an elephant and trampled to death.
Kingship was hereditary. Yuvaraja was associated with the
administration. There was a council of ministers to assist the King in
the administration. The ministers played an important role in the
administration of the Vijayanagara empire. They supervised over many
departments and advised the King in taking proper decisions. The
important officers of that time were Maha Pradhani (Prime Minister),
Upa Pradhani (Deputy Prime Minister), Danda Nayaka (Commander In
Chief), Mahasamantadipati (Minister Of Feudatories), Raya Bhandari
(Minister Of Royal Treasury), SabhaNayaka (Leader of the Council) and
Mahasandivigrahi (Foreign Affairs). The spy system was well organised.
Provincial administration
There were two types of provinces in the Vijayanagara Empire.
The first kind was directly ruled by the King's representatives and
second by the feudatories. The provincial rule by the feudatories
(Nayakas) was called the 'Nayankara system'. The provincial heads
looked after the law and order in their provinces. The Nayankara
system gave more autonomy to the feudatories. The King had the
power to transfer or remove the provincial officers.
King was considered as the owner of the land. He distributed the
lands to his dependents. Those dependents who supervised these lands,
were known as 'Nayakas'. These Nayakas were to pay annual tributes
to the King and had to maintain military troops for wars. The Nayakas
were military vassals, who met the financial obligations of the King.
These Nayakas maintained military and civil representatives in the court
of the King. This helped in the smooth administration.
Village administration
Village was the smallest unit of administration. The other units were
the agraharas and the towns. There were village assemblies to look after
the progress of the villages. Construction of tanks, temples, halls, etc,
and maintenance of water for drinking and irrigation were the important
duties of these Assemblies. The head of the village administration was
'Gouda'. Collection of revenue was his main duty. The village accounts
were looked after by the Karanika. Another official of the village was
Talawara, who discharged the duties of a Policeman.
Revenue system
Land revenue was the main source of income to the state. Generally
it was at the rate of 1/6 of the gross produce. Property and commercial
taxes, tax on industries, war booty, judicial fines and tax on all
professions including prostitution formed other sources of income to the
state. The taxes were collected in cash or kind.
Military organization
Vijayanagara Empire had a strong military to safeguard the vast
area from its enemies. The army was divided into elephant force, cavalry
and Infantry. They procured the Arabian horses from the Portuguese.
The forts played an important role in the warfare. During the Mahanavami
festival all the wings of the army were paraded to test their capabilities.
2. Social Condition
Social harmony existed in the Vijayanagara Empire. Brahmanas had
a high position in the society. Blacksmiths, goldsmiths, weavers, farmers
and traders played very important role in the social activities. Generally
women had an honourable status in the society. Few women received
education. They participated in the activities like dancing and singing.
Evil practices like Sati, Prostitution, child marriage and polygamy existed
in the society, which lowered the position of women. Marriage was a
sacred bond for them. The system of paying 'Bride Price' was in practice.
Muslims also settled in the Vijayanagara Empire. They were given
security by the Kings. The Mosques were built for prayers and Quran
was placed in a respectable place. The members of the royal family
worshipped Hindu, Buddha and Jaina deities and followed the common
tenets of these religions. Hence it is clear that social harmony prevailed
in the Vijayanagara Empire.
3. Economic condition
Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. They surveyed
the land and revenue was fixed according to the quality of soil. The
rulers paid due attention to agriculture. Land was divided into wet,
dry and horticultural land. Rice, cereals, spices, betels, arecanuts, ginger,
turmeric, fruits and flowers were the main products of agriculture.
Dams, tanks and canals were built for irrigation and for drinking
purposes. A huge tank was constructed by Krishnadevaraya near the
southern entrance to Nagalapura. A dam and a Raya channel were also
built by him at Korrangal. Vyasaraya built Vyasasamudra in Southern
Karnataka. The construction and development of many wells and tanks
helped in agriculture.
Kings of Vijayanagara encouraged trade and commerce. The
Vijayanagara Empire was known for brisk trade in textiles, precious
stones, spices, etc. Vajrakarur mines in Andhra Pradesh supplied the
most valuable diamonds. The goods of India were in high demand
throughout the world. Main exports of the time were cloth, rice, sugar,
spices, iron, etc. The important imports were elephants, horses, pearls,
coral, mercury, silks, etc. There were about two hundred ports on the
western and eastern coasts.
4. Religion
The Vijayanagara Empire protected Hindu religion and culture from
the onslaughts of the invaders. There was religious tolerance among
the Hindus, Jains and Muslims. It was the duty of the Kings to safeguard
each and every religion in the empire. Muslims entered the Vijayanagara
army from the days of Devaraya II. The Sangama rulers encouraged
Shaivism and the later rulers gave importance to Vaishnavism.
Bhimadevi, the queen of Devaraya I was a follower of Jainism. Devaraya
II built a Jain basadi in his empire. Shravanabelagola inscription of
Bukka I refers to the peace treaty between the Srivaishnavas and Jains.
These instances show the religious harmony in Vijayanagara Empire.
The Vachana movement was popular during this time and greatly
contributed to the Dharma. 'Shunya Sampadane', a collection of vachanas
was produced in this age. Tontada Siddalinga Yathi wrote a number
of vachanas. Mathas were established in many parts of the empire. The
Varkari movement of lord Vittala of Pandarapura and the Dasakuta
tradition were encouraged. These movements spread the principles of
Vaishnavism. Important religious centres of the time were Hampi,
Shringeri, Shravanabelagola, Shrishaila, SriKalahasti, Ahobilam,
Madurai, Srirangam and Huncha.
Temples and Mathas were two notable religious institutions of this
period. The temples were places of worship and the Mathas stood for
the spread of religious principles. They encouraged education and culture.
Shringeri, Kanchi, Golaki, Udupi, Dharmapuram, Kodimatha were the
notable Mathas of Vijayanagara period. Sometimes these Mathas and
temples acted as landlords and bankers. The Virakta Mathas gained
importance during this period. The important religious festivals of that
time were Mahanavami, Deepavali, Holi, etc.
5. Education and literature

Agraharas, Mathas and temples played an important role in imparting
education. 'Dhulakshara' was a system of education, which is referred
in 'Mohanatarangini' of Kanakadasa. It was a system of learning to write
on sand. Primary education was called 'Balabodhe'. Hampi, Kodimatha,
Sringeri, Yedeyuru, Kunigal, etc. were notable centres of education of
that time.
Vijayanagara Kings encouraged literary activities. Court poets and
scholars were honoured by the Kings. Many Kings and Queens were
themselves scholars. Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu and other languages
were encouraged. Some important literary works of the period are:
Sanskrit:
Poets/Scholars Literary Works

Madhava- Sayana Parasara Madhaviya
Gangadevi Veerakamparayacharitam
(Madhuravijayam)
Tirumalamba Varadambikaparinayam
Guru Vidyaranya Raja Kalanimaya
Krishnadevaraya J ambhavati Kalyanam,
Usha parinayam.
Kannada:
Tontada Siddalingeshwara Vachanas
Gummalapurada
Siddalinga Yathi Shunyasampadane
Kumaravyasa Kamataka Kathamanjari
(Gadugina Bharata)
Nanjunda Kavi Kumara Ramanakathe
Ratnakarvami Bhartesha Vaibhava
Bhimakavi Basava Purana
Chamarasa Prabhulingaleele
Virupakshapandita Channabasavapurana
Kanakadasa Mohana Tarangini, Nala Charita,
Haribhakti Sara, Ramadhanya
Charita
Purandaradasa Keertanas
Narahari Torave Ramayana
Nijaguna Shivayogi Viveka Chintamani
Telugu:
Nachana Somanatha Harivamsha
Srinatha Kashikhanda
Krishnadevaraya Amuktamalyada
Allasani Peddanna
(Title-Andhra Kavita Pitamaha) Manucharitamu
Vemana Poems
Ashtadiggajas, the eight great poets of Telugu flourished

in the court of Krishnadevaraya. Allasani Peddanna, Tenali
Ramakrishna, Nandi Timmanna, Ramabhadriah, Dhwjati,
Madayyagari Mallanna, Pingali Suranna and
Ramarajabhushana.
6. Art andarchitecture
The Vijayanagara rulers encouraged art and architecture. The capital
city Hampi was a great centre of art and architecture.
Architecture
They used the Dravidian style of architecture and later added some
unique features to it and it came to be called 'Vijayanagara style' of
architecture. Some of the important features of the Vijayanagara style
are:
1. The temples consist of Garbhagriha, Sukhanasi and Mahamatapa
Ardhamantapa.
2. Granite was used for the construction of the monuments.
3. Pillars and piers are multi angled.
4. The walls of the temples contain sculptures of folklore, Gods,
Goddesses, elephants, horses, etc.
5. Sangeeta Mantapas were constructed in the premises of the temple
for music, dance and drama.
6. Huge 'Raya Gopuras' were built on the gateways of the temples.
7. Kalyana Mantapas were constructed in the temple for divine
weddings. The monuments of Vijayanagara are scattered throughout
South India. But the finest of them are at Hampi. The Virupaksha
temple, Vittala Swami temple, the stone Chariot, Krishnaswamy
temple,
Achyutaraya temple, the Hajara Ramaswamy temple and Mahanavami
Dibba are in Hampi. The Lotus Mahal is an excellent example of Indo
Islamic style of architecture at Hampi. The Vidyashankara at Sringeri,
Ramlingeshwara at Tadapatri, Veerabhadra at Lepakshi,
Jalakantheshwara at Vellore, Ekambaranatha at Kanchipuram, Shiva
at Chidambharam, Ranganatha at Srirangam, Meenakshi-Sundareshwara
temple at Madurai, etc. are other important temples.
Stone Chariot, Hampi Kamala Mahal, Hampi VidyashankarTemple, Sringeri
Sculpture: Architecture and sculpture developed side by side.

Religion was the main theme for the sculptures. Kadalekalu Ganesha ,
Sasivekalu Ganesha and Laxmi Narasimha statues at Hampi are
notable. Among the statues of this period, Irugappa Dandanayaka at
Tiruparuttikunram was the earliest. The copper images of
Krishnadevaraya and his two queens, Tirumaladevi and Chinnadevi at
Tirupati-Tirumala are in a devotional mode. A stone statue of
Krishnadevaraya is found at Chidambaram.
Painting: Painting flourished along with other arts in Vijayanagara
Empire. Paintings can be seen on the walls and ceilings of the temples.
Hampi, Anegondi and Lepakshi were centres of Vijayanagara paintings.
The paintings of Virupaksha temple at Hampi and Veerabhadra temple
at Lepakshi are related to Shaiva mythology. The marriage of Pampamba
with Virupaksha, Madana Vijaya and Tripura Samhara are great
paintings. Lepakshi is called 'Ajanta of Shaivism'.
Fine Arts: Dancing and music were encouraged during this period.
Dasakuta - Vyasakuta of the time contributed to the development of
music. Vadiraja, Vyasathirtha, Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa belonged
to this tradition. They composed devotional songs called 'Keertanas'.
Purandaradasa is called the 'Father of Karnatic Music' (Karnataka
Sangeeta Pitamaha). There were a good number of dancing halls at
Vijayanagara. Bandham Laxminarayana was a dance master in the court
of Krishnadevaraya.
Foreign Accounts
1. Nicolo Conti: Italian traveller Nicolo Conti visited Vijayanagara
along with his wife in 1421 C.E. during the rule of Devaraya I. He
says, "Vijayanagara is surrounded by mountains. Its circumference is
60 miles. There are about 90000 soldiers and the King is very powerful".
2. Abdur Razzak: He was a Persian ambassador who came to the
court of King Devaraya II in 1443 CE. He describes the King and the
capital like this: "The city of Vijayanagara is such that the eyes have
not seen, nor ears heard of any place resembling it upon the whole
of the earth. The city is surrounded by seven fortification walls. The
King is powerful. Brahmanas are respected. There are about 12000
security personnel to safeguard this city. The Quran and Puranas have
been placed in a high and respectable place in the court of the King".
He also explained about the celebration of Mahanavami festival in great
splendour.
3. Niketin: He was a Russian traveller, who visited the Bahamani
Kingdom in the year 1470 CE. He has given an account of the social
life and splendour of the King in the neighbouring Vijayanagara Empire.
4. Durate Barbosa: He was a Portuguese traveller who came to
Vijayanagara in the year 1514 CE. He states, "The markets of Hampi
are centres of trade where pearls, diamonds, silk and other goods are
sold. The King holds discussion with his ministers in the Conference
Hall".
5. Domingo Paes: This Portuguese traveller visited the court of
Krishnadevaraya in the year 1520 CE. He says that Mahanavami Dibba
was decorated during the festive times. Describing the multidimensional
personality of Krishnadevaraya, he quotes that his face had marks of
Small Pox.
6. Fernao Nuniz: He was another traveller from Portugal, who reached
Vijayanagara in the year 1535 CE during the reign of Achyutaraya.
His accounts throw light on the political and cultural activities of the
Vijayanagara Empire. He says that Vijayanagara was a city with the
best basic amenities in the world.
7. Ceasar Fredericci: He was an Italian traveller who visited
Vijayanagara in 1567 CE. He explains the part played by Gilani brothers
in the battle of Talikote. According to his accounts, Vijayanagara was

a ruined city after the Battle of Talikote. He also says that the people
did not live there and only wild animals were living.
Disintegration of Vijayanagara Empire
Vijayanagara empire lost its supremacy after the battle of Talikote.
The empire disintegrated and various Nayakas, Palegars and small
rulers became independent. Name sake administration was continued by
Aravidu dynasty. Their capital was Chandragiri and it was later shifted
to Penugonda. The small Kingdoms in the South gave political
stability and a little contribution to the cultural heritage. Some
important rulers who became independent after the disintegration
ofVijayanagara Empire are as follows:
Nadaprabhus of Yelahanka:
Yelahanka, near Bengaluru was the capital of the Nadaprabhus.
They originally belonged to a place called Putturu near Kanchipuram
in Tamilnadu and later settled at Avati near Bengaluru. Ranabhaire
Gowda was the founder of this family. He was a feudatory
ofVijayanagara and paid tributes to the rulers. Goddess Kempamma was
the family deity. Kempegowda I was the greatest of this family and is
popular for the construction of Bengaluru in 1537 CE. He built four
watch towers in four directions of this city. Magadi was an important
trade centre of the time.
Nayakas of Keladi (1499-1763 CE):

The Nayakas of Keladi, also called as Nayakas of Ikkeri, came to
power in the 16th century. They ruled for about 250 years in some
parts of Karnataka, Kerala and Goa. Two brothers, Chaudappa and
Bhadradappa founded this dynasty. Shivappa Nayaka (1645-1660 CE)
was an able administrator of this dynasty. He is famous for his Revenue
Settlement called 'Shistu'. According to this policy, land was classified
on the basis of the fertility and revenue was fixed on the basis of average
production .The land was classified into five categories:
1. Uttama- Fertile Black soil land
2. Madhyama - Red soil land
3. Kanishta - sand mixed land
4. Adhama - Land without moisture
5. Adhamadhama - barren land.
1/3 of the gross produce was fixed as land revenue. The taxes were
collected in kind or cash. Chennammaji of Keladi was also an important
ruler. She gave shelter to Maratha ruler Rajaram, who had revolted
against the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. A historical literary work called
'Keladi Nrupavijayam' was written by Linganna Kavi.
Nayakas of Chitradurga:
Nayakas of Chitradurga were originally from Medhakeri near
Tirupati in Andhra and they settled at Chitradurga. They started their
career as Palegars during the Vijayanagara period and they belonged to
the Beda community. Among the rulers of this dynasty Madakari
Nayaka V (1754-1779 CE) was the greatest and he built the
Chitradurga fort. He fought against Hyder Ali. During the struggle, a
brave lady called Onake Obavva, the wife of security personnel of the
fort fought against the soldiers of Hyder Ali and killed many of them
using the pestle. She died in the struggle. Finally, Madakari Nayaka V
was defeated and Chitradurga was conquered by Hyder Ali.
Wodeyars of Mysore:
Two brothers, Yaduraya and Krishnaraya founded the Wodeyar dynasty
in 1399 CE. They were feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire. Later
they declared independence and ruled from Mysore area. Srirangapattana
was their capital. Goddess Chamundeshwari was the royal deity and
Gandabherunda was the Royal emblem of this dynasty. The Mahanavami
festival ofVijayanagara was continued as Mysore Dasara by the
Wodeyars. The credit of starting Mysore Dasara in the year 1610 CE
goes to the ruler Raja Wodeyar.
Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar (1673-1704 CE):

Among the Early Wodeyars, Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar was an able
ruler. He earned the titles like Karnataka Chakravarti, Apratimveera,
Tenkanaraja, Raja Jagadeva, Maharashtra Bhupala Jalaripu. etc. He
collected nine crores of gold coins called Pagodas in his royal treasury
and earned the title 'Navakoti Narayana'. Police system was introduced.
The King secured the friendship of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb by
sending an embassy to his court. He composed 'Githagopala' and
'Chikkadevaraja Binnapam'. He purchased Bengaluru from the Mughals
for 300000 of gold coins called Varahas in 1687.
During his rule, administration was divided into 18 departments
called 'Athara Kacheri'. Irrigation and animal husbandry developed.
His minister Tirumalarya wrote Chikkadevaraja Vijaya and
Apratimaveera Charita. Another poet Singararya wrote the first
kannada drama 'Mitravinda Govinda'. Sanchi Honnamma wrote
'Hadibadeya Dharma'. She advocates equality between men and
women.
Important Rulers of Mysore (Wodeyars)

Raja Wodeyar (1578-1617 CE)
Chamaraja Wodeyar (1617-1637 CE)
Narasarja Wodeyar I (1638-1659 CE)
Devaraja Wodeyar (1659-1673 CE)
Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar (1673-1704 CE)
Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1704-1714 CE)
Krishnaraja Wodeyar (1714-1732 CE)
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1799-1831 CE)
Krishna Raja Wodeyar IV (1902-1940 CE)
Jayachamaraja Wodeyar (1940-1950 CE)
Activity
Make a list of foreign visitors and their views on the grandeur of
Vijayanagara .
QUESTIONS.
I. Answer the following questions in a word or one sentence

each.
1. Which was the Capital of Vijayanagara Empire?
2. To which dynasty did Krishnadevaraya belong?
3. Who was the greatest ruler of Vijayanagara Empire?
4. Who had the title 'Yavanarajya Pratishthapanacharya'?
5. Name the Persian ambassador who visited the Vijayanagara.
6. Who wrote 'Madhuravijayam'?
7. Which battle led to the downfall of Vijayanagara Empire?
8. Who was the founder of Bengaluru?
9. Who is called 'Navakoti Narayana'?
10. What is Shivappa Nayaka's 'Shistu'?
11. Who built the fort of Chitradurga?
12. Name the lady who defended the Chitradurga fort?
13. Name the ruler who started the Mysore Dasara.
II. Answer the following questions in two words or two
sentences each.
1. Who were the founders of Vijayanagara Empire?
2. Mention any two literary works of Krishnadevaraya.
3. Mention any two titles of Krishnadevaraya.
4. Who wrote 'Manucharitamu' and what was his title?
5. Mention any two titles of Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar.
6. Which is the first Kannada Drama and who is its author?
7. Who wrote Hadibadeya Dharma and which King encouraged
her?
8. Who was Shivappanayaka and why is he famous?
III. Answer the following questions in 15-20 sentences.

