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Mathematics Formula Sheet

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30 views36 pages

Mathematics Formula Sheet

Dhndncbc bbnnjhj h u hmm thn TSH

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shramithkamath
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“meritnation Synopsis - Grade 11 Math Chapter 1: Sets Asset isawell-defined collection of objects. Example: The collection of all rational numbers less than 10 is a set whereas the collection of all the brilliant students in a class is not a set. © Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, S, etc. + The clements of a set are usually denoted by small letters a, b, ¢u, ete. 4 Ifxisam element of aset S, then we say that “belongs to 5", Mathematically, we write itas 2 = S.If-yis not an element of a set 5, then we say that “y does not belong to 5”. Mathematically, we write it as y ¢ S. “ Methods for representing a set ‘+ Roster or tabular form: In this form. all the elements of a set arc listed, separated by ‘commas and enclosed within braces { }. In this form, the order in which the elements are listed is immaterial, and the elements are not repeated. ‘Example: The set of letters forming the word “TEST is {T, E, S}. + Set-builder form: In this form all the elements of a set possess a single common ‘property which is not possessed by any element outside the set. ‘Example: The set (2,-2} can be written in the set-builder form as (xc: is an integer and x74 = 0), Types of sets ©” A.set which does not contain any element is called an empty set or a mull set or a vaid set, It is denoted by the symbol gor { }- ‘Example: The set (12.1 N,.r is an even number and 8 <.x < 10) is an empty set. + Asset which isemply or consists of a definite number of elements is called finite: ‘otherwise, the set is called infinite. ‘Example: The set (x: 1. Nand ris a square number} is an infinite set. The set (2:4 € Nand x ~ 2r—3=0) isa finite set as it is equal to (-1, 3}. All infinite sets cannot be described in the roster form. For example, the set of rational numbers cannot be described in this form. This is because the ‘elements of this set do not follow any particular pattem. 4 Two sets A and B are said t0 be equal if they have exactly the same elements and we write A = B; otherwise, the sets are said to be unequal and we write A # Example: The sets A={x:1eN and (x=I)(r+4)=0} and B= (—, 1) are equal sets Asset does not change if one or more elements of the set are repeated, “meritnation ° Example: The sets A = (E, L, E, ME, N.S} and B= (E,L,M,N.‘T, S} are equal since ‘each element of 4 is in B, and vice-versa. Subsets © Asset is said tobe a subsct of a set Bif every clement of A is also an clement of Band we write A&B. Inother words, Ac BifacA>aeB. AcBandBCAG@A=B ‘An empty set is a subsct of every set Every set is a subset of itself. IfA CB and A 2B, then A is called a proper subset of B, and Bis called a superset of A. I a set has only one element, then it is called a singleton set Example: A= {-17} is a singleton set Intervals as subsets of R Let a, b © Randa Intersection of sets ‘© The intersection of two scts A and B is the set of all those elements which belong to both A and B. It is denoted by “A B. AQB=(r:reA and reB) ‘+ Properties of intersection of sets @) AGB = BAA (Commutative Law) ) (AABIAE = AN(BAC) (Associative Law) PO A=¢ (Law of g) (v)UOA=A (Law of U) (v) ANA= A( idempotent Law) (i) AABUC) = (ANB) AAAC) (Distributive law of 6 ou) (WiAVEAO=ALHOAYO, — B, in this order) is the set of the ‘elements which belong to A, bat not to B. A-B=(xxeAandre B} ‘+ Properties of operation of difference of sets () A=B=A-1ANB) ) For A 2B, A= Be B= A i)For A = B,A-B=B-A (iv)For B= @A-B=AundB-A=¢ WA-U=d (vi)For A cB, AB = ¢ for this reason, A= U = 4 The sets A—B, A.B and BA are mutually disjoint sets, ic, the intersection of any of these two sets isa mull set. > Complement of a set © If U isa universal set and A is a subset of U, then the complements of A are denoted by ‘the set A’. This is the set of all element of U/ which are not the elements of A. s{rzxeU and xe A}=U-A A A’ is also the subset of U ‘© Properties of complement of a set 4 aw Gi) AVA “meritnation and U'=9 + De Morgan’s laws For any sets A and B, @) (vay = An (i) (AN BY =A'UR 4 WA and Bare finite sets, such that AWB = 9, then