1. What were the causes and results of the Battle of Talikote?
2. Describe the administration of the Vijayanagara Empire.
3. Explain the foreign accounts regarding Vijayanagara.
IV. Answer the following questions in 30-40 sentences each.
1. Write a note on the achievements of Krishnadevaraya.
2. Describe the Religion, Literature and Art and Architecture of
the Vijayanagara Period.
Chapter 5 - Medieval Period - 5.5 - Bahamani and Adil Shahi
Sultans
CHAPTER 5.5
BAHAMANI AND ADIL SHAHI SULTANS
The Bahamani Sultans
The Bahamani sultans ruled over parts of Karnataka, Andhra and
Maharashtra. This dynasty was founded by Allaud-Din-Hasan Gangu
Bahman Shah in 1347 CE. He revolted against Muhammed- Bin -
Tughluq and declared independence. Gulbarga was their first capital
and later it was shifted to Bidar. Sultans of this dynasty struggled
continuously against the Vijayanagara Empire.
Important Bahamani sultans

Allauddin Hasan Gangu Bahaman Shah, Firoz Shah,
Ahamad Shah and Mahammad Shah III
Mahmud Gawan: (1463-1481 CE)

Mahmud Gawan was a Chief Minister and an able administrator.
He was born in Gawan in Persia and came to India for trade. He was
appointed as a minister by Mahammad Shah III.
Achievements
1. He conquered Hubli, Belagavi and Goa region from the Vijayanagara
Empire.
2. Gawan made a treaty with the sultan of Malwa and established
political stability.
3. He conquered Rajamahendri and Kondavidu regions of Orissa.
4. The number of provinces was increased from four to eight for the
convenience of administration. They were called 'Tarafs'.
5. Land was surveyed and the revenue was fixed. The collection of
revenue was only in cash.
6. He built a Madarasa at
Bidar. He also built a
library there, where he
collected 3000
manuscripts from all over
the world.
Gawan's progress was not

tolerated by the native Muslim
leaders. They made false
allegations. He was beheaded
in 1481 CE. After his death,
Gawan's Madarasa, Bidar
the Bahamani Kingdom started
declining. Five Shahi Sultans
of Deccan declared independence. They were Adil Shahis of Bijapura,
Nizam Shahis of Ahmednagar, Barid Shahis of Bidar, Imad Shahis of
Berar and Qutub Shahis of Golkonda.
Cultural contributions
Education: Reciting Quran was a part of education. Poor Muslim
students were granted scholarships. There were separate schools for
girls. Mahmud Gawan was a great patron of education. He spent his
earnings for the spread of education. He built a Madarasa at Bidar
in 1472 CE. This building consisted of three floors. It had 36 rooms
and also accommodation for students and teachers. Philosophy, religion
and science were taught. Persian, Arabic and Urdu were the medium
of education.
Literature: Persian, Arabic and Urdu literatures developed during
this period. Sultan Firoz Shah was well versed in philosophy. He was
an expert in natural science, geometry and the Quran. He gave patronage
to scholars. Mahamud Gawan wrote poems in Persian language. Riyaz ul-
insha and Manazir-Ul-Insha are his works. They give an account on the
polity, poetry and other aspects. Calligraphy was used in writing the
quotations of Quran. Mahmud Gawan was a calligraphist.
A new dialect called 'Dakhni Urdu' became popular. The famous
sufi saint of Gulbarga, Hazarat Khwaja Bande Nawaz Gesu Daraz wrote
in this new language. The Darga of this saint is found at Gulbarga.
Sultans
Architecture
During this period, Indo-Islamic style of architecture prevailed. Local
materials were used to construct the buildings. The main features of
this style are:
1.Tall minarets 2. Strong arches 3. Huge domes 4. Spacious Hazaras
(Big halls) 5. Cresent moon at the top of the buildings.
The forts, mosques, domes, mahals and mausoleums of the Bahamani
Sultans are in this style. Their monuments at Gulbarga and Bidar are
the best examples.
Gulbarga : The fort, Jami Masjid (Biggest mosque in South India),
Shah Bazaar Mosque and Hafta Gumbaz (seven tomb complex), etc are
in Gulbarga.
Bidar: The fort, Rangeen Mahal, Court Mahal, J anata Mahal and
Janana Mahal, Solha Khamba Mosque, Mahumud Gawan's Madarasa,
etc are in Bidar.
Adil Shahis of Bijapura:

Adil Shahis declared independence from the Bahamani Sultans and
started their rule from Bijapura. Yusuf Adil khan founded this dynasty
in 1489 CE.
IMPORTANT ADILSHAHI SULTANS

Yusuf Adil Khan (1489-1510 CE)
Ismail Adil Khan (1510-1534 CE)
Ibrahim Adil Shah I (1535-1558 CE)
Ali Adil Shah I (1558-1580 CE)
Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580-1626 CE)
Mohammad Adil Shah (1626-1656 CE)
Ali Adil Shah II (1656-1672 CE)
Sikandar Adil Shah (1672-1686 CE)
Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580-1626 CE):

Ibrahim Adil Shah II came to power in 1580 CE. Chandbibi was
his regent. He was known as 'Jagadguru Badshah'. He followed a policy
of religious tolerance. He himself was a musician and wrote a work
called 'Kitab-i-Navaras'. He built Navarasapura, a suburb at Bijapura
for the artists. He worshipped Hindu deities like Narasimha, Ganesha,
Saraswati and others. The rule of the Adil Shahis came to an end in
1686 CE with the conquest of Bijapura by Aurangzeb.
Cultural Contributions
Literature: Arabic, Persian, Dakhni Urdu languages and literature
developed.
► The Sufi saints brought about unity among the Hindus and Muslims.
► Scholars like Sayed Ahmad Harawi, Maulan Gaithuddin, Habibul lah
and Abdullah were famous scholars.
► Mulla Nusrati and Feristha were famous historians, who wrote Ali
Nama and Tarikh-i-Feristha respectively.
Architecture: The monuments built by Adil Shahis are in Indo
Islamic style. This is also called Daccani style. The important monuments
of Bijapura are:
1. Jami Masjid was built by Ali Adil Shah and it is noted for arches,
minarets, huge dome and the mammoth prayer hall.
2. Ibrahim Roza is another famous building. It is the only Roza in
India. A tomb and a mosque are built on a single platform which
Ibrahim Roza, Bijapur Golgumbaz, Bijapur
Sultans
is surrounded by a garden along with a fortification wall, which
is called Roza. It was built by Ibrahim Adil Shah II. It is called the
Taj Mahal of South India.
3. Mehtar Mahal was a three storied palace. It was also built by Ibrahim
Adil Shah II.
4. Gol Gumbaz is a wonderful monument at Bijapura. This huge dome
was built by Muhammad Adil Shah in the year 1656 CE. It is also
his tomb. The whispering gallery is its specialty. The sound uttered
in this dome echoes seven times. All these features have made it
a world famous monument.
5. Bara Kaman, Bade Kaman, Asar Mahal, Anand Mahal, Upli Buruz
(garrison), Taj Bawdi, Chand Bawdi, etc. are some of the important
monuments.
Activity
List the monuments of Bahamani and Adilshahi sultans and collect
their pictures.
QUESTIONS.
I. Answer the following questions in a word or one sentence

each.
1. Name the founder of Bahamani dynasty.
2. Who was the founder of Adil Shahi dynasty?
3. Who built the Ibrahim Roza?
4. Who built Madarasa at Bidar?
5. Which is the biggest mosque in South India?
6. Who is called 'Jagadguru Badshah'?
7. Who wrote 'Kitab-i-Navaras'?
II. Answer the following questions in two words or two
sentences each.
1. Mention the capitals of Bahamani dynasty.
2. Who was Mahmud Gawan and where did he build the Madarasa?
3. Who was Hajarat Kwaja Bande Nawaj and where is his Darga?
4. Where is Gol Gumbaz and who built it?
5. Mention any two monuments of Adil Shahis of Bijapura.
6. Name two historians of Adil Shahi period.
III. Answers the following questions in 15-20 sentences each.
1. Explain the achievements of Mahmud Gawan.
2. Discuss the progress of literature and architecture during Adil
shahi period.
Chapter 6 - Socio-Religious Reform Movement in Medieval India
CHAPTER 6
Socio-Religious Reform Movement In Medieval India
Hinduism, with the passage of time developed many defects and
rigidity. Many reformers like Shankaracharya, Ramanujacharya,
Madhwacharya and Basaveshwara introduced Socio Religious reforms.
They clarified the principles of Hindu religion and philosophy. The social
reforms aimed at eradicating blind beliefs and also achieving equality
in the society.
SHANKARACHARYA (788 - 820 CE)

Shankara was born at Kaladi in Kerala in
788 CE. His parents were Shivaguru and
Aryambha. He did not show interest in worldly
life and became a sanyasi with the permission
of his mother. He met his teacher Govinda
Bhagawathpada on the banks of the river
Narmada, after accepting asceticism. He toured
all over India thrice and visited Kashmir,
Nepal, Banaras, Badarinath, Dwaraka, Puri,
Tirupathi, Kanchi etc. He propounded Advaita
philosophy. He had the titles 'Sarvajna' and
'Jagadguru'. He established many mutts and
four among them are important. They are,
Govardhana Peetha at Puri, Kalikamatha
at Dwaraka,
Jyothirmatha at Badrinath and Sharada Peetha Shankaracharya
at Sringeri. He attempted to unify different cults
by giving importance to the worship of 1) Shiva 2) Vishnu 3) Surya
4) Ganesh 5) Kumara and 6) Shakti. Hence he is called 'Shanmatha
Sthapanacharya'. Shankara wrote commentaries on Brahma Sutra,
Upanishad and Bhagavadgita. He also composed 'Viveka Chudamani',
'Shivananda Lahari', 'Ananda Lahari', 'Soundarya Lahari'
'Bhajagovindam', etc. Shankara died at an young age of 32.
Advaita Philosophy.
Advaita means Monoism or non-duality. According to him Brahama
(God) is the ultimate truth. He is 'Nirguna',(not ascribed to any particular
quality) 'Nirakara' (formless) and 'Swaprakashaka' (self evident). He did
not give any importance to the existing world but attached importance
to the spiritual world. Hence he called the world as 'Maya' (illusion).
This world is an illusion. The individual soul and the Supreme soul
are one and the same. Shankara said "Aham Brahmasmi" (I am Brahma).
The ignorant individual soul will not recognize Him inside, but will
search for Him outside. Jnana is essential to recognize this truth, which
will lead to salvation.
RAMANUJACHARYA (1017 - 1137 CE)

Ramanujacharya was born in 1017 CE
in Sri Perambadur near Chennai. His
parents were Keshva Somayaji and
Kantimati. He was educated in Kanchi
under the tutorship of Yadhava Prakasha.
At the age of 16 he married Tangamma.
As he was discontented with family life,
he left his family and became a Sanyasi.
Yamunacharya, the head of the Srirangam
mutt wanted Ramanuja to succeed him.
But he died before Ramanuja could reach
there. Later Ramanujacharya became the
head of Srirangam mutt and popularized
Vaishnavism. This was not liked by
Kulottunga Chola. He was a Shaiva. Hence Ramanujacharya
Ramanuja left Srirangam and came to
Kamataka. Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana gave him shelter. Ramanuja
established a Vaishnavamatha at Melukote and stayed there for 20 years.
He returned to Tamil Nadu after the death of Kulottunga. He died in
1137 C.E. at the age of 120. 'Vedanta Saara', 'Vedantha Sangraha',
'Vedanta Sutra', 'Geetha Bhashya' and 'Sree Bhashya'. were his important
works.
Vishistadvaita Philosophy.
Ramanuja was the propounder of Vishistadvaita philosophy. His
followers are called 'Sri Vaishnavas' as they give importance to the
worship
of 'Sri or Lakshmi'. She is considered as the mediator between God

and man. He condemned the Mayavada of Shankara. According to
Ramanuja God exists and the world is true. He considered Paramathma
as real, independent and permanent. Soul (Chit) and the world (Achit)
are dependent on Him. The soul does not have independent existence
without God. Ramanuja advocated Bhakti marga to attain salvation.
There are 2 elements in Ramanuja's Bhaktimarga.
1) Prapatthi-absolute surrender to God.

2) Acharyaabhimana- subjugation to guru.
Ramanuja gave opportunity of temple entry to all the devotees,
irrespective of their birth. He called the untouchables as Thirukulattar'
or Shriharikula.
MADHWACHARYA (1238 - 1317 CE)

Madhwacharya was born at Pajaka near
Udupi in 1238 CE. His parents were
Madhyageha Narayana Bhatta and
Vedavathi. Madhwacharya's earlier name
was Vasudeva. He was also known as
Poorna Prajna and Ananda Teertha.
Madhavacharya very soon became a
renowned scholar in Vedas, Purans and
history. His teacher Achuthapreksha was
a follower of Adwaita philosophy and
Madhwacharya began to have difference of
opinion with his teacher. He developed
his own philosophy.
He toured North India extensively and

visited Kashi, Badari, Kedara, Haridwara,
Gaya, etc. While returning from North India
he brought the idols of Krishna and Madhwacharya
Balarama and installed Krishna at Udupi
and Balarama at Malpe. He established Astha-mathas at Udupi. They
are; 1) Sodey matha, 2) Siruru matha, 3) Kaniyuru matha, 4) Pejawara
matha, 5) Palimaru matha, 6) Adamaru matha, 7) Krishnapura matha
and 8) Puttige matha.
He also visited South Indian sacred places like Kanchi, Tanjore,

Srirangam, Kumbhakonam, Madurai, Rameshwaram, Kanyakumari, etc,
He died at the age of 80.
Madhwa wrote many works. Important among them are, 'Geetha

Bhashya', 'Brahma Sutra, Bhashya' 'Anu Bhashya', 'Dwadasha Stotra,'
etc.
Dwaita Philosophy.
Madhwacha:rya's philosophy is known as Dwaita or Dualism. He
completely disagreed with Advaita philosophy. According to him there
are three entities- matter (Jada), soul (Chethana or Jeevatma) and God
(Paramatma). God is Independent and the Soul and Matter are dependent
on Him. Madhwa taught that the individual soul and God are two
different entities and hence it is called Dwaita philosophy.
He recognized five fundamental differences between the Soul, Matter

and God.
1. Soul and God can not merge into one another.

2. A Soul does not merge with another Soul.
3. Matter does not merge with God.
4. Matter does not merge with the Soul.
5. Matter does not merge with another
matter.
BASAVESHWARA (1132-1168 CE)

Basaveshwara was born in 1132 CE
at Bagewadi. Madarasa and
Madalambike were his parents. He
studied Veda, Grammar and Logic at an
young age. At the age of 8, he removed
his sacred thread saying that he had
Linghadeeksha at his birth and so there
was no need for Upanayana. Then he
went to Kudalasangama where he
studied under Jatavedamuni.
Basaveshwara
Kalachuri king Bijjala appointed Basaveshwara as Karanika.
Basaveshwara married Neelambike and Gangambike. Without getting
influenced by power, wealth and worldly life, he carried out
responsibilities through honest service. He became the Prime Minister
after the death of Siddarasa. He took an vow to remove caste system,
blind beliefs, plurality of God and Idol worship, animal sacrifices that
were practiced in the society of those days. He toured the state and
created awareness among the people. He made it clear that caste
system does not have the base of Dharmashastra. He encouraged
interdining and gave Linga deeksha to untouchable Nagadeva and
accepted his hospitality. Encouraging inter caste marriage he performed
the marriage of Brahmin Madhuviah's daughter with Harijan Haralaiah's
son. Both were devotees of Shiva. Preventing animal sacrifice he said
'Dayave Dharmada Moolavaiah' (compassion is the base of religion).
Orthodox people looking at the religious works of Basaveshwara

gave a complaint to Bijjala that he was using the money from the
treasury and that he was spoiling Hindusim. To appease the orthodox
people, Bijjala gave death sentence to Madhuvaiah and Haralaiah.
Also he blinded the newly wed couple. Upset by this Basaveshwara
gave up his post as minister and went to Kudalasangama. This led to a
revolt at Kalyana. In this revolt Bijjala was murdered. Basaveshwara
attained oneness in God in 1168 CE at Kudalasangama.
Shaktivishishtadwaitha philosophy.
Basaveshwara propounded Shaktivishistadwaitha philosophy. He
gave prominence to the worship of Linga. Also he gave opportunity
for all to wear Ishtalinga irrespective of caste and gender. Thus those
who wore linga came to be called Lingayatha. Religion gives
opportunity for the worship of Shiva and in this, Linga (God) and Anga
(individual Soul) are two divisions. Moksha is to attain oneness with
Linga. The merger of Shiva (Purusha) with Shakti (Prakruti) forms the
basis ofBasava's Philosophy. Purusha and Prakruthi are incomplete
without the merger of each other. This is called
'Shakthivishishtadwaitha' philosophy. It is very necessary for Anga to
worship Linga to attain Salvation. Ashtavarana (eight) principle has to
be followed by Lingayath which are taught at the time of 'Deeksha'.
They are:
1. Obedience to Guru.
2. Worship of Linga.
3. Reverence for Jangama.
4. Smearing of Ashes on the forehead.
5. Wearing of Rudraksha.
6. Sipping padodaka.
7. Partaking food offered to God.
8. Uttering 'Namah Shivaya' panchakshara manthra.
Basaveshwara propounded the path of devotion for salvation. To achieve
salvation there is no discrimination between castes and gender. He
criticized caste system. A man's status is decided by his competency
and not by his caste, and all are equal before Shiva. He condemned
Idol worship, holy bath and the worship of stones and trees. "Kallanagara
kandare Halanerevaru Ditada nagara kandare Kollembarayya",(Cobra
when seen in the form of stone is worshiped but when a real cobra
is seen it is killed) "Ullavaru Shivalayava maduvaru, naanena maadali
badavanayya" (The rich build temples, but what can I, a poor man do).
Through these vachanas he brought into open the vain display of devotion
by the people.
Everyone should work honestly and they donot have the right to
eat without working. Work is a path to salvation, Work is another form
of devotion. Hence, he said 'Kayakave Kailasa' (Work is Worship). He
condemned the caste system based on occupation, Basavanna upheld
the dignity of labour. We should incalculate simplicity, good character,
compassion, love, and sympathy. He said 'Acharave swarga, Anacharave
naraka' (good conduct is heaven and bad conduct is hell). Also he said
'Kalabeda, kolabeda, husiyanudiyalu beda... ide antaranga shuddhi, ide
bahiranga shuddhi' (Don't rob, don't kill do not speak false hood
.....................this is inner purity, it is outer purity). This way Basaveshwara
gave importance to the inner purity rather than the outer purity. An
individual should not indulge in hoardig, but indulge in 'Dasoha'. Dasoha
is distribution of individual gains to the society.
Anubhava Mantapa: Basaveshwara established 'Anubhava Mantapa'

at Kalyana to spread his philosophy. This is also called Vachanamantapa.
Here religious discourses were held and social and religious problems
were discussed. Allamaprabhu presided over these religious discourses.
Prominent among those who participated in this assembly were
Channabasava, Siddarama, Madara Dulayya, Ambigara Chowdayya,
Madivala Machayya, Kinnari Bommayya, Madara Channayya,
Akkamahadevi, Lakkamma, Nagambike, Mukthayakka and others.
Kalyana grew into a big cultural centre.
Vachanas: Vachanas are a unique form of Kannada literature and

have enriched Kannada literature. They created awareness among the
people and laid the foundation for Social reforms. They contain
virtues and moral values. Basaveshwara has composed nearly 5000
vachanas and 'Kudalasangamadeva' was his penname.
Bhakti Movement
'Bhakti movement' was a socio-religious movement that occurred
in the medieval period. The exponents of Bhakti movement gave
importance to devotion, religious harmony, social equality and gender
equality.
Ramananda (1400 -1470 CE) Though, Bhakti movement was

pioneered by the saints of the South, the credit for popularizing the
movement in Northern India goes to Ramananda. He was born at Prayag
and he preached 'Vaishnavism'. He believed in the 'Vishistadvaita'
philosophy of Ramanuja and carried his teachings much further. He
used Hindi in place of Sanskrit. This resulted in easy understanding
of his preaching by the common people. He was against caste system
and preached brotherhood.
Kabir (1440-1518 CE) Kabir was brought up by a Muslim weaver
couple Niru and Neema at Varanasi. He was one of the most important
disciples of Ramananda. He preached equality and a religion of love
aimed at promoting unity among all castes and creeds. He was the
prominent among the saints who agreed equality between Hindus and
Muslims. He said that Allah and Rama were names of one and the
same God. 'God' could be neither found in a temple nor in a mosque,
but only in the hearts of his devotees. He condemed Idol worship and
also said God could not be attained by pilgrimage, holy bath or by
loudly praying. God could be attained only through Bhakti or devotion.
His desciples, Kabirpanthis included both Hindus and Muslims. His
devotional compositions are in the form of 'Doha'.
Gurunanak (1469-1539C E) Gurunanak is the founder of Sikhism.

He was influenced by the teachings of Kabir. He preached the
brotherhood of mankind. He was against idol worship, caste system, sati
and other social evils. He advised the people to speak truth. He believed
that misunderstandings were the causes for clashes between the
Hindus and the Muslims. He was also against the exploitation of the
poor by the priests and the upper class. The Sikhs believe that he got
enlightenment at the age of 30 at a place near Sultanpur. For the next
30 years he travelled widely and gained spiritual experiences. His
disciples were called 'Sikhs'. 'Gurugranth Sahib' is the holy book of
Sikhs, which is in 'Gurumuki' script.
Chaitanya (1486-1534 CE) Chaitanya played the most

outstanding role in the progress of Bhakti movement in the Eastern
part of India. He was the founder of modern 'Vaishnavism' and made it
popular in Bengal, through his 'Kirtanas'. He spread the message that
Raga (singing and dancing) was the best path for salvation. He adored
'Krishna' and 'Radha' and attempted to spiritualise their lives.
Mirabai (1498-1569 CE) Mirabai was highly religious since her

childhood, and like her grandfather, she was a follower of the Krishna
cult ofVaishnavism. After her husband's death she devoted herself
entirely to religious pursuits. She was a great devotee of Lord Krishna and
popularized her cult in Rajasthan through her songs. Mira is said to
have composed numerous poems. All of them are devotional songs and
are called Mira Bhajans. They are written in 'Brijbhasha' and partly
in 'Rajasthani' and some of her verses are in Gujarati.
SUFISM
The term 'Sufi' is derived from the word 'saf meaning wool. The
sufi saints wore wollen clothes, from which the term Sufi finally is
derived. The other meaning of it is purity. Saffa is the platform outside
the mosque and some scholors believe this to be the derivation of this
term.
The influence of Hinduism on Islam in medival India resulted in

the rise of Sufism. It inculcated many Hindu practices with Islamic
practices. The Sufi saints, like the other Hindu exponents of the Bhakti
cult propagated social equality, gender equality, religious harmony,
devotion, etc. Some of the practices were against Islamic principles.
Some
of such practices are- music and singing as forms of devotion to God,
worship of the tombs of the sufi saints (Darga), both men and women
together offering prayers at the Darga, etc. The Sufi saints became so
popular by their socio-religious reforms that both the Hindus and
Muslims became their disciples.
Important Sufi orders:
1) Chishti order- This was founded by Khwaja Abdul Chisthi in 966
CE. Moinuddin Chishti, Fariduddin Shakar, Sheik Nizamuddin
Auliya, Sheik Salim Chishti, etc were some of the important saints
of this order. The Darga of Fathepur Sikhri is one of the most holy
Sufi Dargas in India.
2) Suharawardi order - The Suharwardi order was founded by
Sheik Shahabuddin Suharawardi of Baghdad. Sheik Bahauddin
Suhrawardi was the most famous saints among this order.
The other important sufi orders are Firdausi, Quadri, Shattara,
Mahdawi, Raushaniyath and Naqshbandi.
Activity
Write about the relevance of teachings of reformers in contemporary
world
QUESTIONS

1. Which was the birth place of Shankaracharaya?
2. Name the philosophy of Shankaracharya.
3. Name the philosophy of Ramanujachrya.
4. Who was the Hoysala King who gave shelter to Ramanujacharya?
5. Which was the birth place of Madhwacharya?
6. What was the earlier name of Madhwacharya?
7. Name the philosophy of Madhwacharya.
8. Which was the birth place of Basaweshwara?
9. Who was the Kalachuri King who gave royal patronage to
Basaweshwara?
10. Who presided over the religious discourses atAnubhavamantapa?

11. Where was Ramananada born?
12. Who is the founder of Sikhism?
13. Which is the Holy Book of Sikhs?
14. Who was the devotee of Krishna who popularized her philosophy
in Rajasthan?
15. From which word is Sufi derived?
16. Who was the founder of Chisti order?
17. Who was the founder of Suharawardi order?
1. Who were the parents of Shankaracharya?
2. Why is Shankaracharya called 'Shanmatha Stapanacharya'?
3. Name any two important mathas established by Shankaracharya.
4. Name any two works of Shankaracharya.
5. When and where was Ramanujacharya born?
6. Who were the parents of Ramanujacharya?
7. Name any two works of Ramanujacharya.
8. When and where was Madhwacharya born?
9. Who were the parents of Madhwacharya?
10. Name any two mathas established by Madhwacharya.
11. Name any two works of Madhwacharya.
12. When and where was Basaweshwara born?
13. Who were the parents of Basaweshwara?
14. Who founded Anubhava Mantapa and where?
15. Name any two important orders among the Sufis.
16. Name any two important saints of Chisti order.

1. Explain the life and teachings of Shankaracharya.
2. Describe the life and teachings of Ramanujacharya.
3. Explain the life and teachings of Madhwacharya.
4. Discuss the socio-religious reforms of Basaveshwara.
5, Give an account of Kabir and Gurunanak.
Chapter 7- Modem Period - 7 .1 -Advent of Europeans
CHAPTER 7
MODERN PERIOD
CHAPTER - 7. 1
ADVENT OF EUROPEANS
India had commercial relations with the West from time immemorial.
There was a great demand for Indian commodities like Cotton, Pearls,
Sandalwood, Spices, etc in the European markets. As a result of the
capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, the Europeans were
forced to find a new sea-route to India. Portuguese, English, Dutch
and French came to India for trade.
Portuguese:
The Portuguese were the first among the Europeans to enter India
through the sea route. Vasco-Da Gama reached India in 1498. He was
welcomed by Zamorin, the king of Calicut and the trade relation of
India with Europe was re-established. Henceforth they had brisk trade
with India. Francisco-De-Almeida was the first Governor of
Portuguese in India. He was succeeded by Alfanso-de -Albuquerque.
He conquered Goa from Adil Shahis of Bijapur in 1510 and made it their
administrative centre. It remained with the Portuguese till 1961.
Portuguese established their trading centres at Goa, Diu, Daman,

Salsette, Bassein, Bombay, etc. Portuguese could not stay for a long
time in India as they were unable to compete with the Dutch and the
English. The corrupt and inefficient officers, fanatic religious policy, their
concentration on Brazil, the rise of Marathas, fall of Vijayanagar Empire,
etc are the important causes for their decline in India.
Dutch:
The Dutch established the 'Dutch East India Company' in 1602
and established their trade centres at Machalipattanam, Nagapattanam,
Balipattnam, Chinsura, Cochin, Kasim Bazaar, Mahe, etc. Pulicat was
their capital in India. The Dutch could not stand for a long time in
India, because they concentrated more on South East Asian Islands
(Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philppines and Cambodia) and were also
unable to compete with the English.
French:
The French established 'French East India Company' in 1664. They
established their trade centres at Pondicherry, Surat, Chandranagore,
Mahe, Karaikal, Machalipattanam, etc. Pondicherry was their capital
in India. By the time the French arrived in India, the power of the
Portuguese and the Dutch had weakened. The French and the English
competed with each other to establish monopoly on trade. The French
Governors Dupliex and Count De-Lally tried to build French Empire
in India. This led to the Anglo-French rivalry.
English:
The British East India Company was established in 1600. The English
Navy was superior then Portuguese and Dutch. They defeated the Spanish
Armada and tried to establish their supremacy in India. Sir Thomas
Roe visited the court of J ahangir in 1615 and got the permission to
establish trade centres. Their early trade centres were Surat, Ahmedabad,
Broach and Agra. Later they established their trade centres all over
the country including Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. Calcutta was their
first Capital in India.
Establishment of British supremacy in India

Anglo-French Rivalry:
England and France were competitors for establishing colonies in
America and India. This led to wars between the two. They fought for
twenty years to establish their supremacy in the Deccan. They were
also traditional rivals.
First Camatic War (1746-1748)

In 1740 there was a war between England and France over the
Question of Austrian succession. This led to a war between the English
and the French in India. English Commander Burnet captured some
French Ships. The French Governor Dupleix wanted to capture Madras.
He sought the help of La-Boardonnais, the French governor of Mauritius,
who captured Madras in 1746. Later he returned Madras to the English
for 40,000 pounds. Dupleix did not agree to this and recaptured Madras.
English sought the help of Anwaruddin, the Nawab of Arcot (Carnatic).
Anwaruddin orderd the French to free Madras. Dupleix refused to free
it. So Anwaruddin sent a huge army of 10,000 to capture Madras. The
battle was fought at St. Thome (Battle of Adiyar). A small French Army
of 1100, defeated the Nawab's army and thereby proved the supremacy
of well trained European army over the traditional Indian Army. The
Aix-la-Chapel treaty ended the war in Europe. As per one of the terms
of the treaty first Carnatic war ended in India. Madras was returned
to the British and the prisoners of war were released.
Second Camatic War (1748-1754).
There were civil wars of succession between Anwaruddin and
Chandasaheb at Arcot and Nasirjung and Muzaffar Jung at Hyderabad.
Dupleix, the French governor, supported Chandasaheb and Muzaffar
Jung, whereas the British supported Anwaruddin and NasirJung. This
struggle led to the Second Carnatic war. The French troup defeated
and killed Anwaruddin in the battle of Amber. His son Mohammad Ali
fled to Trichinapalli. Chandasaheb was made the Nawab of Arcot and
he besieged Trichinapalli.
Nasir Jung declared war on Muzaffar Jung with the help of British.
Nasir Jung waskilled, MuzaffarJungwas made the Nizam of Hyderabad.
Later he was also killed in a royal intrigue. So Salabat Jung was made
the Nizam of Hyderabad by Dupleix.
Dupleix and Chandasaheb besieged Trichinapalli to kill Mohammad

Ali. The British, under Robert Clive laid siege to Arcot. Chandasaheb
rushed to protect his capital, but was killed on his way and English
made Mohammad Ali, the Nawab of Arcot. Dupleix, who was defeated
in the war was recalled by the French Government. The war ended
with the treaty of Pondicherry in 1754. Both the parties agreed not
to interfere in the internal politics of India.
Third Carnatic War (1758-1763)

The seven years war fought between France and England in Europe
(1756-1763) was the cause for the war between the two in India. Robert
Clive, the British Governor captured Chandranagore, a French settlement.
The French Government sent Count-De-Lally as Governor to expel the
British from India. Lally seized the fort of St David and planned to
attack Madras and recalled Bussey from Hyderabad to help him. When
Bussey marched towards Madras, English attacked Hyderabad and
captured it. Salabat Jung became the ally of English. The French were
completely defeated in the battle of Wandiwash in 1760. The French
lost all their settlements. The seven years war ended with the treaty
of Paris in 1763. The war in India also ended. The trading centres of
the French were returned with restriction to limit themselves only to
trade.
Battle of Plassey - 1757
Bengal was a Subha under the Mughal Empire. The Nawab of Bengal
Alivardhi khan became independent and Murshidabad was his capital.
He maintained friendly relation with the British. He had no sons, hence
he nominated Siraj-ud-daula, the son of his third daughter to succeed
him. After the death of his grandfather Sirajuddula became the Nawab
in 1756.
Causes
1. Political cause
Siraj-ud-daula had many rivals like Shaukath Jung, Ghasti Begum,
etc and they were supported by the British.
2. Misuse of Dastaks
Mughal Emperor had given permission to the British to trade in
Bengal without tax. Dastaks were issued by the Government of Bengal
to the East India Company, which exempted the custom duties on trade.
The servants of the East India Company misused them for their private
trade and also sold them to local merchants for profit. This resulted
in the loss of income to the State.
3. Shelter to the French
British and the French were rivals. The English captured
Chandranagore, a French trading centre in 1756 and Siraj-ud-daula
gave shelter to some Frenchmen which angered the British.
4. Capture of the Calcutta fort

The British who feared the French strengthened their fort at
Calcutta without the permission of the Nawab. Siraj-ud-daula ordered
them to demolish it. But the British refused to do so. Hence Siraj-ud-
daula captured Calcutta fort in June 1756. But Robert Clive recaptured
it, which led to the enmity between the two.
5. Shelter to Dewan Rajvallabha

Dewan Rajvallbha had not settled the accounts of his office and
when he was forced by the Nawab to do so, he went over to the British
and took shelter. This angered Siraj-ud-daula.
6. The Black Hole Tragedy

During an attack on Calcutta, Siraj-ud-daula is said to have captured
146 British and they were taken as prisoners and were lodged in a
room of 15 x 18 feet. 123 of them died of suffocation and only 23
survived. This incident is called the 'Black hole Tragedy'.
Peace was concluded between the British and Siraj -ud-daula and
the treaty of Aligarh was signed. Robert Clive hatched a conspiracy
with the commander of Bengal, Mir Jafar and some important officers
against Siraj-ud-daula. TheBritish attacked Siraj-ud-daula on the pretext
of not implementing the terms of Aligarh treaty. The battle was fought
at Plassey in June 1757. Siraj-ud-daula was defeated and he fled. But
during the escape he was killed by Mir Jaffar's son. Mir Jafar was made
the Nawab of Bengal. He richly rewarded the British and gave 24
paraganas. This battle laid the foundation of British Empire in India.
Battle of Buxar-1764
Mir Jafar was an inefficient ruler. He became a puppet in the hands
of the British. Hence the administration of Bengal deteriorated and
the Nawab lost his prestige. He also could not fulfil the repeated demands
of the British. The British hence replaced Mir Jaffar and made his son
in law Mir Khasim the Nawab.
Mir Khasim was an efficient ruler and he introduced a series of

reforms to better the administration. He withdrew the custom duties
when he was unable to stop the misuse of Dastaks. The British who
lost their privileges in trade became unhappy with Mir Khasim. So Mir
Khasim entered into an alliance with Shuja-Ud-Daula of Oudh and the
Mughal Emperor Shah-Alam II against the British. The battle of Buxar
was fought in 1764, in which the British defeated the allies. Mir Khasim
fled the battle field while Shuja-Ud-Daula and Shah-Alam II surrendered
to the British. Mir Jaffar was once again made the Nawab of Bengal.
This decisive battle firmly established the British supremacy on Bengal.
Anglo-Mysore wars
The British, after establishing their supremacy in Bengal waged
battles against Mysore to expand their Empire in South India.
First Anglo-Mysore War-1767-1769.
The growing power of Hyder Ali at Mysore was the cause for this
war. The Marathas, the Nizam and the British formed a triple alliance
against Hyder Ali and the war broke out in 1767. Hyder Ali, by his
diplomacy neutralized Marathas and Nizam, and inflicted heavy losses
on the British. The British were forced to sue for peace and the war
came to an end in 1769 with the 'Treaty of Madras'. By this treaty
both the parties agreed to restore the territories they had won from
each other. They also agreed to help each other in case of an aggression
by a third party in future.
Second Anglo-Mysore War - 1780-1784

The Marathas attacked Mysore in 1770. According to the treaty
of Madras, the British had to help Hyder, but they did not do so. Hyder
realized that they were his real enemies and was waiting for an
opportunity. The opportunity came to him when the British attacked
Mahe, a French territory under Hyder's protection. Hyder declared war
on the British in 1780. He defeated the English in few early battles.
But the British sent Sir Eyre Coote, who defeated Hyder at Portonovo
in 1781. The war was going on, but Hyder died in 1782. The war was
continued by his son Tippu Sultan. The war came to an end with the
'Treaty of Mangaluru' in 1784. According to the treaty, both the parties
agreed to restore conquered territories and release the war prisoners.
The Third Anglo-Mysore War 1790-1792

Tippu and British were suspicious of each other. Tippu was trying
to get the help of the French to expel the British from India. The war
broke out with Tippu's unprovoked attack on Travancore in 1789.

Travancore was in alliance with the Company and hence the British
declared war on Tipu. Lord Cornwallis, the British Governor General
isolated Tippu by winning over the Marathas and the Nizam to his side
and defeated Tippu. The war came to an end with the 'Treaty of
Srirangapattana' in 1792, by which Tippu had to cede half of his
territories to the allies and pay 330 lakhs of rupees as war indemnity.
He had to keep two of his sons as hostages with the British till he
paid the war indemnity.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War-1798-1799

Tippu had not reconciled to the loss of his prestige by the treaty
of Shrirangapattana. The British were also suspicious of Tippu and Lord
Wellesley forced him to sign the Subsidiary Alliance treaty. Tippu
refused and tried to get help from France, Afghanistan, Arabia and
Turkey. The British, along with the Marathas and the Nizam attacked
Mysore. Tippu fought undauntedly. He was the greatest enemy of the
British and was very courageous. So he is called "the Tiger of Mysore".
Tippu died fighting against the enemies in Shrirangapattana in 1799,
while defending his capital.
After the death of Tippu, his territories were divided between the
British, the Marathas and the Nizam. A portion of his kingdom was
given to the Wodeyars of Mysore. Krishnaraja Wodeyar III became the
king of the Mysore.
Subsidiary Alliance:
The Subsidiary Alliance was brought into force by Lord Wellesley
in 1798. The expansion of British Empire in India was its main aim.
Its main conditions were, the allying king had to keep a British army
in his State. He had to bear the expenses of that army. The ruler unable
to pay the expenses had to cede a part of his kingdom to the British.
He also had to keep a British Resident in his court. He should not
have trade relations with other European countries. The kings of such
states were not allowed to appoint foreigners in their administration
and army, without the prior permission of the British. The protection
of that State was the responsibility of the company.
The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to sign the treaty of subsidiary
alliance. Later the rulers of Mysore, Oudh, Travancore, Baroda, Jaipura,
Jodhpura, Bharathpura, Nagpura and Gwalior also signed the treaty.
The Doctrine of Lapse: -

Lord Dal Housie came to India as the Governor General in 1848.
He was determined to extend direct British rule over India. He introduced
this Policy to achieve this aim. According to this, policy when the
ruler of the protected State died without a natural heir, then that state
would pass on to the British Empire. By following this policy, the British
annexed Satara, Jaipura, Sambhalpura, Udaipura, Jhansi, Nagpura and
Bhagatpura.
Anglo-Maratha Wars
First Anglo-Maratha War-1775-1782
Peshwa Madhava Rao died in 1772. He was succeeded by his brother
Narayana Rao. But his uncle Raghunath Rao got him killed and became
the Peshwa. In the meantime the widow of late Narayana Rao gave birth
to a male child. The child, Savai Madhava Rao was supported by the
Maratha chiefs. Raghunath Rao sought the help of British. He signed
the 'treaty of Surat' in 1775 with Bombay Governor Eliphinstone to
retain his position.
The combined armies of Raghunatha Rao and the British fought
with the Maratha chiefs at Poona. But Nana Fadnavis, the Prime Minister
of Peshwa Savai Madhava Rao, managed to get the help of Governor
General Hastings at Calcutta and signed with him the 'treaty of
Purandhara' in 1776. According to this treaty the British agreed to
withdraw the support to Raghunath Rao. Raghunath Rao was given
a monthly pension of Rs. 25000 /- from Peshwa Government. But this
was not accepted by Elphinstone, the Governer of Bombay. He re-opened
the war. The English forces were defeated and signed the 'treaty of
Wadagaon' in 1779. They had to surrender all the territories that they
acquired since 1773. Lord Hastings sent a huge army from Calcutta
and battles were fought. Finally the 'treaty of Salbai' was concluded
in 1782 and both the parties agreed to restore the territories captured.
There was peace for the next 20 years.
Second Anglo-Maratha War-1803-1806:

Nana Fadnavis died in 1800. The Maratha chiefs Holkar and Sindhia
tried to control Peshwa Bajirao II. Peshwa was greatly influenced by
Mahadji Sindhia. So Holkar waged the war and defeated the combined
armies of Sindhia and Peshwa in 1802. Peshwa fled to Bassien and
signed the 'treaty of Bassien' with English in March 1802. Holkar placed
Vinayak Rao on the throne.
According to the treaty of Bassien Peshwa signed the subsidiary

alliance, agreed to keep 6000 British soldiers and pay 26 lakh Rs every
year for its maintenance. Peshwa surrendered northern territories of
his Kingdom to the British. This treaty provided English favorable
opportunity to interfere in Maratha politics. The Maratha chieftains
who were subordinates to Peshwa had become subordinates to the
company. This was humiliation for Marathas. Sindhia and Bhonsle
challenged the British power. A series of battles were fought. British
defeated them and both of them accepted subsidiary alliance. Holkar
also fought with the British and concluded the treaty of Rajpurghat and
ceded Bundelkhand and Chambal area to British.
Third Anglo-Maratha War-1817-1818:
Peshwa Baji Rao II who had lost his power and prestige decided
to re-organise the Maratha confederacy and revive the lost glory of the
Marathas. He also enlisted the support of the Pathans and the Pinda:ries
for this cause. They attacked the English military camp at Kirki. This
started the Third Anglo-Maratha war. In a series of battles the British
defeated the Marathas. All the Maratha chieftains accepted the Subsidiary
Alliance. The descendent of Chatrapathi Sahu was allowed to rule the
region of Satara. Baji Rao II was pensioned off to Bithore with an annual
pension of 8 laks rupees. With this, the British established political
supremacy all over South India.
Similarly the British followed the policy of expansion and aggression

over other independent rulers. The British fought wars against the Sikhs,
Afghans, Nepalis, Burmies, and established their political supremacy
over the Indian sub-continent.
Activity
Make a list of laws and enactments of the British in India.
QUESTIONS

1. Who was the first Portuguese Governor in India?
2. In which year was the 'Dutch East India Company' established?
3. Name the Capital of the Dutch in India.
4. When was the 'French East India Company' established?
5. Which was the Capital of the French in India?
6. When was the 'British East India Company' established?
7. Which was the first Capital of the British in India?
8. Name the treaty which ended the first Carnatic war.
9. In which year was the battle of Plassey fought?
10. In which year was the battle of Buxar fought?
11. Name the treaty which ended the first Anglo Mysore war.
12. Name the treaty which ended the second Anglo Mysore war.
13. Name the treaty which ended the third Anglo Mysore war.
14. Who was called The Tiger of Mysore'?
15. Who was the Governor General who introduced the subsidiary
alliance?
16. Who was the first Indian ruler to accept the subsidiary Alliance?
17. Who introduced the 'Doctrine of Lapse' in India?
1. Who conquered Goa from Adil shahis of Bijapura and when?
2. Name any two trading centres of Portuguese in India.
3. Mention any two causes for the decline of Portuguese power
in India.
4. Name any two trading centres of Dutch in India.
5. Name any two trading centres of French in India.
6. Between whom was the battle of Plassey fought?
Chapter 7- Modem Period- 7.1 -Advent of Europeans
7. Mention any two terms of the treaty of Sringapattana.