AB) = 6A) 4068) & WA and Bare finite sets, such that ACB , then, n(A UB) = n(A)-+n(B)— (ANB) 4 IA, Band C are finite sets, then MAG BUC) = nA) +B) 4 fC) (ANB) BOC) = ANC) 4 ANBAC) ‘Chapter 2: Relations and Functions % Cartesian product of sets © Twonon-empty sets P and 0 are given. The Cartesian product P x Q iste set of all ordered pairs of elements from P and Q, ic., PxQ={(p.giipeP and geQ} © Heither P or Qisa null set, then P x Q will also be a null set, ie. Px @= g. In general, if A is any set, then A x g= 4 + Twoordcred pairs are equal if and only if the corresponding first elements are equal and the second elements are also equal. In other words, if (a, 6) = (x, y), then a = rand b = y. 4 For any two sets A and B + AK BBR A + Hfm(A) =p, m(B) = 9, then aA x B) = pg © IfA and B are non-empty sets and either A or B is an infinite set, then so is the case with AxB AxAxA =((a,b,c):a,b,ce A]. Here, (a, b,c) is called an ordered triplet. > Relation ‘A relation & from a sct A to a set Bis a subset of the Cartesian product A x B, obtained by describing a relationship between the first element x and the second element y of the ordered Pairs (x, y) in A B. © The image of an element x under a relation R is y, where (x, ye R- “meritnation ‘© The setof all the first elements of the ordered pairs is called the domain of the relation &. + The set of all the second elements in a relation R from a set A to a set arelation Rfroma set A toa set B + The total number of relations that can be defined from a set A to a set Bis the number of possible subsets of A B. IE nt) = p and nti) = g. then n(A x 8) = pq-and the total number of relations is 2. > Functions ‘A relation f from a set 4 to a set Bis said to be a function if every element of set A has one and only one image in set 2. Inother words, a function f isa relation from a non-empty set A to another non-empty set B, such that the domain of fis A and no two distinct ordered pairs in fhave the same first element. + The function from A to B is denoted by f: A+B. Here, A is the domain and B is the co-domain of f. © Iffisa function from A to B and (a, bye f,then f (a) = B, where b is called the image of under f, and ais called the pre-image of b under: ‘© A function having either R (real numbers) of one of its subsets as its range is called a ‘real-valued function. Further, if its domain is also either R or a subset of R. itis called a ‘eal function. > ‘Types of functions ‘* Identity function: The function ff R > R defined by y= f(x) = x, for cach x © Ris called the identity function, Here, R is the domain and range of f © Constant function: The function f: R + R defined by y ‘where ¢ is a constant, is a constant function. Here, the domain of fis Rand its range is (c}. ‘+ Polynomial function: A function j: R + R is said to be a polynomial function if for each, 2ER, y= f(s) =a, 4a,8+...04 4,4", where mis a non-negative integer and Fy Gyyeneentt, ER (x) =e, for each x = Ry . ational fonction: Te fonctions af the tye LE, whee ft) and ts a polyoma ‘s functions of x defined in a domain and where g(x) #0, are called rational functions. © Modulus function: The function R -» IR defined by,f«x)=[. for each x e Ris called the modulus function. Inother words, f(a) = {* 72° l-xx<0 ‘© Signum function: The function j: R + R defined by “meritnation 1 if xa0 Fl) =40, if x=0 fx R and g- X > R, we define + (f+ g): XR by (f+ gkx)s flat gi. re X (f- 9): X > Roy (fg) = fla) g(), 8 EX fig): X + Rby (fg) = f(a.g(eh eX (apy. X + Rby (af Kx) = af(x), x ©X and @is areal number £ Ley -L Lex srby Ln gk Rhy FO ee Kand g(x) #0. g@) ae Chapter 3: Trigonometric Functions +} Consider a circle of radius r having an arc of length / that subtends an angle of @ radians. ‘Then, |= 78. + Relation between radian and degree measure Radian measure =—E x Degree measure 4 A degree is divided into 60 minutes and a minute is divided into-60 seconds. One sixtieth of a degree is called a minute, writlen asl’, and one sixticth of a minute is called a second, written Ts (= eand ar ‘> Domain and range of trigonometric functions “meritnation ote Re [eix=nnneZ) Rr n+l) sex R-{e oO net R-[-1, 1] ‘cose Re (eixonnne 2} R-[-1.1] Signs of trigonometric functions in different quadrants ‘Trigonometric | Quadrant | Quadrant ‘(Quadrant fonction, 1 i" Quadrant HT W +ve +e =ve ve sin Aincreases | (Decreases | (Decreases | (Increases frome 1) | from 1100) | from0to-1) | fram—I to) ve ve =ve — cos x (Decreases | (Decreases | (Increases | (Increnses from 1100) | from@to-1) | from=1 to) | from Oto 1) ve =ve sve ave tnx (increases | (nereases | (Increases | (Increuses from to) | from-st00) | from (to) | from — to 0) ve ve =< — ‘cotx (Decreases | (Decreases | (Decreases | (Decreases from: to 0) | from 010 =) | from 100) | from 0 ta 0) baal {Deercases ave from-to | from-I to rane -) ~) +ve ve - (Increases | (Decreases (Increases from tio) | fom pete | fom tee “meritnation ‘cos x cos y—sin-x sin y sin x cos y —~ cos. sin y 605 x cos y + sin xsin y Te tanctany Trigonometric ratios of multiple angles © cos2r= cas" x—sin' x=2eos! x1 “meritnation © sim 3x=3sin.x—4 sin’ x 4 cos'r—3.cos x 3tanx—tan x 2 sin.xcos y=sin(x-+ y)+ sim (xy) 2cos x sin y =sin(r+ y)—sin(r—y) General solutions of trigonometric equations © sinx=0>x=mm, where neZ . coer 0 x= Qe), where eZ © sinx=sinySx=an+(-l)"y, where me Z, yoxs2mt y,wher meZ © tmxstany=x=nm+ y, where neZ Chapter 4: Principle of Mathematical Induction 4 There are some mathematical statements or results that are formulated in terms of m, where st is a positive integer. To prove such statements, the well-suited principle that is used, based on the specific technique, is known as the principle of mathematical induction. + To prove a given statement in terms of , we assume the statement to be Pin}. “meritnation ‘Thus, P(k + 1) is truc whenever P(k) istruc. Hence, from the principle of mathematical induction, the statement P(n) is true for all natural numbers 1. Chapter 5: Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations A number of the form a + ib, where and b are real numbers and 7= JT, is defined asa ‘complex number. + Forthe complex numbers z = «+ ib, «is called the real part (denoted by Re z) and b is ccalled the imaginary part (denoted by Im z) of the complex number z. & Two complex numbers 2, = a+ band 2, =e + id are equal if a= and b = d. % Addition of complex numbers = + id be any two complex numbers. The sum is defined as ‘+ Properties of addition of complex numbers G@) Closure law: Sum of two.complex numbers is also a complex number. ‘Commmtative law: For two complex numbers zi and <2, For any three complex numbers. + (+2) zn, toad zs, +aea (iv) Existence of additive identity: There exists a complex number 0 + i0 (denoted by 0), called the additive identity or zero complex number, such that for every complex nrt0 + Given any two complex numbers z1, and 2, the difference =: a+Cn) is defined as © Fortwo complex numbers 21 and 23, such that 2) =a + ib and ‘multiplication is defined ax (ac = bd) + iad + be). ‘+ Properties of multiplication of complex numbers G@) Closure law: The product of two complex numbers is also a complex number. ‘Commmtative law: For any two complex numbers x3 and 72, 222 dower be For any tree complex names, zzand 73, =e 4 fd, the i io) Etistence of malipieativefdeniy: Thre exist complex umber 1+ 10 (deacted as 1), called the multiplicative identity, such that for every complex mumbers “meritnation (v) Existence of multiplicative inverse: For every non-zero complex number (a#0.b #0), we have the complex number % Powers of i For any imeger &, i wit i Maand b are negative real numbers, then «fa x Jb * fab. % Modulus and conjugate of complex numbers The modulus of a complex number 2 = a + ib, is denated by|:|, and is defined as the non ‘negative real number fa" +5 alee. + The conjugate of a complex number ‘complex number @— i + ib, is denoted by Zand is defined as the *% Properties of modulus and conjugate of complex numbers For any three complex numbers “meritnation Chapter 6: Linear Inequalities + ° ° + ‘Two real numbers or two algebraic expressions related by the symbol “<’, *>°, “=” or “=? form an inequality. ‘The solution of an inequality in one variable is a value of the variable which makes it a true statement. Solution of linear inequalities in one variable ‘© Solving an inequality algebraically (G) Equal numbers may be added to or subtracted from both sides of an inequality ‘without affecting the sign of the inequality. Gi) Both sides of an inequality can be multiplied with or divided by the same positive ‘number. But when both sides are multiplied with or divided by a negative number, the sign of inequality is reversed. © Graphical representation