8. Name any two Indian states which accepted the Subsidiary
Alliance.
9. Name any two Indian States, annexed by the British applying
the 'Doctrine of lapse'.

1. What were the causes and results of the battle of Plassey?
2. Write about the Subsidiary Alliance and the Doctrine of Lapse.
3. Discuss the struggle of Tippu Sultan with the British.

1. Briefly explain the Camatic wars.
2. Give an account of the Anglo-Maratha wars.
CHAPTER - 7.Z
THE FIRST WfiR OF INDlfiN INDEPENDENCE - 1857

The revolt of 185 7 has a unique place in the history of India. This
event is called by different names such as, 'the Sepoy Mutiny', 'The
Indian rebellion' and the 'First war of Indian Independence'. This was
the first united revolt against the British. It was the outburst of
accumulated discontent of Indians against the policies of East India
Company and its imperialist exploitation. The British called it 'Sepoy
Mutiny', where as the nationalists called it the 'First war of Indian
Independence'.
Causes:
Political causes: The expansionist policy of the East-India company
was an important cause. The British interfered in the internal matters
of Indian States and followed the policy of divide and rule. The
subsidiary alliance and the Doctrine of lapse enraged Indian Princes.
The policy of doctrine of lapse was also applied to big Zamindars.
Because of all these reasons the Kings, Princes, their courtiers and
disbanned soldiers and tenents were angry with the British.
Administrative Causes: The British introduced a new system of

administration which replaced the traditional system. So many local
administrators became unemployed and turned against the British. The
introduction of 'Rule of law' and 'Equality before law' developed
suspicion in the minds of traditional Hindus and Muslims, who were
influenced by the laws of 'Dharmshastras and Shariyat'. Indians were not
given higher jobs in the administration, and the salaries paid to the Indian
employees were far less than their English counter-parts. This was against
the English policy of equality before law.
Economic Causes: The East-India Company followed a policy of

Economic-exploitation. They utilized the sources and wealth of India
for their selfish ends. After Industrial revolution imports from England
increased. The British established monopoly on trade. They converted
Chapter 7- Modem Period- 7.2 The First War oflndian Independence •
India into a supplier of raw materials and a market for their finished
goods. This led to the unemployment of artisans and craftsmen. Indian
handicrafts suffered. The land revenue policies of the British were
detrimental to the farmers.
Social and Religious Causes: The British thought that they belonged
to a superior race and humiliated the Indians. They passed the Social
Reforms Act which developed suspicion in the minds of Hindus and
Muslims. Because Hindus and Muslims thought that Sati, Child
marriages, animal and human sacrifices and purdah were part of their
religion and were unhappy with the British.
The East India Company gave free hand for the Christian missionaries
in the field of religion. The missionaries were active in schools, hospitals,
prisons and market places, in the spread of Christianity. They were
intolerant towards Hinduism and Islam and openly criticized these
religions. They tried to convert the Indians to Christianity. The spread
of English education and culture through missionaries and convents
created suspicion among Indians about the survival of their religions.
The religious preachers like Mullahs, Moulvies and Pandits played an
important role in spreading hatredness against the British.
Military Causes: Indian soldiers in the British army were humiliated

by their English officers. They were paid low salaries and not promoted
above the rank of subedar. According to the General Service Enlistment
Act of 1856, Indian soldiers could be posted anywhere in the British
Empire. This was against their religious belief. Hindus believed that
crossing the sea was a sin. The Indian sepoys were more than the British
soldiers which gave a sense of self confidence to the Indians. There
were more than 75000 soldiers in the British army from 'Awadh'. These
soldiers were angry when Awadh was annexed to the British Empire
on the grounds of maladministration by Nawab Wajid-Ali.
Immediate Causes: The British introduced new Enfield rifles. The

cover of the cartridges had to be torn with the teeth to load the cartridge
into the rifle. There was a rumour that the cartridges were smeared
with the fat of the cow and pig. Cow was sacred to Hindus and Pig
was prohibited for Muslims. The Indian sepoys felt that the British were
trying to spoil their religion. The Indian soldiers refused to use the
rifles and British forced and threatened the Indian soldiers to use
them. This started the revolt against the British.
Course of the war:
The 19th Native infantry at Berhampur refused to use the cartridges
and it was disbanded on 29th March. The 34th Infantry at Barrackpore
refused to use the new cartridge. When forced to use, Mangal Pandey
killed the sergeant. Mangal Pandey was caught and hanged. The 34 th
Infantry was also disbanded.
85 soldiers of Meerut refused to use the
cartridges. They were tried and they were
sentenced to long term imprisonment. The
sepoys rose in revolt by breaking open the
gates of the jail and released all their fellow
soldiers and rushed towards Delhi. Within
2 days they captured Delhi and proclaimed
Bahaddur Shah II (last Mughal Badshah)
as the Emperor of India. They hoisted the
flag of Independence on the Red Fort. Soon Bahaddur Shah II
the mutiny spread to Lucknow, Allahabad,
Kanpur, Bareily, Bihar, Jhansi, etc.
In June 1857, Begum Hazrath Mahal (widow of Wajid Ali) rebelled

against the British at Lucknow. But the British attacked Lucknow and
captured it. Begum Hazrath Mahal fled to Nepal.
On 5th June 1857 Nana Saheb revolted against the British and
captured Kanpur and declared himself as the Peshwa. Soon the British
attacked Nana Saheb at Kanpur with a huge army. He was joined by
Tantia Tope, his loyal servant. But the British were successful in
recapturing Kanpur. Nana Saheb fled to Nepal. Tantia Tope also fled. In
September 1857, Delhi was recaptured by the British. Bahaddur Shah II
was arrested and deported to Rangoon.
Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi revolted against the British when they
refused to recognize her adopted son. She was also threatened to be
treated as an instigator and she was driven out of Jhansi. Lakshmi
Bai who had been joined by Tantia Tope by this time captured
Gwalior
Chapter 7- Modern Period - 7.2 The First War oflndian Independence
Important place of
First War of Indian Independence - 1857
Meerut •
Delhie
Gwalior•
Jhansi • Kanpure
Jagadeeshpur•
Bay of
Bengal
Arabian
Sea
Indian Ocean
s
with his help. When the Brttish came to capture Gwalior, a fierce battle
took place and Lakshmi Bai died fighting valiantly in the battle field
on 17th June 1858.
Kunwar Singh, a zamindar of Jagadhishpur revolted against the

Brttish in Bihar. But he was mercilessly suppressed. By July 1858 almost
all the rebellions had been successfully put down by the British.
Causes for the failure of the Revolt

1. The Revolt was not nationalistic in character. It was confined to
only Central India. Rajputs, Sikhs, Bengalis, Nizam of Hyderabad,
Nawab of Patiala, Maharaja of Kashmir supported the Brttish. Big
zamindars, merchants and money lenders also supported the Brttish.
2. The educated Indians did not support the revolt feartng the return
of the old order. They believed that Brttish administration would
accomplish the task of modernization.
3. The rebels had no rtght leadership, storage of weapons and they
did not have a common plan. Many a time, they looted the zamindars
and merchants.
4. As per the plans the revolt was to begin on 31st May 1857. But
the soldiers were in a hurry and revolted earlier.
5. There was no common aim among the rebels.
6. Well organized army, able Commanders, continuous supply of arms,
telegraphs and railways, financial resources, etc helped the Brttish
to suppress the revolt.
Results
1. The revolt gave English the taste of Indian patrtotism.
2. It brought unity among the Hindus and Muslims, because they fought
together against the British.
3. The rule of East India Company was abolished and Brttish Crown
took over the administration of India.
4. Queen Victorta issued her famous proclamation in 1858, according
to which the following promises were given to the Indians.
a) The Brttish Government will not annex any more Indian states.
b) The rtghts of the Indian Kings to adopt were recognized.
Chapter 7- Modem Period- 7.2 The First War oflndian Independence 0
c) The British Government will not interfere in the religious beliefs
of the Indians.
d) That the Indians will get better opportunities in administration.
5. The rule of the Mughals came to an end.
Thus the revolt of 1857 started as a sepoy mutiny, turned as a
rebellion of the princes, developed into Indian rebellion and ended as
the First war of Indian Independence. It created national awareness
among the Indians.
Activity
Mark on the outline map of India the places associated with
First War of Indian Independence and write a note on it.
QUESTIONS

1. In which year did the first war of Indian Independence occur?
2. Name the Queen of Lucknow who revolted against the British
during the first war of Indian Independence.
3. Name the Indian soldier who killed the British sergeant in 1857.
4. Who revolted against the British at Kanpur in 1857?
5. Why did Queen Laxrni Bai of Jhansi revolt against the British?
1. What was the immediate cause for the first war of Indian
Independence?
2. Write any two causes for the failure of the revolt of 1857.
III. Answer the following in 15 to 20 sentences
1. Write a note on the course of the First War of Indian Independence.
IV. Answer the following in 30 to 40 sentences
1. Explain the causes and results of the first war of Indian
Independence.
CHAPTER - 7.3
Impact Of British Rule On Economy find Education
The British ruled India for more than 200 years. They exploited
India politically, economically and socially. The British rule had a great
impact on Indian economy and education.
1. Economic Impact
Land revenue was the major source of income to the government.
The British incurred huge expenditure on administration, maintenance
of large army and waging many wars. This burden of expenditure was
passed onto the Indian Ryots. Along with the old revenue system existing
in India, they introduced new system of revenue collection in different
provinces from time to time. They are as follows:
Permanent Revenue Settlement or Zamindari System-1793
Lord Cornwallis introduced this system in 1793 in Bengal, Bihar,
Orissa and Northern UP. According to this system, the East India
Company entered into an agreement with the Zamindars. Initially it was
introduced for 10 years. Later on it was made permanent. Hence it was
called permanent settlement system. The Zamindars were given
permanent ownership of land, which they cultivated with the help of
tenants. Out of the total revenue collected the Zamindars had to pay 89%
to the government and retain the remaining 11%. It brought regular
income to the government.
Under this system the government totally depended on the Zamindars

to collect the revenue and the Ryots were under the control of Zamindars.
Peasants were harassed and Zamindars, as middle men, gained lot
of wealth at the cost of the peasants.
Ryotwari System:
This system was introduced in Bombay and Madras Presidencies.
Under this system, the East India company made direct settlement with
the Ryot or cultivators. The ownership of land was given to Ryots on
the condition that they had to pay a fixed revenue of 50 % regularly.
Chapter 7-Modem Period-7.3 Impact of British Rule On Economy And Education C,
The revenue was revised every 20 to 30 years. Under this system, farmers
were exploited by the government. The revenue was collected with the
help of revenue officials. Many a times the farmers had to pay the
revenue even though the produce was totally destroyed by droughts or
floods. Many farmers lost the ownership of land due to non-payment of
revenue.
Mahalwari system:
This system was introduced in North-Western India, Gangetic valley
and parts of Central India. The East India Company entered into a
settlement with Estate or Mahal. Mahal was a revenue unit of one or
more villages. The farmers within the Mahal were collectively considered
to be the owners of the land and were also collectively responsible for
the payment of land revenue. The revenue was fixed at 50% to 60%
and was periodically revised. The heavy taxes became a burden on the
farmers and they were reduced to absolute poverty.
The Drain of Wealth or Drain Theory:

The British were not much interested in the development of Indian
agriculture. They were interested only in the procurement of raw
materials to their factories in England and to safeguard their commercial
interests. They forced Indian farmers to produce commercial crops like
Cotton, Sugar Cane, Tea, Indigo, etc which were in great demand in the
European and American markets.
The British deliberately did not start industries in India. They

converted India into a source for raw materials and markets for
finished products. Indian handicrafts could not compete with machine
made products. Artisans and craftsmen had turned into tenants or
agricultural labourers to work at starving wages. Ryotwari and
Mahalwari systems again paved the way for Zamindars, as the new
revenue systems introduced by the British were pro-money lenders and
Zamindars. Hence the stability and development of Indian villages
suffered.
The flow of Indian Wealth and resources to England without getting

equal economic and materiel profit or benefit is known as 'Drain of
Wealth'. A lot of wealth flowed to England in the form of salaries and
pensions of civil and military officers, interest on loan, profits by British
capitalists and expenditure on administration, etc. The wealth of India
was also drained due to excess taxes on Indian goods and less taxes
on British products and excess of imports from England over the exports
from India.
Dadabhai Naoroji put forth the drain theory in his book 'Poverty
and Un-British Rule in India'. He undertook a campaign to educate
the public through speeches and press. Naoroji declared that drain is
the basic cause of India's poverty and fundamental evil of British rule
in India. Later on the Nationalists used the drain theory and economic
exploitation by British as a weapon to awaken the masses against British
rule.
2. Impact On Education:
Before the advent of Europeans the education in India was based
on religion. The Hindu Pathashalas and Muslim Madarasas imparted
education to people. In the beginning East India Company did not show
any interest in educating the people. A new beginning was made in
education in 1813, with the passing of Charter Act by British Parliament.
This Act provided for annual expenditure of Rs.1,00,000 for the
development of education in India. But the company did not spend
the entire amount for many years, because of the differences among
the Orientalists and Anglicists. Orientalists argued that the money should
be spent on development of Indian languages and learning like Sanskrit,
Arabic, Persian and Vernacular languages, whereas Anglicists thought
that 'Development of Education in India', means the development of
English language and learning and the said money be spent on it.
Macaulay's Minute - 1835:

The dispute between Orientalists and Anglicists continued till 1835.
Lord William Bentinck, the then Governor General appointed Macaulay
to settle the dispute. Macaulay favoured the views of Anglicists in his
famous Minutes of 1835. He advocated the development ofWestern
system of education in India and English as medium of education. He
aimed at creating "a class of Indians in blood and colour but English in
tastes, habits and intellect".
Lord William Bentinck accepted Macaulay's opinion and decided
to spend the funds accordingly. This Act was also aimed at converting
people to Christianity through education and prepare clerks to work
for East India Company.
Chapter 7-Modem Period-7.3 Impact of British Rule On Economy And
Education
0
Macaulay was a hardcore Anglicist. He argued that, Oriental learning
was completely inferior to European learning. He said, "a single shelf
of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of
India and Arabia"
Wood's Despatch - 1854:

Thenext step in the development of education in India was 'Wood's
Despatch' of 1854, prepared by Sir Charles Wood. 'It is a comprehensive
report which made the following important recommendations.
1. Company should start primary schools in villages, high-schools in

towns and colleges at district level.
2. Primary education should be in vernacular languages and English
medium for higher education.
3. To provide Grant-in-aid to private educational institutions.
4. Company should set up the the 'Department of Public Instruction'
to supervise the education in all the provinces.
5. To establish Universities at Bombay, Madras and Calcutta on the
model of London university.
6. To open Teachers Training Colleges.
7. To established vocational education and technical schools and
colleges.
8. Stress for female education.
Almost all recommendations of this despacth were implemented.
The ideas of Charles Wood influenced Indian education for many
years. This despacth is known as 'Magna -Carta of English
Education' in India.
Activity
Make a list of the recommendations of the Wood's Despatch of 1854
QUESTIONS
I. Answer the following in a word or a sentence each:

1. Who introduced the permanent revenue settlement?
2. Who propounded the drain theory?
3. Which was the Book written by Dadabhai Naoroji?
4. In which year was Woods Despatch prepared?
5. Which is known as Magna-Carta of English education in India?
II. Answer the following in two words or two sentences each:
1. Name any two Land Revenue systems introduced by British in
India.
2. What is Ryotwari system?
3. What is Mahalwari system?
4. What was the opinion of Macaulay regarding the Eastern
Literature?
III. Answer the following in 15to 20 sentences each:
1. Explain drain theory.
2. Write about the impact of the British rule on Indian Education.
IV. Answer the following in 30to 40 sentences
1. Give an explanation about impact of British rule on Indian
economy.
Chapter 7-Modem Period-7.4- Socio-Religious Reform Movement
CHAPTER 7.4
SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENT
The 19th century witnessed an intellectual revival in India. Western
humanitarian, rational and scientific approach influenced Hindu religious
thought and the educated Indians. They re-examined their religion,
social structure and customs. It is called the Indian Renaissance. Brahmo
Samaja, Arya Samaja, Ramakrishna Mission, Alighar Movement, etc
were the results of this awakening.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Raja Ram Mohan Roy is called the 'Father
oflndian Renaissance' and 'Morning Star of Indian
Renaissance'. He was born in 1772 at Radhanagar
in Bengal. Ramakant Roy and Tarinidevi were his
parents. Ram Mohan Roy was a great scholar and
was proficient in many languages such as Arabic,
Persian, English, French, Latin, Greek and
Hebrew. He had deep knowledge of Hinduism,
Islam, Christianity and Sufism. He was very much
influenced by English language and Western
thought. His primary aim was to reform society
and religion. He had to face the challenges of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
orthodox Hindus and fanatic Christian missionaries. Raja Ram Mohan
Roy established the Brahmo Samaj in 1828, at Calcutta. There were
superstitions and blind beliefs in Hindu religion. Brahmo Samaj took
up the cause of reforming the Hindu society. Brahmo Samaj taught
that "God is one, every religion possesses truth, idol worship and
ritualism are meaningless and social evils have no connection with
religion".
The Brahmo Samaja led a crusade against the practice of sati,

polygamy, child marriages, marriages with minor girls, caste system,
pardah system, untouchability and use of intoxicants. It encouraged
inter-caste marriages, widow- remarriages and women's education.
The Brahmo Samaj started many educational institutions, published
news
papers and magazines and arranged lectures and tours for its members
to come in direct contact with the people.
Mohan Roy was one of the earliest to propagate modem education.

He maintained an English school at Calcutta at his own cost. He
established a Vedanta college, where Indian knowledge and Western
science were taught. He supported Lord William Bentinck and got Sati
Prohibition Act passed in 1829. He published a Bengali journal- Samvad
Kaumudi.
Swami Dayananda Saraswati.

Arya Samaja was established by Dayananda Saraswati in 1875 at
Bombay. He was born at Tankara in Gujarat
in 1824, in an orthodox Brahamin family.
His parents were Krishnaji Tiwari and
Yashodabai. His original name was'Mula
Shankara'. His marriage was fixed at the age
of 21. He opposed it, left home and became
a sanyasi. He was a great scholar in Vedas
and took-up the cause of spreading Vedic
Hindu Religion. He criticized practices of
Hindu religion, such as idol worship,
pilgrimages, caste system, sati, child
marriage
and polygamy. He emphasized the need for Swami Dayananda

female education, supported widow Saraswati
remarriage and propagated Hindi and
Sanskrit languages. He also worked for the
removal of caste system. Inter -caste marriages and interdining were
encouraged.
He started the 'Shuddhi Movement' to bring back the converted
Muslims and Christians into Hindu fold. Such people were taken back
to Hinduism. Dayananda Saraswati started many educational institutions
for both boys and girls. The principles of Aryasamaj attracted many
great leaders like Lala Lajapat Roy, Mahatma Hamsaraj, Gurudatta
Vidyarthi and Swami Shraddhananda. to its fold. Dayananda Saraswati
wrote a book called 'Satyartha Prakasha'. "Go Back to Vedas" was
his famous call to the people.
Chapter 7-Modem Period-7.4- Socio-Religious Reform Movement
Swami Vivekananda:
Swami Vivekananda was born
on January 12thl863 at Calcutta.
Vishwanthadatta and
Bhuvaneshwari Devi were his
parents. Narendranathadatta was
his original name. He graduated
from Calcutta University. He
became a disciple of Ramakrishna
Paramahamsa. After the death of
his Guru, Vivekananda took up the
cause of spreading his massages.
He participated in the conference

of World Religions, held at Chicago
in America in 1893, as the Swami Vivekananda
representative of Hinduism. His
Chicago address began as "Brothers and Sisters......." This won over
the hearts of the people. He influenced Americans by his speeches
and thoughts. He also toured important countries of Europe and spread
the messages of Hinduism. For this purpose Vivekananda established
'Vedanta Samaja' in America and European countries.
The Ramakrishna Mission was founded by Swami Vivekananda in

1897 at Belurmutt in Bengal. The Ramakrishana Mission works for
religious and social upliftment of the people. It runs educational
institutions, Hospitals, Orphanages and Old Age Homes. It also serves
the people in times of natural calamities like floods, famines, epidemics,
earthquakes, etc. Its branches have been established all over the world.
They impart spiritual training and awareness about Hindu religion.
Vivekananda believed in the unity of all religions. He preached

tolerance, equality and co-operation among the people of all faiths. He
gave importance to education, emancipation of women and eradication
of poverty. "Awake! Arise! Stop not till the goal is reached" was his
message to the youth of the country. His speeches and writings are
full of pride and patriotism. They influenced the growth of nationalism,
hence Vivekananda is called 'Patriotic Saint of India'. He published an
English news paper 'Prabhuddha Bharata' and a Bengali news paper
·udbhodhana'.
Theosophical Society:
The Theosophical Society was founded by Madam Blavatsky and
Colonel Alcott at New York in 1875. A branch of theosophical Society
was established in Adyar near Madras in 1886. Annie Besant, an Irish
lady who was greatly influenced by Indian culture came to India,
settled here and played an important role in reviving Hindu Society.
She adopted the Hindu Culture.
She established the Central Hindu School at Banaras which later
developed into Banaras Hindu University. She also established a National
University at Adyar. Under the leadership of Annie Besant Theosophical
Movement became an instrument of Revival of Hinduism. She also
participated in Freedom Movement and started Home Rule Movement.
Aligarh Movement:
The Aligarh movement was started by Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan. He
was born at Delhi in 1817. He was an enlightened Muslim, who tried
to modernize Muslims and encouraged them to get English education.
He was against social abuses in the Muslim community like the pardah,
polygamy and easy divorce. He gave new interpretations to the doctrines
of Quran. He started Mohammdean Anglo-Oriental School at Aligarh.
It later developed into the Aligarh Muslim University. He also organized
Mohammadan Educational Conference for spreading English Education.
The Aligarh Movement aimed at spreading English Education and bring
progressive socio - religious outlook among Muslims. It also aimed at
creating political, social and economic consciousness among the
Muslims.
In the beginning of his career as a reformer, Khan believed in religious

toleration. He said in 1883 "Now both of us (Hindus and Muslims) live
on the air of India, drink the holy water of the Ganga and the Jamuna,
we both feed upon the products of the Indian soil. We are together
Chapter 7-Modern Period-7.4- Socio-Religious Reform Movement
in life and death". By 1888 he changed his views. He began to champion

the cause of the Muslims and rejected the views of the Indian National
Congress. He gradually began to advocate fundamentalist approach and
even considered democracy as detrimental to the Muslims.
Activity
Collect the biographical sketches of the Socio-religious reformers.
QUESTIONS
I. Answer the following in a word or a sentence each

1. Who was the founder of Brahmo Samaja?
2. Where was Raja Ram Mohan Roy born?
3. Who is called the 'Father of Indian Renaissance'?
4. Who was the founder of Arya Samaja?
5. When was the Arya Samaja established?
6. What is 'Shuddhi Movement'?
7. Who gave the call 'Go Back to Vedas'?
8. Name the work written by Dayananda Saraswati.
9. Who established Ramkrishana Mission?
10. What was the original name of Vivekananda?
11. When was the conference of World Religions held at Chicago?
12. Who founded the Vedanta Samaja?
13. Who led the Theosophical Society in India?
14. Who started the Aligarh Movement?
II. Answer the following in two words or two sentences each:
1. Name the parents of Raja Rammohan Roy.
2. When and where was Brahmo Samaja established?
3. When and where was Dayananda Saraswati born?
4. Name the parents of Dayananda Saraswati.
5. When and where was Arya Samaja established?

6. When and where was Swami Vivekananda born?
7. When and where was Ramakrishana Mission established?
8. Name the news papers published by Swami Vivekananda.
9. Who established the Theosophical society ?
m. Answer the following in 15to 20 sentences each:
1. Describe the role of Raja Rammohan Roy in socio-religious
movement.
2. Write about the role of Dayananda Saraswati in socio-religious
movement.
3. Discuss the personality of Swami Vivekananda.
Chapter 7-Modem Period-7.5- Mysore -A Model State
CHAPTER 7.5
MYSORE - fi MODEL STATE
The administration of Mysore, which was restored to the Wodeyars
of Mysore in 1799 was brought under the direct rule of the British
after Nagar reolt in 1831. It was kept as an independent administrative
unit and Commissioners were appointed to look after the administration.
The direct rule of the commissioners from 1831 to 1881 laid the
foundation for Mysore to become a 'Model State'. During this period 7
Commissioners ruled. Prominent among them were Mark Cubbon and
Lewis Bentham Bowring.
Mark Cubbon 1834-1861
Mark Cubbon brought about many administrative reforms in the
State. He shifted the capital from Mysore to Bengaluru. Mysore State
was divided into administrative units, which were to be looked after
by Superintendents. The units were divided into Districts and Taluks.
Judiciary and the Police Departments were well organized. Kannada
was introduced as the official language.
New roads were constructed. As a result, all important towns in

the State were directly connected to Bengaluru. Bridges were constructed
and telegraphic lines were also laid. A railway line between Bengaluru
and Jolarpet was laid in 1859. This was the first railway line in
Mysore state. Tax collection was systematized, which helped in
increasing the annual income of the State. The coffee plantations were
also developed. He resigned from the commissioner's post in 1861.
Lewis Bentham Bowring 1862-1870
Bowring took charge in 1862 as the chief Commissioner of Mysore.
He reorganized the entire administration of Mysore state. Nandi Durg,
Nagara and Ashtagrama became the administrative units. Commissioners
were appointed to look after these units. Land revenue was reformed.
Judicial and Police departments were systematically organized.
Educational reforms were introduced with a Department of Public

Instruction. It was to be headed by a Director. Bowring resigned in
1870.
The Commissioners laid the foundation for the development of
Mysore state. The state was renditioned to Chamaraja Wodeyar X in
1881 who ruled till 1894. He was succeeded by Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV.
During the rule of these two kings Mysore was served by great Dewans.
Prominent among them were Sir M. Vishweshwaraiah and Sir Mirza
Ismail. They were instrumental in earning the title 'Model State' to
Mysore.
DEWANS
COMMISSIONERS
C. Rangacharlu - 1881-1883
Col. J Briggs - 1831-33
K. Sheshadri Iyer - 1883-1901
Col W. Marrison - 1833-34 P.N. Krishna Murthy - 1901-1906
Mark Cubbon - 1834-61 V.P.Madhavarao - 1906-1909
T. Anandrao - 1909-1912
Lewis Bentham Bowring - 1862-70 Sir.M. Vishveshwraiah - 1912-1918
Sir Richard Mead - 1870-75 Kanatharaje Urs - 1918-1922
Albian Banerjee - 1922-1926
C. B. Saunders - 1875-78 Sir Mirza Ismail - 1926-1941
James Gordon - 1878-81 N.Madhavarao - 1941-1946
Arcot Ramaswamy Maduliar- 1946-1949
Sir M. Vishweshwaraiah.
Sir M.Vishweshwaraiah, who
is considered the 'Architect and
Maker of Modern Mysore',
was born on 15th September
1861 at Muddenahalli in
Chikkaballapura district. His
parents were Srinivasa Shastri Krishnaraja Sir M. Vishweshwaraiah
Wodeyar IV
and Venkatalakshmma. After
completing his primary education at Chikkaballapura, he went to
Bengaluru for further studies. Later he got his B.A. degree from Central
College and moved to Pune for Engineering studies. He served Bombay
Chapter 7-Modem Period-7.5- Mysore -A Model State
Government from 1884 to 1909. He was appointed as the Chief Engineer

of Mysore in 1909. He was appointed as the Dewan of Mysore in 1912
by Nalwadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar. Mysore witnessed alround
development during his Dewanship.
Administrative Reforms:
The number of members of legislative council was increased from
18 to 24. The Local Board and Village Panchayat Regulation increased
the number of elected members to the Districts and Taluk Boards. Village
reform Committees were established for the progress of villages. A separate
plan for the development of Malnad Region was drawn up.
Industrial Development:
'Industrialize or perish' was the famous slogan of Sir
M.Vishweshwaraiah. A number of industries were started during his
time. Some of them were, the Iron Works in Bhadravati, the Sandal
Oil Factory at Mysore, the Soap Factory, Central Industrial Work Shop,
Chrome Tanning Factory and Metal Factory at Bengaluru. The Mysore
Chamber of Commerce and Industry was established at Bengaluru to
support trade and commerce. Small scale industries also developed during
his period. Cottage industries such as weaving, pottery, tiles, wood work,
mat making, leather goods, beedi and agarabatti industries flourished.
The Mysore Bank was founded in 1913 for the promotion of industries
and commerce.
Educational Reforms:
Sir M.Vishweshwaraiah believed that progress in every country
depends mainly on the education of its people. He introduced compulsory
primary education. Schlorships were introduced to encourage education
among the socially and economically backward classes. Female education
was also encouraged. Importance was given to technical education. The
Engineering College at Bengaluru and the Chamarajendra Technical
Institute at Mysore were started. An agricultural school was established
at Hebbal in Bengaluru. His greatest achievement in the field was the
establishment of the Mysore University in 1916. The Kannada Sahitya
Parishat was established in 1915.
His Other Achievements:
The greatest achievement of Sir M.Vishweshwaraiah was the
construction of the Krishna Raja Sagara Dam and Mandya District owes
its agricultural prosperity to him. In 1913 the Mysore-Arasikere and
Bowringpete-Kolar railway lines were laid.
Relief Works:
It was during Sir M.Vishweshwaraiah's Dewanship that the First
World War (1914-18) broke out. This led to severe shortage of foodstuff.
Sir M.Vishweshwaraiah took up relief works by opening fair price shops,
stopping export of food grains and fixing the selling prices.
Sir M.Vishweshwaraiah resigned in 1918. He was conferred the title
'Sir' by the British Government for his efficiency and dedicated service.
Even after his resignation, he continued to take active part in the
developmental activities of the State. The Government of India conferred
the 'Bharata Ratna' award in 1955. He was the first Kannadiga to get
this award. He lived for 101 years and died in 1962. He has authored
many books and they are 'A Vision of Prosperous Mysore', 'Reconstructing
India', 'Rapid Development of Industries', 'Planned Economy for India',
' Memoirs of My Working Life' ( An Autobiography), etc.
Sir Mirza Ismail:

Sir Mirza Ismail, who served as the
Dewan from 1926 to 1941, is also
considered one of the Makers of Modern
Mysore. He encouraged the development
of industries by establishing many
industries. Hindusthan Aeronautics Ltd,
the Glass Factory, Porcelain Factory at
Bengaluru, the Chemical Factory at
Belagola, Sugar Factory at Mandya, Match
Factory at Shivamogga and Steel and
Paper Factory at Bhadravati were started
by him. An airport was constructed at
Jakkur. Radio stations at Bengaluru and
Mysore were started.
He encouraged village industries. He
established a Khadi production centre at Sir Mirza Ismail

Badanavala. The Irwin canal was
constructed, which irrigated more than
Chapter 7-Modern Period-7.5- Mysore -A Model State
1,20,000 acres of land in Mandya District. He had a sense of beauty

and made Mysore a city of parks and gardens. Parks and gardens were
also laid in Bengaluru and other cities. The Brindavan garden at K.R.S.
was built.
It was during his period that the Silver Jubilee of the Maharaja's
rule was celebrated. To commemorate this event many hospitals, temples
and reading rooms were constructed. The NIMHANS (National Institute
of Mental Health and Nuero Surgery) at Bengaluru, the Narashimharaja
hospital at Kolar, Meggan hospital at Shivamogga and Vanivilasa
hospital at Mysore were started.
Government aid to private schools was provided to encourage

education by passing the Primary Education Act. Kannada medium
education was introduced in high schools. Thus Mirza Ismail played
an important role in the development of Mysore.
Activity
Make list of industries established by the Dewans of Mysore
QUESTIONS
I .Answer the following in a word or a sentence each

1. Who transferred the capital from Mysore to Bengaluru?
2. Name the first railway line laid in Mysore state.
3. Where was Vishweshwaraiah born?
4. In which year was Mysore University established?
5. Who founded the Kannada Sahitya Parishat?
6. Name the Bank established by Vishesharaiah.
7. What was the famous slogan of Vishweshwaraiah regarding
Industrial development?
8. Who was the first Kannadiga who secured Bharata Ratna award?
9. Who built the Krishnaraja Sagara Dam?
10. Name the founder of NIMHANS in Bengaluru.
11. Who built Brindavan Garden?
II. Answer the following in two words or two sentences each

1. Name two important commissioners of Mysore.
2. Write any two administrative reforms of Mark Cubbon.
3. Write any two administrative reforms of Bowring.
4. Name any two important Dewans of Mysore.
5. Name the parents of Vishweshwaraiah.
6. Mention any two books written by Vishweshwaraiah.
7. Name any two industries established by Mirza Ismail.
III. Answer the following in 15 to 20 senences
1. Sketch the role of Mirza Ismail in making Mysore- ' A Model
State'.
IV. Answer the following in 30 to 40 senences
1. Sir M. Vishweshwaraiah is called the 'Maker of Modern Mysore'
Explain.
Chapter 7-Modem Period-7.6- Indian National Movement
CHAPTER 7.6
INDlfiN NfiTIONfiL MOVEMENT
Background: India was subjected to many foreign invasions like
that of the Greeks, Sakas, Kushanas, Turks, Afghans, etc. All such
invaders gradually settled in India and adopted Indian culture and in
turn contributed to Indian culture. In contrast, the British never wished
to settle in India and make India their motherland. They followed
different policies and military strategies and gradually established
political supremacy over India. The Indians awoke from their slumber
and responded to the British occupation, which is called as the Indian
National Movement. The term 'Indian National Movement' includes in
it a wide range of political, social and religious movements. The
answer to the question as to when exactly did the Indian National
Movement begin is a matter of debate. It can be said that it began as
and when the British started to establish their empire in India, but in
a strict sense it started with the establishment of the Indian
National Congress.
Important Factors for the growth of Indian Nationalism

1. The British considered India to be only a colony which provided
cheap raw materials and market to their finished goods. The
economic policy destroyed the economic structure that existed and
the nation became poorer. The Indian village industries, petty trade
and peasantry suffered severely. Unemployment began to grow. The
economic backwardness of India was attributed to the British rule.
2. The British provided a uniform system of administration and judicial
system by establishing Political unity for a substantive period.
3. The Western system of education in English introduced by the British
broke the monopoly of the traditional educational systems practiced
in Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic by the Hindus and the Muslims.
The enlightened Indians began to compare their existing conditions
to that of Europe. For e.g. the politically disunited Indian conditions
were similar to the conditions that existed in Germany and Italy
before their Unifications. Their success against foreign dominance
and establishment of a united and independent Nation inspired

the Nationalists.
4. The British considered themselves to be racially superior to the
Indians. They discriminated and degraded the Indians. The British
often scolded the Indians as 'Kutthe' (dogs) and 'Suvvars' (Pigs). All
high offices in administration, judiciary and legislature were with
the British. The Queen's proclamation in 1858 promised to include
more Indians into the military and administration but the entry
of Indians into important offices was made difficult. The British were
more suspicious of the Indians after the First war of Indian
Independence. The Indian culture and heritage were looked down
upon by the British and they considered themselves as educators
of the uncivilized Indians and reformers of the socially and culturally
backward Indians.
5. The British waged a series of wars and followed reactionary policies
like Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse to establish political
supremacy over India. The rulers and officers who lost their power
and prestige and also the supporters of such regimes turned against
the British. The ill treatment of the allies by the British like the
ruler of Oudh further enraged the Indians.
6. The Indian Press and literature in the nineteenth and the beginning
of the twentieth centuries inspired nationalism among the Indians.
The plight of the people due to the impact of the administrative
policies and the lapses of the British government were published.
Many articles and poems inspiring nationalism were published both
in English and vernacular languages. Scholars like R.G. Bhandarkar,
R.L.Mitra, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Swami Vivekananda, MaxMuller,
Monier Williams, etc. conducted research and brought to light the
glorious cultural past of India. The cultural heritage of India filled
the nationalists with pride and self confidence. During this period,
the Europeans, including the British through various theories began
claiming descendency to the Aryans and stated that the Aryans
were the most civilized race of the ancient world. The fact that the
Aryans were the originators of the Indian culture further boosted
the pride of the Nationalists.
Some important Political associations established before 1885.