of Solution @) To represent x a) on a number line, encircle the number a, and darken the line to the left (or the right) of a. (Gi) To represent x = a (or x= @) on a number line, encircle the number a, and darken the line to the left (or the right) of a. Example: Solve 5(x—3)<2x+9 Se-3)s 2049 =Sx- 1552049 = Sr-15-2rs2v4 9-38 Sar-15<9 Ss9+15 Sas x58 ‘Thus, the solution of the given inequality can be represented on the number line as shown below: saa24 Tisai e Graphical solution of linear inequalities in two variables ‘© The solution region of a system of inequalities is the region which satisfies all the given inequalities in the system simultaneously. ‘© Inorder to identify the half plane represented by an inequality, it is sufficient to take any ‘point (a, b) (not om the line) and check whether it satisfies the inequality or not. I'it ‘satisfies, them the inequality represents the half plane containing the point and we shade this region. If not, then the inequality represents the half plane which does not contain the ‘point. For convenience, the point (0, 0) is preferred. “meritnation ty of the type ax + by ¢ or ar + by < e, the points.on the line ax + By =e luded in the solution region. So, we darken the line in the salution region, ty of the type ax + by > c or ax+ by fan event occurs in m different ways, following which another event occurs in n different ‘ways, then the total number of occurrence of the events in the given order is nm x n. This is called the fundamental principle of counting. A permutation is an arrangement in a definite order of a number of objects taken some or all ata time, “meritnation + Factorial notation ‘© The notation n! represents the product of the first m natural numbers, ic, MaLK23K kn > ‘The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time, nt ‘+ When repetition is not allowed, is denoted by “P, and is given by"P . =n where 0SrSn_ © When repetition is allowed, is ni. > Permutations when all the objects are not distinct ‘© The number of permutations of m objects, when p objects are of the same kind and the a! ‘rest are all different, m1 ‘© The number of permutations of no objects, where p, objects are of one kind, p; are of the: ‘second kind | prare of the" kind and the rest, ifany, are of different kinds, > A combination is different selections of a number of objects taken a few or all at a time, inespective of their arrangements. + The number of combinations of m different things taken rat is given by nt “c FoaA! ime is denoted by "C,, which Osrin “> Properties of "C, "C= © "C,="C,>a=boratb=n + Ce eC, Chapter 8: Binomial Theorem + The coefficients of the expansions of a binomial are arranged in an array. This array is called Pascal's triangle. It can be written as: “meritnation 3 eG GG 4 c G *c, °C, et al s | G G % G %C oa @ & oe & © Binomial theorem for any positive integer + The expansion ofa binomial for any positive integral nis as follows: “ben Bett Ca be + Some points about Binomial Theorem ) The notation 32°C, a BF stands for a" BPC, at Be eC, al Bee, a Bt Hence, the binomial theorem can also be stated as follows: (asby=dr¢, a Gi) The coefficients of "C, occurring in the binomial theorem are known as binomi coefficients. ibn the expansion of (a +4)", there are (n + 1) terms i.e, one more than the index. 3 ‘This sequence is called the Fibonacci sequence. % Leta,,a,,..0,,... bea given sequence. Accordingly, the sum of this sequence is given by the expression 4,42, +..+a, +. ‘This is called the series associated with the given sequence. ‘© The series is finite or infinite according ax the given sequence. ‘© Asseries is usually represented in a compact form using sigma notation (2). ‘This means the series a,+a,+..