1. The Banga Basha Prakshika Sabha - 1836
2. The Zamindari Association (Land holders Society) by
Dwarakanath Tagore-1838.
3. The Bengal British India Society - 1843
4. The merger of Zamindari Association & Bengal British
India Society brought about the existence of the British
Indian Association in 1851.
5. TheEastindiaAssociation was started by DadabhaiNaoroji
in 1866.
6. Shishirkumar Ghosh established Indian League in 1875.
7. The Indian Association of Calcutta established by
S.N.Bane'ljee and Anand Mohan Bose in 1876.
8. The Poona Sarvqjanik Sabha established by M.G.Ranade
and others-1870s.
9. The Madras Mahajan Sabha was established by
ViraRaghavachari, Subhramanya Aiyyar and
Anandacharlu in 1884.
10. The Bombay Presidency Association established by
Badruddin Tyabji, Pheroz Shah Mehta and K.T.Telang
in 1885.
Establishment of the Indian National Congress 1885

The Political Organizations before the foundation of the Indian
National congress were working in different provinces and were less
effective. A British civil servant Allan Octavian Hume conceived a National
Union of all political leaders. He inspired the leaders to establish the
Indian National Union in 1884, subsequently the Indian National
Congress. The first session of the Indian National Congress was held
at Bombay on 27-12-1885. Womesh Chandra Banerjee, a famous
Barrister of Calcutta was elected as the President. 72 delegates from
different parts of India attended it and four of them were from
Karnataka.
Safety Valve Theory: Some Historians claim that Lord

Duiferin, the Viceroy of India conspired to establish the
Indian National congress. The theory says that he intended
to release the anger and tension that was building among
the Indians against the British regime by providing a
political platform. The theory has been rejected by most of
the modem Historians.
The objectives of the Indian National congress were

1. To encourage and consolidate the national unity.
2. To remove prejudices of Religion, Caste, Province, etc.
3. To promote intimacy and friendship among Indians.
4. To politically educate the Indian masses and formulate a Public
Opinion.
5. To pressurize the British to favorably enact upon the Public Opinion.
6. To include more Indians in the Councils and Civil Services.
Various Stages of Indian National Movement
I Stage (the period of the Moderates - 1885-1905):
From 1885 to 1905 the Indian National Congress was led by
Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, Anandacharlu,
Surendranath Banerjee, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, etc. They expressed
loyalty to the British and believed in the British benevolence. They
intended to pressurize the British Government through Prayers, Petitions
and Protests. They organized public meetings, submitted memorandums
to the British Government and sent delegations to London. Dadabhai
Naoroji, (popular as 'the Grand Old Man of India') established the East
India Association in 1866. This Association took up the Indian issues
at London and attempted to influence the British Public and British
Legislators to enact policies and laws favoring the Indians. All the
activities of the leaders were on a moderate approach and hence were
called 'Moderates' the period as the 'Period of the Moderates'. The
British were hostile towards the Congress since its establishment and they
developed a stern attitude towards the Moderates. They called the
Congress as a 'Factory of Sedition' and the leaders as 'Seditious Brahmins'
and 'Disloyal Babus'.
The first Stage though did not bring about any drastic change in
the political scenario it represented the progressive forces of the time
Chapter 7-Modern Period-7.6- Indian National Movement
coming together. It was a time of National awakening with a common

cause. The Moderates exposed the exploitative character of the colonial
rule and policies of the British. They were able to underline that the
duty of the government was to consider the interests of the Indians.
The establishment of the Indian National Congress and the ascendancy
of the Moderate leadership laid the foundation for the emergence of
India against the colonial rule of the British.
II Stage (the period of the Extremists- 1905-1920):

The period between 1905 and 1920 is known as the period of the
Extremists. The Extremists were radical and militant in their approach
in contrast to the Moderates. Hence they were called 'Extremists' or
'Radical Nationalists". They considered the British to be 'Foreign
Invaders', who were to be driven away by any means possible. The
important leaders of the extremists were Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin
Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai. The Trio were popular as Lal-Bal-
Pal.
Lala Lajpat Roy Bal Gangadhar Tilak Bipin Chandra Pal
Important causes for the rise of Extremism:

1. The Moderates failed to achieve any results through their
constitutional methods of - Prayers, Petitions and Protests. This
angered the Extremists and the Moderates themselves were
disillusioned by the British attitude. The approach of the
Moderates with a foreign invader was termed by the extremists as
'Political Mendicancy'.
2. The lethargy of the British Government in handling the famines

of 1896-98 and 1899-1901 resulted in the deaths of thousands of
Indians. This showed that the British were interested only in the
economic exploitation oflndia and not about the welfare of the
Indians. The Indian anger became evident with the murder of the
Plague Commissioner Mr. Rand. Bal Gangadhar Tilak was arrested
for the death of Mr. Rand. This further increased the radical
nationalism.
3. Viceroy Lord Curzon introduced many reactionary measures like

Calcutta Corporation Act (1899), Official Secrets Act (1904) and Indian
Universities Act (1904) . His actions curbed the Indians and increased
the dominance of the British. Curzon partitioned Bengal on 16 th
October 1905 into East Bengal (present Bangladesh) and West
Bengal. East Bengal was predominantly having Muslim Population
and West Bengal was populated by a majority of Hindus. The
intention of the British was to create a Hindu-Muslim divide on the
pretext of partition for better administration. The angry reactions of
the Indian population gave scope to extremism.
4. The efforts of leaders like Swami Vivekananda, Swami Dayananda
Saraswati., Aurobindo Gosh, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bankim Chandra
Chaterjee, etc. instilled confidence and self respect among the
Indians. Bal Gangadhar Tilak started the public celebration of
Ganesha festival and Shivaji Jayanthi, which encouraged the
nationalist sentiments.
5. International influence: The world events like the successful
independence and unification movements of Italy and Germany, the
defeat of mighty Russia by a tiny Japan in 1905 and the nationalist
movements in Egypt.Turkey, Persia and China influenced the Indian
thought. The Nationlists began to think that they too can unite
and drive away the British.
SOME IMPORTANT EVENTS

1. The Partition of Bengal (1905): The British followed the policy of
'divide and rule' and partitioned Bengal in 1905. They intended
to create a rift between the Hindus and Muslims. The People
staunchly opposed this and indulged in the anti-partition movement.
Boycott of foreign goods and 'Swadeshi' (to use only the Indian
goods) movements began as a protest. Finally the British were forced
to annul the partition of Bengal in 1911.
The Partition of Bengal was announced as early as

December 1903 but it came into effect by the Royal
Proclamation against public opinion on ] (3th October
1905. The anger against the division of Bengal on
religious lines transformed into a large scale anti-Partition
mass Movement. The mass movement manifested in wide
scale and violent protests, Swadeshi and Boycott
Movements, Boycott of schools, colleges, courts,
government offices, municipalities, etc. and people tying
'Rakhis' as a mark of unity, etc. Singing 'Vande Mataram'
written by Bankim Chandra Chate,jee became the order
of the day. The protests soon began to spread to other
parts of the country like Delhi, Poona, Bombay and Madras.
The Government imposed a ban on singing 'Vande
Mataram', but could not curtail it. The Government also
imposed strict disciplinary measures on students and
officials participating in Swadeshi and Boycott
movements by withdrawing scholarships, imposing fines,
arrests, beating, etc. The Anti-Partition Movement could
not be suppressed. Finally in the Delhi Durbar (held to
mark the
accession of King George VJ on 12th December 1911 the
annulment of the Partition of Bengal along with the release
of political prisoners was announced. The British Government
was so rattled by the militant response that the shifting of
the capital from Calcutta to Delhi was also announced in
the Delhi Durbar.
2. The Surat Split (1907): The Extremists and the Moderates

differed over issues like election of the President, setting goals and
passing resolutions of the Congress. There was a demand for an
extremist leader to be elected as the President of Congress session
of 1906. Finally both groups agreed to Dadabhai Naoroji for
Presidentship. But the extremists were successful in making
Dadabhai Naoroji to declare 'Swaraj' (Self Government) as the
goal of the Congress. The differences once again emerged at Surat
session in 1907. The Moderates wanted Rashbihari Gosh and the
Extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai to be the President. Both the
groups refused to compromise resulting in the split in the Indian
National Congress. This is popular as 'the Surat Split'. The British
undertook many repressive measures
and also introduced many Acts like Seditious Meetings Act (1907),
Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act (1908), Criminal
Law amendment Act (1908). Indian Press Act (1910). etc. to
suppress the Extremists. The Extremists and the moderates reunited in
the Lucknow Congress Session presided by A.C.Majumdar.
3. Revolutionary Activities: The repressive measures of the British
encouraged Revolutionary Activities. The Revolutionaries were radical
Nationalists who did not believe in passive resistance. They were
ready for any violent activity in order to drive away the British from
India. Many secret organizations sprang up and carried out murders,
bombings, looting of arsenal and treasury, etc. The revolutionaries
were able to create a commotion but most of them were imprisoned,
exiled, killed or hanged.
Some Revolutionary Activities:
1. The Chapekar brothers assassinated two unpopular
British officers - Plague commissioner Rand and Lt.
Ayerst in 1897 at Poona.
2. In 1908 Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki threw
a bomb on a carriage believing it to be occupied by
Kingsford, the Judge of Muza.ffarpur in which Jew
British were killed.
3. Pulin Das organized the Barrah dacoity in 1908.
4. Rasbihari Bose and Sachin Sanyal wounded Viceroy
Hardinge in a bomb attack at Delhi in 1912.
5. Madanlal Dingra assassinated Curzon Wyllie at
London in 1909.
Some Secret Organizations:
a. Anushilan Samiti - Promitha Mittar- Calcutta,
b. Yugantar, c. Abbinav Bharath - V.D. Savarkar-,
d. Mitra Mela - V.D. Savarkar
Revolutionary activities continued to occur even after
1920. Chandrashekar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru,
Sukhdev, Bagh Jatin etc are important revolutionaries.
V.D. Savarkar Chandrashekar Azad Bhagath Singh

4. Growth of Communalism: The All India Muslim League (AIML) was
established by Nawab Aga Khan, Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk and others
in 1906. It represented the wealthy Nawabs, Landlords and a section
of educated Muslims. The league owed its allegiance to the British
Raj, supported the Partition of Bengal and also demanded separate
electorate to the Muslims. The Punjab Hindu Sabha was founded
in 1909. The first session of the All India Hindu Maha Sabha was
held in 1915 under the Presidentship of the Maharaja ofKasimbazaar.
The Hindu Maha Sabha also like AIML was against the Indian National
Congress.
5. Morley-Minto Reforms - 1909: The Secretary of State was John
Morley and the Viceroy was Minto and hence it was named after
them. This Act increased the number of elected members to the
Imperial and Provincial Councils. But the number of elected members
in the Councils remained lesser than the non elected members and
officials of the councils. This also introduced separate electorates
to the Muslims. The number of seats so reserved was in excess
to the relative population of the Muslims. Only Muslims were to
vote to the reserved Muslim seats.
6. Home Rule League: The Home Rule league Movement was started
by Lokmanya Tilak and Mrs. Annie Besant in 1916. The League
spread the message of Home Rule to the common man through
public meetings, discussions, speeches, pamphlets, Newspapers,
plays, religious functions, etc. It was during this movement that
Tilak gave the popular slogan "Swaraj' (Home rule) is my birth right
and I shall have it". The movement became very popular. The British
hence arrested Annie Besant, but the popular agitations forced her
release.
7. Montague-Chelmsford reforms-1919: The reforms of 1919 introduced

bi-cameral legislatures (Diarchy). The Imperial Assembly (Lower
House) which consisted of 144 members was now to have 104
elected and
40 nominated members. Similarly the
Council of States (Upper House) was to have
34 elected and 26 nominated members.
The III Stage (Gandhian Era - 1920-

1947):
Mahatma Gandhi played a prominent role
in the third stage of the National Movement.
He included the farmers, workers and other
common people and provided a wider base. He
also politically educated the Indian masses and
introduced 'Satyagraha' as a tool to fight against
the mighty British Empire. He led the Movement
successfully and was the most prominent of
all the leaders. Hence this stage of the National
Movement is popular as 'Gandhian Era' Mahatma Gandhi
Satyagraha: The South African Government consisted of

minority 'Whites' who followed 'Apartheid policy'. They
followed repressive measures and curbed the majority
'Blacks'. The Indians who stayed in South Africa as petty
merchants and labourers were also subjected to
humiliation. Satyagraha or non-violent passive resistance
was the technique evolved by Mahatma Gandhi during his
stay in South Africa. According to Gandhilyi a person should
never bow down to evil or wrong, but fight it with truth and
non violence and be prepared for any consequences. This
would ultimately force a change in the perpetrator of the evil
or wrong doer. Gandhyi believed that Satyagraha could be
practiced by only the brave and fearless and not by the
weak or cowards.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi practiced Law in South Africa from

1893 to 1914. He evolved the technique of 'Satyagraha' to fight against
the repressive South African Government. He returned to India in 1915
and travelled widely and understood the living conditions of the people.
He then founded the Sabarmati Ashram in 1916 at Ahmadabad, where
Gandhiji and his followers practiced the ideals of truth and non-violence.
He was very soon involved in three struggles:
1) Champaran Satyagraha (1917). He fought for the peasants of

Champaran who were forced to grow Indigo on 3 /20 of the total
land (popular as Theenkathiya). They were subjected to high rents,
illegal dues and fixed prices by the European Planters. Gandhiji
organized the Peasant movement in Champaran (the first civil
disobedience Movement) and forced the British government to
abolish the Theenkathiya system and compensate the Indian
peasants.
2) Ahmadabad Mill Strike (1918) A dispute arose between the mill

owners of Ahmadabad and the labourers regarding wages and bonus.
Mahatma Gandhi undertook fast unto death (first hunger strike by
Gandhiji) and the mill owners agreed to increase the wages of the
labourers by 35 percent. The labourers withdrew the strike.
3) Kheda Satyagraha (1918). The farmers of Gujarat faced severe

drought in 1918. According to the Revenue rules the farmers were
entitled for remission whenever the yield was less than 1/ 4 of the
normal produce. The British officers refused remission of Revenue.
Gandhiji took up the leadership of the peasants and asked them
not to pay taxes (first non-cooperation movement) and face
consequences. The authorities were forced to become liberal and
collected revenues from only those who could afford to pay.
The above struggles brought Gandhiji in close contact with the
masses and the Peasants and workers began to accept his
leadership.
Jallianwalabagh Massacre (1919): The British Government

introduced the Rowlatt Act in 1919. This Act allowed the arrest of any
person by the Police without a Warrant and indefinite imprisonment
without a trial. This was opposed by Indians through agitations. Gandhiji
gave a call for a massive Hartal (Strike) on 6th April 1919. There was
a very enthusiastic response from various parts of India in the form
of Processions, Strikes, demonstrations and Rallies. The British
responded with lathi Charge and arrests. A protest was held at
Jalianwala Bagh
in Amritsar on 13th April 1919 against Rowlatt Act and the arrest of
leaders like Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satyapal. General Dyer the
commander of Amritsar surrounded the Bagh (Garden) with his troops
and ordered to shoot at the unarmed protestors, which included
women, children and the aged. The troops fired till their ammunition
exhausted. Thousands of people died and thousands were wounded.
The world was shocked at the British brutality. But General Dyer was
only recalled from India and was not subjected to any punishment. The
famous poet Rabindranath Tagore renounced the Knighthood in
protest.
Khilafat Movement: The Muslims all over the world were angry
with the British for the ill-treatment of the Caliph (considered as the
religious Head by the Muslims). The Ali brothers, Maulana Azad, Hakim
Ajmal Khan and others formed the All India Khilafat committee and
called for country wide agitation. The Indian National Congress extended
its full support to the Khilafat Movement. Bal Gangadhar Tilak and
Mahatma Gandhi considered this as a golden opportunity to cement
Hindu-Muslim friendship.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922): A special session of the

Congress was held at Calcutta in 1920. Bal Gangadhar Tilak had died
on 1st August 1919 and the responsibility of leading the Congress fell
on leaders like Gandhiji, C.R.Das and Motilal Nehru. Gandhiji's Plan
of launching a nationwide Non Cooperation Movement was accepted
by the session. The response of the people to the call was unprecedented.
Thousands of students boycotted government schools and colleges and
joined national institutions like Kashi Vidyapeetha, Jamiya Miliya
Islamiya, Gujarat Vidyapeetha, etc. Similarly the courts, offices and
legislatures were boycotted. Foreign goods were boycotted. It became
very popular and foreign goods were collected and burnt at public places.
This created awareness among people, who began, to use 'Swadeshi'.
Wearing Khadi became a symbol of national pride. Titles and honours
bestowed by the British Government were surrendered. The Movement
shook the foundations of the British Empire in India. Gandhiji who
laid utmost stress on Non Violence withdrew the Non Cooperation
Movement on 5th February 1922 due to the Chauri Chaura incident.
The mob in a procession was provoked by a few Policemen at Chauri
Chaura (U.P) resulting in the mob burning down the Police Station
along with 22 Policemen. Leaders like C.R.Das and Motilal Nehru were
unhappy about the withdrawal of the Non Cooperation Movement and
they wanted to end the boycott to the legislature and contest elections.
The Congress rejected to contest elections and hence C.R.Das and Motilal
Nehru founded the 'Swaraj Party' and contested elections. They opposed
the Government from within the legislature.
Simon Commission (1927): The British appointed Simon

Commission to console the agitating Indians and offered constitutional
reforms. The Congress called for the Boycott of Simon Commission as
none of the members were Indian. Simon Commission met a total
Boycott in India. 'Simon, Go back' became a popular slogan. Lala
Lajpat Rai died due to injuries suffered by the Police lathi charge during
agitation against the Commission.
The British challenged the Indians to provide an alternative proposal

acceptable to all political Parties. The All Parties Conference was held,
which took up the challenge and appointed a Committee under Motilal
Nehru. The committee submitted its draft in 1928, which is popular
as 'Nehru Report'. Differences arose in regard to the communal
representation between Parties like the Muslim League, the Hindu Maha
Sabha, and the Sikhs. Communalists became unhappy with Nehru Report.
Mohammed Ali Jinnah proposed amendments to the report popular
as 'Fourteen Demands'. The British ignored the Nehru Report. The
Congress session at Lahore in 1929 presided by Jawaharlal Nehru
declared 'Poorna Swaraj' (complete Independence) as the goal of the
Congress. It announced the celebration of 26th January 1930 as the
Independence Day and authorized Gandhiji to launch the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
Civil Disobedience Movement ( 1930-3 I): Gandhiji placed

l ldemands before the British and set 31st January 1930 to accept or
reject the demands. With no positive response by the British he launched
the Civil Disobedience Movement. The famous 'Salt March' or 'Dandi
March' of Gandhiji started with 78 members from Sabarmati Ashram
on 12th March and traversed 240 miles to conclude on 6th April 1930
at Dandi, by then the number of Satyagrahis had increased thousand
fold. Gandhiji broke the Salt law by picking up a handful of salt. This
encouraged the people and salt Satyagrahas were held at many places
in India. The other kinds

of activities were picketing
the Liquor and cloth
shops (selling foreign
Cloth), Boycott of
Schools, Colleges, Courts
and Government Offices.
The large scale
participation made the
British resort to large
scale arrests and
repression to suppress
the Movement.
The First Round

Table Conference (1930-
31): Muslim league,
Hindu Maha Sabha, Dandi March
liberals and the Princes
of various States attended it. The Conference could not achieve much
without the participation of the Indian National Congress. The British
unconditionally released Gandhiji and other members of the Congress
Working Committee from prison resulting in the signing of the Gandhi
Irwin Pact, also popular as the 'Delhi Pact' on 14 th February 1931. The
pact ensured the release of political prisoners, withdrawal of emergency
Ordinances, allow peaceful demonstrations, lenient treatment to the
government servants who had resigned during the Disobedience
Movement, etc. Gandhiji on behalf of the Congress withdrew the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
Second Round Table Conference (1931): Gandhiji attended the
Secand Round Table Conference at London as the sole representative
of the Congress. He claimed that the Congress alone was the
representative of India politically and no separate electorates or special
safeguards were to be provided to the Muslims. Similarly, he claimed the
untouchables to be Hindus, hence they were not to be treated as minority
and no special electorates to be provided to them. But the Prime Minister
of England Ramsay MacDonald announced separate electorates to the
Muslims and the untouchables, which is popular as the 'Communal
Award'. Mahatma Gandhi took special exception for untouchables being
considered different from Hindus and provided with special electorates.

This resulted in serious differences between Gandhiji and Dr.
B.R.Ambedkar. This was finally settled with the 'Poona Pact' being
signed between the two stalwarts in 1932.
Third Round Table Conference (1932): The third and the last
among the conferences, was held at London in 1932. But the Congress
and the Labour Party of England refused to participate in it. The
Conference hence failed. The only important result of the discussions of
the conference was passing of the Government of India Act 1935. The
Act provided for the establishment of an All India Federation and
Provincial Governments. The Provinces were given considerable
autonomy. Gandhiji launched a Movement with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to
eradicate Untouchability. He toured India including Karnataka in 1934 and
enlightened the people about the evil practice. He urged the people to
open the temples and public tanks and wells to the Harijans (Gandhiji
called the untouchables as 'Harijans').
1937 Elections: The Congress participated in the 1937 elections
to mainly project the complete rejection of the Act of 1935. It won
majority seats in the Elections and formed Ministries in 7 of the 11
Provinces, and formed coalition Ministries in two more Provinces. The
Congress, with all its limitations was able to introduce reforms like repeal
of laws giving emergency powers, withdrawing ban on various
organizations, stopping the CID from monitoring the politicians, restoring
lands confiscated during the Civil Disobedience Movement, removal of
Press restrictions, etc.
The II World War started in 1939 and the British made India a
participant in the war on the side of the Allies without consulting the
Indians. The Congress resigned all the Ministries in 1939 as a protest.
Gandhiji launched Individual Satyagraha against the British. The British
tried to enlist the Indian support by creating differences between the
Muslim League, the Princely States and the Congress. Muslim League
held its session at Lahore on 23 rd March 1940 and adopted the Pakistan
Resolution (P-Punjab, A-Afghanistan, K-Kashmir, S-Sindh and Tan
Baluchistan). In August 1940 Viceroy Linlithgow announced that India
would get Dominion Status, the expansion of the Executive Council
and establishment of Constituent Assembly after the war and requested
Indians to support the British to fight the war. This became famous
as the 'August Offer'.
Quit India Movement-1942: The German and Japanese advances

made the British send Stafford Cripps (popular as Cripps Mission) to
India to persuade the Indians to support the British War efforts. India
was offered with Dominion Status and an Interim Government of Indians
to administer on all matters except Defense. The proposal would come
into effect after the war, but Indians were to extend their support to
the British immediately. The Congress and the Muslim League rejected
the Cripps Proposal. Mahatma Gandhi called it as "a post dated cheque
of a drowning Bank".
The All India Congress Committee (AICC) met on 8th August 1942
at Bombay and adopted the Quit India Resolution and asked Gandhiji
to lead the Movement. Gandhiji gave the famous slogan 'do or die'.
Jinnah, the leader of the Muslim League asked the Muslims not to
participate in the movement. The government immediately (9 th August)
swung into action and arrested all prominent Congress leaders including
Gandhiji and banned the Congress. The people without any leaders
to guide acted as they wanted. Strikes, processions, hoisting tri-colour
Flag at public places and buildings, picketing, cutting telegraph and
telephone lines, burning revenue records, sabotaging railway lines and
bridges, attacking Railway Stations, Police Stations, Post Offices, etc
were undertaken. The movement also turned violent at many places.
Lathi charge, tear gassing, mass flogging, imposition of heavy fines did
not deter the mass participation and the jails were very soon full of
political prisoners. More than 10,000 people died in police and military
firing. Finally the British were able to
suppress the movement.
However the National Movement was

continued in a different way by
Subashchandra Bose, popular as
'Netaji'. He believed that only protests
and strikes would not bring freedom.
He was kept under house arrest during
the movement. He escaped from
Calcutta and reached Germany and
made efforts to secure the help of
Mussolini and Hitler. He reached
Japan
in a German submarine. He recruited Netaji Subashchandra Bose
many Indians, who resided in South East Asia. The Indian National
Army (INA) was formed with the help of Rashbihari Bose. The Indian
soldiers of the British army who surrendered to the Japanese during
the war joined the INA. The INA also had a women's wing with Captain
Lakshmi as the leader. The INA with the support of Japan captured
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and hoisted the tricolour flag in 1943.
They entered the Indian subcontinent and captured 10,000 square miles
of North-East India including Kohima and Imphal by 1944. But Japan
lost the war and withdrew from Burma region in 1945 and INA suffered
a setback. At this juncture Subashchandra Bose died in an air crash.
The British captured the soldiers of the INA and put them to trail for
treason. This is famous as 'INA trials'. The first trial was held in the
Red Fort at Delhi.
Independence and Partition:

After the Second World War the Labour Party came to power in
England and Clement Atlee became the Prime Minister. He deputed
a commission to India in 1946, which became famous as 'Cabinet
Mission'. The Cabinet Mission held discussions and rejected the creation
of Pakistan. It proposed a federal government for the whole of India
and formation of a Constituent Assembly through elections, which would
draft a constitution and form an Interim government. The Muslim League
rejected it and Jinnah called for 'Direct Action Day'. 'Lekar Rahenge
Pakistan' was the slogan of the League. This resulted in communal
violence at many places, bloodshed and killings. A Constituent
Assembly was constituted under the Chairmanship of Babu Rajendra
Prasad on 9th December 1946. Lord Mount Batten became the Viceroy
of India and he held talks with the Congress and the Muslim League. The
'Mount Batten Plan' was announced by Prime Minister Atlee in the
House of Commons on 2nd June 1947 hence it is also called as 'June
Plan'. It was introduced in the British Parliament on 5th July and
ratified on 18th July as 'Independence to India Act 1947'. The British
Indian Possessions were divided into India and Pakistan. Radcliffe line
demarcated the boundaries between the two. Pakistan became
Independent on 14th August and India on 15th August 1947. Jawaharlal
Nehru became the First Prime Minister and Mount Batten was made
the Governor General. Hence Mount Batten was the last Viceroy and
Governor General of British India and the First Governor General of
INDIA AFTER PARTITION
Bay of
Bengal
•:·
Arabian f"
:·
Sea t;:,--
.,.-o?/
., .- ;:-
Indian OceanD
N D Independent Indian Territory with Delhi as its capital
*
1.
.
2. CJ Western Pakistan with Islamabad as its capital
W .E 3. 1W Eastern Pakistan which is present Bangladesh with
Dhaka as its capital
independent India. Vallababhai Patel became the Deputy Prime Minister.

He was instrumental in reorganizing the princely Indian States into
the Indian Federation. He was called 'Sardar', and 'Iron Man of India'.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of
the Indian Constitution. The Constitution was brought into effect on
26th January 1950 and India became a Republic.
Role of Karnataka:
Karnataka played an active role in the National Movement. The
opposition to the British in Karnataka by Hyder Ali and Tippu Sultan
was started as early as the 18th century. This was followed by many
more instances and some of the important are Revolts of Dhondia Wagha
(1800), Queen Channamma of Kittur (1824), Sangolli Rayanna (1830),
Halagali Bedas (1857), etc.
But serious struggle started with the establishment oflndian National

Congress. Four representatives of Karnataka region participated in the
Inaugural Congress Session at Bombay. The Bombay Pradesh Congress
held its two sessions in Karnataka - 1) at Belgaum - Dinsha Wacha
was the President and 2) at Dharwad- Pherozshah Mehta was the
President. Tilak's Newspapers 'Kesari' and 'Maratha' incited nationalistic
feelings. Tilak also widely travelled and visited Sankeshwar, Belgaum,
Dharwad, Hubli, Sirsi, Siddapura, Mangaluru, Bellary, etc and gathered
support for the Home Rule Movement. Alur Venkatrao, Annacharya,
Hosakeri, Srinivasrao Kaujalgi, Govindarao Yalagi, etc led the Nationalistic
activities. A Branch of the Home Rule League was established at
Dharwad in 1916. The 'Ganeshotsava' and 'Shivaji Jayanthi' celebrations
initiated by Tilak became very popular in North Karnataka.
The First Karnataka Pradesh Congress Committee (KPCC) Session

was held in 1920 at Dharwad. Gangadharrao Deshpande was the
President of the Session. He was popular as ' Karnataka Kesari'. Very
soon Pradesh Congress Committees were established at Bengaluru,
Mysore, Tumkur and Kaduru. Sarojini Naidu was the president for the
Pradesh Congress Session at Mangaluru in 1922, C.Rajagopalachari
was the President for the 1923 Bijapur Session and Srinivas Iyengar
was the President for the 1926 Bellary Session.
Karnataka was greatly influenced by Gandhiji. His visit to Bengaluru

along with Shaukat Ali and Mohammad greatly influenced the
National Movement in Karnataka. Leaders like Dattopant Majali,
Krishnarao, Hanumantrao Kaujalgi, Karnad Sadashivarao, Kaka
Kalekar, N.S.Hardikar, R.R.Diwakar, etc led the Non Cooperation
Movement in Karnataka. Boycotting Schools, Colleges and Courts,
Picketing, Strikes, demonstrations, burning of foreign goods, etc were
held at most places in Karnataka. The people actively participated in the
'Dhwaja Satyagraha' defying the orders of the government.
N.S.Hardikar established the Hindustan Seva Dal at Hubli in 1924 to
intensify the struggle in Karnataka. Gandhiji was the President of
the Congress Session held at Belgavi in 1924. It was the only
session of the Congress presided by Gandhiji. Hardikar Manjappa,
famous as Gandhi of Karnataka along with Vallababhai Patel,
Rajagopalachari, Jawaharlal Nehru, etc participated in it. Gandhiji
called for prohibition of alchohol and removal ofuntouchability. Gangubai
Hangal sang 'Vande Mataram' in this Session. After the Belgavi session
Gandhi travelled to Bengaluru, Mandya, Shivamogga, Hassan,
Chikmagaluru, etc. and encouraged the nationalistic activities. Karnataka
actively participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Mylara
Mahadevappa of Karnataka was one among the 78 members, who
started the March from Sabarmati Ashram along with Gandhiji during
the Salt Satyagraha. The Salt Satyagraha was organized by leaders like
Ambli, Diwakar, Sadashivrao, Hanumantrao, Gangadharrao Deshpande,
etc. The organization was completely successful in preparing salt at
Ankola on the very day Gandhiji did it at Dandi. About 40,000 people
prepared salt for 45 days continuously, defying the prohibition by the
British. The Salt Satyagraha of Ankola was repeated at Mangaluru, Kapu,
Udupi, Kundapura, Mudubidare, Malpe, Putturu, etc.
A Congress Session was organized at Shivapura (Mandya Dist.) by

the Mysore Pradesh Congress Committee in 1938. The committee
decided to undertake the Flag Satyagraha and appointed T.
Siddalingaiah as the President of this Session. The British arrested many
leaders and prohibited the people from participating. But people defied
the Prohibition and more than 25,000 people participated and hoisted
the tricolour Flag. In the same year a procession was organized at
Vidurashwatha (Chikkaballapura Dist.) and the tricolour flag was
hoisted. The Police Lathi charged and fired at the congregation, Killing
32 people. This incident is popular as 'Jalianwala Bagh of
Karnataka'.
The Quit India Movement resulted in anti British activities all over
Karnataka as it manifested in different parts of India. But the noteworthy
event was the Isur tragedy. Isur, a small village in Shivamogga declared
Independence from the British rule. "Esuru Kottaru, Isuru Kodevu".
(How many ever Villages be given, Isuru will not be let) was the famous
slogan of the villagers. The villagers snatched away revenue records from
the Patel and Shanbhog and paraded them all over the village. They
hoisted the tricolour flag on the Veerabhadreshwara temple. The Police
responded with severe lathi charge and firing. The villagers killed the
Tahashildar and a police officer. Many people were arrested by the
British and put in Bengaluru Central Jail. Five among them-Gurappa,
Mallappa, Halappa, Shankarappa and Suryanaarayanachari were given
death penalty. The Indian National Movement ended with the
Independence of India in 1947 and Mysore acceded to the Indian
Union.
The Mysore Congress headed by K.C.Reddy organized the 'Mysore

Chalo' movement to pressurize the Maharaja of Mysore to provide a
'Responsible Government' of elected Representatives. Many leaders
were arrested and curfew was imposed in Mysore. People defied the
prohibition and assembled before the Mysore Palace and agitated for
42 days. Finally the Maharaja agreed to the demand of forming a
Responsible Government. This incident is popular as the 'Palace
Satyagraha'. K.C. Reddy became the First Chief Minister and the Maharaja
Jaya Chamarajendra Wodeyar became the First Raj Pramukh of the
Mysore State (Old).
Activities
(1) Make a list of movements started by Mahatma Gandhi.
(2) Collect iriformation about the role of Ramanandathirtha in
Hyderabad Karnataka during National Movement.
QUESTIONS

1. Who presided over first session of the Indian National Congress?
2. Why was Bengal partitioned in 1905?
3. Which Satyagraha of Gandhiji forced the British to abolish
Theenkathiya system?
4. Which incident made Gandhiji to withdraw the Non-co-operation

Movement?
5. Which was the popular slogan during the visit of Simon
commission to India?
6. In which year was Poorna Swaraj declared by the Indian National
Congress?
7. Which round table conference did Gandiji attend?
8. When was the 'Poona Pact' signed?
9. Who was famous as Netaji?
10. Expand - INA.
11. Where were the INA trails held?
12. Who gave the call for 'Direct Action Day'?
13. Who is popular as the 'Iron Man of India'?
14. Where was the branch of Home rule League established in
Karnataka?
15. Expand - KPCC.
16. Who was famous as 'Karnataka Kesari'?
17. What was the popular slogan of Isur?
1. When was the first session of the Indian National Congress held
and Where?
2. Mention any two objectives of Indian National congress.
3. Name any two Moderate leaders.
4. Name any two Extremist leaders.
5. Who partitioned Bengal and when?
6. Who started the Home Rule League Movement?
7. Who was responsible for the massacre at Jallianwala bagh?
When did it occur?
8. Name any two leaders of Khilafat Movement.
9. Who founded the Swaraj party?
10. Which congress session declared 'Poorna Swaraj' as its aim?
When was it held?
11. From where did Gandhiji start the 'Salt March' and where did
it culminate?
12. Who signed the Poona pact?
13. Where was the first session of the Karnataka pradesh congress
committee held and when?
14. Where was the only congress session presided by Gandhiji held
and when?
1. What were the important factors that ledto the growth of Indian
Nationalism?
2. Discuss briefly the causes for the rise of Extremism.
3. Explain the role of Karnatka in the Indian National Movement.
1. Trace the Indian National Movement from 1885 to 1920.
2. Discuss the role of Gandhiji in Indian National Movement.
CHAPTER 7.7
Unification of Karnataka
The Independence to India Act of 194 7 provided the formation
of India and Pakistan. 562 Princely States were given the option of
either joining India or Pakistan or could remain Independent. The then
Home Minister Sardar Vallababhai Patel persuaded the Princely States,
which wanted to remain Independent, to join the Indian Union. Indian
Government paid a fixed sum of amount, known as 'Privy Purse' to
the rulers, who signed the 'Instrument of Accession' and also allowed
them to maintain certain privileges and titles. The rulers of Hyderabad,
Kashmir and Junagad refused to join the Indian Union. The Nawab
of Junagad was attempting to join Pakistan and the people revolted
against him resulting in the Nawab fleeing to Pakistan. Sardar Patel
merged the Junagad State with Indian Union. Harisingh, the Raja of
Kashmir delayed his decision to accede to Indian Union providing a
chance to Pakistan to send invaders to capture Kashmir. The Indian
army drove back the invaders. Shaikh Abdullah, the leader of Jammu
and Kashmir National Conference agreed to join the Indian Union.
Pakistan since then has many times attempted to capture Kashmir and
some parts of Kashmir are occupied by it. It now has resorted to send
terrorists into India to wrest Kashmir from India. Hyderabad was merged
with India after India resorting to Police action. This became necessary
due to Nizam's oppression of the people of Hyderabad.
Reorganization of States:
After the merger of Hyderabad, the ruling Congress Government
agreed to create Andhra Pradesh which would be bringing together all
Telugu speaking people. Potti Sriramulu started a fast unto death
demanding the creation of Andhra Pradesh and died on the 58th day
of his fast in 1952. This created a lot of unrest. This unrest spread
to many other provinces, who wanted unification of provinces on the
basis of linguistic and cultural unity.
Chapter 7-Modern Priod-7.7- Unification ofKarnataka
The Kannada speaking regions also wanted unification. But the

regions were under-Madras and Bombay Presidencies and the rest under
the Princely States of Mysore, Hyderabad, Sangli, Miraj, Jamkhandi,
Sandur, Savnur, Mudhol, Akkalkot, Jatt, Ramdurg, etc.
Important factors responsible in bringing Unity:

1. The newspapers like Samyukta Karnataka, Vishala Karnataka,
Karnataka Vrutha, etc,
2. Alur Venkata Rao wrote the famous
book 'Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava'
and similar books.
3. Institutions like the Kamataka Vidya
Vardhaka Sangha, Kannada Sahitya
Parishad, etc.
4. Poets wrote poems like-
o Huilgol Narayanrao- "Udayavagali
namma cheluva Kannada Nadu"
o Shantakavi- "Rakshisu Karnataka
devi"
o Kuvempu- "Jaya Bharatha Alur Venkata Rao
Jananiya Tanujathe"
o B.M.Shree- "Yerisu Harisu Kannadada Bavuta", etc.
o Mangesh Pai - "Taye Bare Mogava thore Kannadigara Matheye".
5. Karnataka Pradesh Congress Committee, Karnataka Sabha, etc. took

up the cause of Unification. Karnataka Sabha later became 'Karnataka
Ekeekarana Samiti'. The first President was Siddappa Kambli.
6. Gandhiji also accepted the formation of linguistic States during the
Belgaum Congress Session in 1924.
7. The Nehru Committee recommended the unification of Karnataka
in 1928.
8. The efforts of many leaders like- Alur Venkatrao, Siddappa Kambli,
Gudleppa Hallikeri, R.H. Deshpande, Goruru Ramaswamy Iyengar,
Srinivasrao Mangalavede, Kengal Hanumanthiah, S. Nijalinappa,
Andanappa Doddameti, etc.
UNIFIED KARNATAKA STATE AS IN 1956

9 Districts of Old Mysuru State
Independent Kodagu State

•* * 2 Districts & Kollegala Taluk from
***** *
Madras Province
1
- *..
4 Districts from Bombay Province
3 Districts from Hyderabad
Province
ANOHRA
PRADESH 1) Bengaluru
2) Kotara
3) Tumakuru
4) Chitradurga
5) Shivamogga
Arabian 6) Chikkamagaluru
Sea 7) Hassana
8) Mandya
9) Mysuru
10) Kodagu
11) Dakshina Kannada
12) Ballary
13) Uttara Kannada
14) Dharawada
15) Belagavi
16) Vijayapura
17) Rayachuru
18) Kalaburagi
*
. 19) Bidar
W
.
E
Chapter 7-Modem Priod-7.7- Unification ofKamataka
The Central Government appointed the Dhar Committee in 1948

to look into the question of the Re-organization of States. The Committee
discouraged the formation of Linguistic States and opined that it was
detrimental to the National Integration. The people were discontented
and agitations continued. The JVP Committee (Jawaharlal Nehru,
Vallababhai Patel and Pattabi Sitharamiah) was formed in 1949. The
Committee agreed to the formation of Andhra but refused to the formation
of Karnataka. Andanappa Doddameti, a senior Congress leader resigned
to the Bombay Assembly and started a fast demanding the Unification
of Kannada speaking regions. Finally the States Reorganization
Committee was formed in 1953. It consisted of Fazl Ali as the
Chairman and H.N.Kunjru and K.M.Panikkar were its members. Hence
it was also called Fazl Ali Committee. It submitted its report in 1955.
The Committee's recommendations were implemented onpt November
1956 bringing the Re-organized Mysore State into existence. It was
called the New Mysore State.
The old Mysore State, Raichur, Bidar and Gulburga districts from
erstwhile Hyderabad, Belgaum, Dharwad, Bijapur, and Uttara Kannada
districts from Bombay Presidency, Bellary, Dakshina Kannada and
Kollegala from Madras and Kodagu together constituted the New United
Mysore State onpt November 1956. It consisted 19 districts. S.
Nijalingappa was the First Chief Minister of the Unified Mysore State.
This was renamed as 'Karnataka' on 1st November 1973. The Chief
Minister then was Devaraja Urs.
S. Nijalingappa D. Devaraj Urs

Activities
(1) Make a list of Different places of Kannada speaking
people under different administrations other than the old
Mysore state
(2) Mark the present districts of Kamataka on outline map of
Karnataka.
QUESTIONS

1. Who persuaded the Princely States to join the Indian Union?
2. Which was the famous work of Alur Venkata Rao?
3. Who was the chairman of the States Reorganisation Committee?
4. Name the First Chief Minister of Mysore after the unification.
1. Name any two important leadrs of the Unification of Karnataka.
2. Mention any two Committees formed for reorganization of States.
3. Name any two members of the JVP committee.
1. Trace the factors responsible for creating unity among
Kannadigas during the unification of Karnataka.
2. Briefly discuss the Unification Movement of Karnataka.
Chapter 8-Map Work
CttfiPTEit - 8
MfiP WORK
Places of Historical Importance

1) Harappa 1 l)Hampi
2) Takshashila 12)Bidar
3) Pataliputra 13) Bijapura
4) Badami 14) Calcutta
5) Kanchi 15) Bombay
6) Halebeedu 16) Pondicherry
7) Delhi 17) Srirangapattana
8) Devagiri 18) Meerut
9) Panipat 19) J allian Walabagh
10) Agra 20) Dandi
Instruction:
1) Out of the given 20 places any eight will be asked of which students
have to mark five places on the outline map of India. Five marks
will be awarded for marking the places correctly and other Five
Marks for writing the historical importance of each marked places in
two sentences.
2) The students should write the importance of the place as explained
in this book
3) An alternative essay type question carrying Ten marks will be asked
for visually challenged students.
1. Harappa: It is one of the important sites of Indus civilization. It is
on the banks of the river Ravi. It is now in Montegomary district
of Western Punjab in Pakistan. Dayaram Sahani excavated this site
in 1921. The great granary is an important building found here.
PLACES OF HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE
paO'
• •
• D elhi
eAgra
Bay of
Arabian Bengal
Sea
Indian Ocean
s
Chapter 8-Map Work
2. Takshashila: It is in Pakistan. It was the capital of the Gandhara

province. Takshashila University was an important educational centre
in Ancient India. Kautilya was a teacher in this university.
3. Pataliputra: It is presently called as Patna, the capital of Bihar state
which is on the banks of the river Ganges. Pataliputra was the capital
of the Magadha empire ,the Mauryas and the Guptas.
4. Badami: It is in Bagalkote district. The early name of Badami was
Vatapi and it was the capital of Chalukyas. It is famous for rock
cut cave temples.
5. Kanchi: (Kanchipuram). It is near Madras in TamilNadu. It was
the capital of the Pallavas. The city is famous for many Shaiva
and Vaishnava temples. The world famous Kamakshi temple is found
here.
6. Halebeedu: It is in Hassan District. Its early name was Dorasamudra
and it was the capital of the Hoysalas. The Hoysaleshwara and
Shantaleshwara temples are found here.
7. Delhi: It is situated on the banks of river J amuna. It was the capital
of Delhi Sultanate and also the Mughals for some time. Many
monuments like Qutub Minar, Red Fort, Jami Maszid, etc are found
here.
8. Devagiri: It is in Maharastra. Alla-Ud-din-Khilji led expeditions on
this city. Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq built a new city called Daulatabad
near Devagiri and shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri for a
brief period.
9. Panipat: It is in Hariyana State. It was a great battle field in
the history of India where three great battles were fought.
10. Agra: It is on the banks of river Jamuna in Uttarpradesh. It was
founded by Sikandar Lodhi. It became the capital of the Mughals.
Taj Mahal is the most famous monument of Agra.
11. Hampi: It is situated on the banks of river Tungabhadra in Bellary
District. It was the capital of the Vijayanagar Empire. Virupaksha
temple, Vijayavittalaswamy temple, Stone chariot, etc. are the
magnificient monuments at Hampi.

12. Bidar: It is in the northern part of Karnataka. It was the capital
city of Bahamani Kingdom. Here Mohammad Gawan built a Madarasa.
13. Bijapura: (Present Vijayapura) It is in the northern part ofKarnataka.
It was the capital of Adil Shahis. Monuments like Golgumbaz,
Ibrahim Rauza, AsarMahal, Barakaman, etc are found here.
14. Calcutta: It is the capital of west Bengal, situtated on the banks
of river Hoogli. Calcutta was the first capital of the British India.
Swami Vivekanada established Ramakrishna Mission at Belur near
Calcutta.
15. Bombay: It is the capital of Maharashtra. It was the main settlement
of the British on the west coast of India. The first session of the
Indian National Congress was held here.
16. Pondicherry: It is to the South of Madras on the Coramandal coast.
It was the capital of the French in India.
17. Srirangapattana: It is in Mandya district. It was the capital of the
Early Wodeyars of Mysore , Hyder Ali and Tippusultan. Dariya
Daulat Palace and Sriranganatha Temple are the famous monuments
found here.
18. Meerut: It is in Uttarpradesh and is near Delhi. It was an important
centre of First war of Indian Independence.
19. Jalian Walabagh: It is at Amritsar in Punjab. Here General Dyer
massacred the unarmed people who were protesting the Rowlatt
Act in 1919.
20. Dandi: It is in the West coast of Gujarat. Mahatma Gandhi began
Salt Satyagraha Movement at this place.
Activity
Mark on the outline map of India any other 20 places of
Historical importance which are not prescribed in the text
book and collect information about their Historical importance.
Chapter 8-Map Work
QUESTIONS:
1) Mark any Five of the following Historical places on the outline

map of India, and add an explanatory note on each marked
place in Two sentences: 5+5=10
a) Harappa b) Pataliputra c) Panipat d)Calcutta e)Badami
f) Hampi g) Pondicherry h)Kanchi
2) Mark any five of the following Historical Places on the outline

map of India. And add an explanatory note
on each marked place in two sentences: 5+5=10
a) Takshashila (b) Delhi (c) Devagiri

(d) Jallian Walababh (e) Dandi (f) Bidar
(g) Srirangapatna (h) Bombay
3) Mark any Five of the following Historical places on

the outline Map of India, and add an explanatory
note on each marked place in two sentences: 5+5=10
[a) Agra (b) Pataliputra (c) Meerut (d) Bijapur
(e) Halebeedu (f) Harappa
(g) Jallian wallabagh (h)Calcutta.
BLUE PRINT AND MODEL QUESTION PAPERS
INSTRUCTIONS
1 . Blue prints given in the text book are only mod
els and paper setters should prepare their own
Blue Prints for every question paper they set.
2. No questions should be asked from the box in

formation. Questions should not be beyond the
content of the Text Book.
3 Date and year based questions should not be

asked for Match the following.
4. Questions of chronological order should be

based only on important events.
BLUE PRIN'lj-1
Il PUC MODEL QUESTION PARER-1 to
2"
Total Teaching hours: 120 (1)
"CJ
TOTAL No. OF QUESTIONS: 37
s
"i
rt
SUBJECT CODE: 21 Q.P.TOTALMARKS: 160 [/J
§
·0.
TIME: 3-15 HOURS INDIAN HISTORY MAX.MARKS: l 00
th Special Reference to KarnatakaJ 0
Knowledize Understandine: A'D'Dlication Skill Total Marks 0.
.
Chapters VSA/SA BDA VSA/SA BDA/ ET BDA I ETA SA/BDA ETA
lM 2M 5M Map lOM Total
(1 )
. .. .
1/2 5 1/2 5/10 5 10 2/5 10 c.
1 12 5 1 2 5 08 (1)
2 12 1 2 03 o:
[/J
rt-
3 5* 5 05/00 5·
1111111 "O
4 2 2 2*2 2 5 5 10* 10* 6 10 10 20 47/25 .§
(1)
5 1 1 1 10* 5 10 3 2 5 20 30/20
"i
[/J
2
l l
6
2
5 2 2 5 09
1111111 5 5*
7 2 2 2* 10 10* 7 6 10 20 42/25
8 16 16 16/ 10
Q,P, Total 44 60 40 16 20 24 40 16 60 160
Max.Marks 40 30 20 10 20 20 30 10 20 100
KNOWLEDGE VERY SHORT

1 EASY 40% BASED 40:>/o ANSWER 1 Marks
UNDERSTANDING SHORT ANSWER 2Marks
2 AVERAGE 40% BASED 300/o BRIEF DISCRIPrrvE 5 Marks
ANSWER
DIFFICUL1 20% APPLICATION
3 BASED 200/o ESSAY TYPE 10 Marks
SKILL BASED 100/o MAP 10 Marks
II POC MODEL QUESTION PfiPER - 1

Sub. Code: 21 INDIAN HISTORY Total Questions: 37
[With Special Reference to Kamataka]
Time: 3:15 Hours Max.Marks: 100
Note: (i) Write SL Nos. of questions correctly.
(ii) Visually challenged students need to answer question No.
31 'B' instead of Map Question No. 31 'A' in Part-D.
(iii) Answer the questions according to the instructions given for
the questions.
PART - A
I. Answer the following questions in one word or one sentence
each: 10x1=10
1. From which language is the word 'India' derived?
2. Name the stone used by Paleolithic man.
3. What is meant by 'Veda'?
4. Which was the original home of the Kushanas?
5. Which inscription tells about the Chola Village Administration?
6. What was the title of Shivaji?
7. Name the Philosophy of Madhvacharya.
8. When was the 'British East India Company' established?
9. Exapand - INA
10. Which was the famous work of Alur Venkata Rao?
PART - B
II. Answer any TEN of the following questions in 2 words or
2 sentences each: 10x2=20
11. Name any two universities of ancient India.
12. What is the meaning of the word 'Neolithic'?
13. Which two political institutions assisted the King in the
administration during the Vedic period?
14. Name any two architectural centres of Satavahanas.
15. Mention any two titles of Rajendra Chola I.
16. Name any two works of Pampa.
Blue prints and Model Question Papers
17. Mention any two titles of Vikramaditya VI.

18. Who was Mahmud Gawan and where did he build the Madarasa?
19. Who founded Anubhava Mantapa and where?
20. Mention any two terms of the treaty of Srirangapattana.
21. What was the opinion of Macaulay regarding the Eastern
Literature?
22. When and where was Swami Vivekananda born?
PART - C
III. Answer any SIX of the following questions in 15 to 20
sentences each: 6x5=30
23. 'Unity in Diversity is the unique feature oflndian History'. Explain.
24. Explain the town planning of Indus Civilization.
25. Write about the achievements of Chandragupta Maurya.
26. Describe the achievements of Harshavardhana.
27. Why is Mohammad bin Tughlaq called as "a mixture of opposites"?
28. Expalin the life and teachings of Shankaracharya.
29. What were the causes and results of the battle of Plassey?
30. Write a note on the course of the First War oflndian Independence.
PART - D
IV. Answer the following questions as Indicated:
31. (A) Mark any Five of the following Historical Places on the outline
map of India provided to you and add an explanatory note on
each marked place in two sentences: 5+5=10
a) Takshashila b) Pataliputra c) Halebeedu d) Devagiri
e) Bijapura f) Pondicherry g) Meerut h) Dandi
FOR VISUALLY CHALLENGED STUDENTS ONLY

31. (B) Answer the following question in 30 to 40 sentences: lx10=10
Describe the Religion, Literature and Art and Architecture of
the Vijayanagara Period.
OR
Trace the Indian National Movement from 1885 To 1920.
PART - E
V. Answer any TWO of the following questions in 30 to 40
32. Sketch the life and teachings of Buddha.
33. Why is Gupta age called "The Golden Age" in the Indian History?
34. Describe the achievements of Akbar.
35. Sir M. Vishweshwaraiah is called the 'Maker of Modern Mysore'.
Explain.
PART - F
VI. 36. Match the following: 5x 1=5
1) Kujala Kadphisis - Kailasanatha temple
2) Krishna I - Navakoti Narayana
3) Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar - Kushana ruler
4) Ramanujacharya - Aligarh Movement
5) Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan - Head of Srirangam mutt
37. Arrange the following in Chronological order: 5x1=5
a) Introduction of Subsidiary Alliance.
b) Coming of Aryans to India.
c) Unification of Karnataka.
d) Shivaji's Coronation.
e) Wood's Despatch.
!BLUE PRINjj-2
to
II PUC MODEL QUESTION PARER-2 2'
('I)
ti
Total Teaching hours: 120
: :
TOTAL No. OF QUESTIONS: 37 gi.
SUBJECT CODE: 21 Q.P.TOTAL MARKS: 160 _
[JJ
TIME: 3-15 HOURS INDIAN HISTORY MAX.MARKS: 100 0.
s;:
-
[With Special Reference to Karnataka] 0
Knowledlfe Understand.in!! Annlication Skill Total Marks 0.
('I)
Chapters VSA/SA BDA VSA/SA BDA/ ET BDAI ETA SA/BDA ETA
1/2 5 1/2 5/10 5 10 2/5 10 lM 2M 5M Map l0M Total co
l 2• 5 2 5 07/05 ('I)
02
....rt-
[JJ
2 2 2
3 1 5 1 5 6 0
1111111
4 222 2 5* 5* 10* 10 7 8 10 20 45/25 "d
111 1 28/16
.§
5 2 2* 5 5 10• 4 4 10 10 ('I)
6 1 l 2 5 2 2 5 09 ul
111111 10•
7 222 510* 10 6 6 5 30 47/27
8 16 16/10
16
Q.P. Total 44 60 40 16 20 24 40 16 60 160
Max.Marks 40 30 20 10 20 20 30 10 20 100

1 EASY 40% BASED 40% ANSWER 1 Marks
2 AVERAGE 40% BASED 30'/o BRIEF DISCRlPTIVE ANSWER 5 Marks

3 BASED 20'/o ESSAY TYPE 10 Marks
SKILL BASED 10% MAP 10
Marks
II POC MODEL QUESTION PAPER - Z

the questions.
PART - A
each: 10x1=10
1. What does the word 'Mohenjodaro' mean?
2. Who was the 23rd Thirthankara?
3. Who built the Rajarajeshwara temple at Tanjore?
4. Which is the first kannada inscription?
5. When did the First Battle of Panipat take place?
6. Name the founder of Bahamani dynasty.
7. Which is the Holy Book of Sikhs?
8. Which was the first capital of the British in India?
9. Who started the Aligarh Movement?
10. Name the first railway line laid in Mysore State.
PART - B
11. Name the two passes that connect India with the west.
12. What is the meaning of the term 'Paleolithic'?
13. Name any two women scholars of Vedic period.
14. Mention any two of the Tripitakas'.
15. Write any two measures of Kanishka for the spread of Buddhism.
16. Who built the Kailasanatha temple? Where was it built?
17. Name any two persons who influenced Shivaji.

18. Where is GolGumbaz and who built it?
19. Why is Shankaracharya called 'Shanmatha Sthapanacharya'?
20. Between whom was the battle of Plassey fought?
21. Name any two industries established by Mirza Ismail.
22. Name any two committees formed for reorganization of states.
PART - C
23. Write a note on the contributions of foreign writers in
reconstructing the History of India.
24. State the social and economic conditions of Indus people.
25. Explain the conquests of Samudra Gupta.
26. Illustrate Hoysala contributions to religion and literature.
27. Briefly write about the administration of Akbar.
28. What were the causes and results of Battle of Talikote?
29. Discuss the Socio-religious reforms of Basaveshwara.
30. Explain the personality of Swami Vivekanada.
PART - D
a) Harappa b) Pataliputra c) Badami d) Delhi
e) Agra f) Hampi g) Srirangapattana
h) Jalian Walabagh

31. (B) Answer the following questions in 30 to 40 sentences: lx10=10
Describe the achievements of Pulikeshi II.
OR
Explain the causes and results of the First War of Indian
Independence.
PART - E
32. Explain the life and achievements of Ashoka.
33. Give an account of the contributions of Sultanate of Delhi.
34. Give an account of the impact of British rule on Indian Economy.
PART - F
VI. 36. Match the following: 5x1=5
1) Rajendra Chola I - Kamataka Gatha Vaibhava

2) Pampa - Gangai Konda Chola
3) Kanhoji Angrey - Adikavi
4) Lord Dalhousie - Admiral of the Marathas
5) AlurVenkata Rao - Doctrine of Lapse
37. Arrange the following in Chronological order: 5x1=5

a) Establishment of Kannada Sahitya Parishad.
b) Death of Ramananda.
c) Birth of Mahaveera.
d) Commencement of Gupta Era.
e) Construction of Bengaluru.
to
2'
('I)
II PUC MODEL QUESTION PARER-3 ti
Total Teaching hours: 120 : :

gi.
TOTAL No. OF QUEST 37 _
SUBJECT CODE: 21 Q.P.TOTAL MA 160 [JJ
0.
TIME: 3-15 HOURS INDIAN IDSTORY MAX.MA 100 s;:
-
0
(With Special Reference to Karnataka) 0.
('I)
Knowledl!:e Understandinl( Annllcation Skill Total
Chapters VSA/SA BDA VSA/SA BDA/ ET BDAI ETA SA/BDA ETA lM Map Total
co
1/2 5 1/2 5/10 5 10 2/5 10 2M 5M l0M ('I)
1 1 2• 5 1 5
....
[JJ
2 08/06 rt-
2 1 1 01 0
3 12 s• 1 2 5 08/03
1 1 1 1 1 "d
43/23
4 2222 5 10• 5 10• 5 8 10 20 .§
('I)
l l l l
5 2 510 10• 4 2 5 20 31/21 ul
l l l
6 2• 5 3 2 5 10/8
1 1 1 1 1
7 2222 s• 5 10• 10 5 8 10 20 43/28
16 16/10
8
Q.P. Total 44 60 40 16 20 24 40 16 60 160
Max.Marks 40 30 20 10 20 20 30 10 20 100

1 EASY 40% BASED 40% ANSWER 1 Marks
2 AVERAGE 40% 30'/o BRIEF DISCRlPTIVE ANSWER 5 Marks
BASED
3 BASED 20% ESSAY TYPE 10 Marks
SKILL BASED 10% MAP 10 Marks
II POC MODEL QUESTION PfiPER - 3

the questions.
PART - A
each: 10x1=10
1. What is Numismatics?
2. Which was the first metal used by man in North India?
3. Which was the capital of Satavahanas?
4. Who composed the Allahabad pillar inscription?
5. What is meant by 'Chauth'?
6. Name the lady who defended the Fort of Chitradurga.
7. Who presided over the religious discourses atAnubhava Mantapa?
8. Who was the devotee of Krishna who popularized her philosophy
in Rajasthan?
9. In which year was the battle of Buxar fought?
10. Which was the Book written by Dadabhai Naoroji?
PART - B
11. 'No source No History'. Why?
12. Mention any two causes which brought an end to Indus
Civilization.
13. Name the sects of Buddhism.
14. Mention any two works of Kalidasa.
15. When and between whom did the battle ofTakkolam take place?
16. Name any two famous temples of Hoysalas.
17. Who was Shivappa Nayaka and why is he famous?
18. Name any two important orders among the Sufis.
19. Name any two trading centres of French in India.
20. Mention any two Indian States which accepted the Subsidiary
Alliance.
21. What is Ryotwari System?
22. When and where was Ramakrishna Mission established?
PART - C
23. Explain briefly the impact of Geography on Indian History.
24. Explain the Town Planning of Indus Civilization.
25. Give an account of the political conditions of Aryans.
26. Describe the village administration of the Cholas.
27. Describe the contributions of Mughals to literature and Art and
Architecture.
28. Give an account of Kabir and Gurunanak.
29. Write a note on the course of the First War oflndian Independence.
30. Briefly discuss the unification Movement of Karnataka.
PART - D
a) Pataliputra b) Kanchi c) Halebeedu d) Panipat
e) Bidar f) Calcutta f) Bombay h) Jalianwala bagh

31. (B) Answer the following questions in 30 to 40 sentences:
lx10=10
Describe the cultural contributions of Rashtrakutas.
OR
Sir M. Vishweshwaraiah is called the 'Maker of Modem Mysore'.
Explain.
PART - E
32. Describe the achievements of Pulikeshi II.
33. Critically examine the administrative experiments of Mohammad
bin Tughalak.
34. Write a note on the achievements of Krishnadevaraya.
PART - F
VI. 36. Match the following: 5x1=5
1) R.D. Banerjee - Jagadguru Badshah

2) Someshwara III - Architect of English Education in India
3) Ibrahim Adil Shah II - Discovery of Mohenjodaro
4) Macaulay - Eradication of untouchability
5) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar - Abhilashithartha Chintamani
37. Arrange the following in Chronological order: 5x 1=5
a) Establishment of Aryasamaj.
b) Revenue System of Raja Todarmal.
c) Birth of Basaveshwara
d) Accession of Kanishka.
e) The Battle of Kannegala.

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Government of Karnataka

II PUC - Text Book

Department of Pre-University Education,

Revised Edition - 2016 This book is sold subject to the

The correct price of this

The Karnataka Text Book Society ®

Dr. Gayathri Devi A.H........b

The History Text book commitee owes its

The committee held its meetings at Govt. P.U.

The committee also extends its gratitude to the

HISTORY TEXT BOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

SYLLABUS AND TEXT BOOK REVIEW COMMITTEE

NAME & ADDRESS DESIGNATION

Sri. S.G. BHAT,

Sri. R.B. SAMBHA,

Sri C.G. MATHAPATI,

Chapter SYLLABUS Teaching Page

05. MEDIEVAL PERIOD 25

5.2 Mughals - Akbar the great - contributions 6 114-124

The physical features of India, such as the Himalayas, the Northern

1. Geographical unity: Himalayas in the north and ocean in the south

Introduction to Karnataka History.

Different words like Kamada, Kammittunadu, Karunadu

According to S. B. Joshi, ( Shambha) the sanskritised version

Karnadu = Kari + Nadu is interpreted as land of Black

The accepted view is that Karunadu is the name of the

The extent of Karnataka was subject to expansion and contraction

part of Indian heritage. Kannadigas are proud that their language is

I. Answer the following in a word or a sentence each.

III. Answer the following in 15 to 20 sentences each

The existence of various races Negros, Mongoloids, Dravidians, Alpines,

3. The Neolithic age.

The man during this period learnt cultivation and domesticated

I. Answer the following in a word or a sentence each.

SITES OF INDUS CIVILIZATION

The Great Bath.

A rich variety of earthern vessels made of potter's wheel have been

They disposed their dead by cremation or burial. Many urns

During Indus civilization a number of handicrafts like spinning,

Art and Sculpture: Dancing girl Bearded Man

I. Answer the following in a word or a sentence each.

Opinions of Scholars about Aryan Origin

4. Prof. Macdonell South East Asia.

Aryan means noble or master or a person dependent on Agriculture.

Vajapeya to establish political supremacy. The King had grown in power

Education and Science

I. Answer the following in a word or a sentence each.

TttE itlSE OF NEW itELl<ilONS

2. Satya - truth Symbol of Jainisim

3. Astheya - not to steal

Vardhamana Mahaveera (599 - 527 BCE)

Five Great vows

to Shravanabelagola. He settled at Chandragiri hills and died by

Contributions of Jainism to art and architecture.

people towards Buddhism. Buddha attained Parinirvana at Kushinagara

I. Answer the following in a word or a sentence each.

Origin. Sixteen Mahajanapadas

Chandragupta Maurya. 324-300 BCE

It is said that Chandragupta Maurya undertook many other military

He came to power in 273 BCE, but his coronation was celebrated