+a,_, +a,can be written as J", Arithmetic progression ‘The sequence a,.as..., ... is called an arithmetic sequence or an arithmetic progression (AP) ifa,, =a, +d,0eN. “meritnation Here, a,is called the first term and dis called the common difference of the AP. In standard form, the A.P.is written asa, a+d,a4 2d. Then or the general term of an AP. is given by a, =a + (aI). © fais the first term, d is the common difference, Fis the last term and wis the number af terms, then = a + (n— J) + The sum of n terms of an A.P. (denoted by S,) is given by 8, =F 12a +(n—Dd] Also, 8, = Stas) % Properties of an A.P. ‘© Ifa constant is added or subtracted or multiplied to cach term of an A-P., then the resulting sequence is also an AP. + Ifcach term of an A P. is multiplied or divided by a non-zero constant, then the resulting ‘sequence is alsoan A.P. Arithmetic mean © Forany two numbers and b, we can insert a number A between them such that a, A, b isan. AP. Here, A is called the arithmetic mean (A.M.) of numbers a and b and a+b 7 © Let Ai, Az... Ag be m numbers between a and b such that a, Ay, Az... Ae, bis an AP. : : ix given by. Acconlingly, common difference (a) is given by 9 ‘The numbers Ay, dy... A, are given as follows: Asasdd 204 Prat mel “meritnation ‘A sequence is said to be a geometic progression (G.P.) ifthe ratio of any term ta its preceding tcrm is the same throughout. This constart factor is called the common ratio and it is denoted by r. Instandard form, the GP. i writen as a,arar*... where ris the frst term and ris the ein a. © The 2” term (or general term) of a G.P. is given by a, = ar"? + The sum of n terms (S,) ofa GP. is given by a-r) ,, atr’-D 82) na, if rt iret + Geometric mean ‘© Forany two positive numbers « and b, we can insert a number G between them such that a,G, bis a GP. G is called a geometric mean (G.M.) and is given by G = Jab + Let G,,.G,, ....G, be numbers between positive numbers a and b such that a, G,, Go, Ga b is GP. Common ratio of GP., (EP ‘Therefore, P oooy Ge =a Let A and G be the respective A.M. and GM. of two gi a and G = ab + 4lG positive real numbers «and b. oA 4 Sum of sn-terms of some special series ‘© Sum of first 1 natural numbers 1243 ttm ED ‘© Sum of squares of the first n natural numbers Fad ad gan! EERE © Sum of cubes of the first m natural numbers Peak svete] “meritnation Chapter 10: Straight Lines + Slope of a line Lf @ is the inclination of a line I (the angle between positive «-axis and line /), then tan 0 is ‘called the slope or gradient of line J. ¥ y 42 - x xt ¥ * y v ‘The slope of a line is denoted by m. ‘Thus, m =tan 6, 4 290° + The slope of alline whose line (y-axis) is undefined. ‘© The slope of the horizontal line (x-axis) is zero. ion is 90? is mot defined. Hence, the slope of the vertical + The slope (m) of a non-vertical line passing through the points (11, yi) and (12, y2) is given. bym: oy Bok Suppose /, and f; are non-vertical lines having slopes m, and m, respectively + his parallel to h if and only ifm = ma, i., their slopes are equal. ‘© lis perpendicular to /: if and only if m 1, Le, the product of their slopes is —1. © Amacute angle,@, between fy and [; is given by tang =f" + mm, Three points A. Band C are collinear if and only if Slope of AB = Slope of BC Horizontal and vertical lines © The cquation of a horizontal line at distance a from the x-axis is either y = a (above x- axis) or y = —a (below y-axis). + The cquation of a vertical line at distance b from the y-axi ocx =~b (left of y-axis). | bem, 20. i cither x= (right of y-axis) % Point-slope form of a line “meritnation ‘The point (x, y) lies om the line with slope m through the fixed point (1p, yp) if'and only if its ‘coondinates satisfy the equation. This means y— yy =m (x10). Two-point form of a line ‘The equation of the line passing through the points (xy, yz) and (x, ya) is given by +The cquation of the line, with slope m, which makes y-intercept c is given by me +e. ‘©The equation of the line, with slope m, which makes x-intercept d is given by ysm(x—d). % Intercept form of a line ‘The equation of the line making intercepts a and b on x-axis and y-axis respectively is + Normal form of a line ‘The equation of the line at normal distance p from the origin and anglee which the normal makes with the positive direction of the x-axis is given by x cos «+ y sinar= p Any equation of the form Ar+ By + C=0, where A and Bare not zero simultaneously is ‘called the gencral linear equation or general equation of line. > The perpendicular distance (d) af a line Ax + By + C =0 froma point (x1..¥1) is ays ined | Ve The distance (d) between two parallel lines i.e, Ax + By +C1 = given by a-/S2eL [as Chapter 11: Conic Sections Conic sections or conics are the curves that arc obtained by intersecting a plane with a ‘double-napped right circular cone. Circles, ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas are examples ‘of conic sections. ‘meritnation © A double-napped cone can be obtained by rotating a line (let us say m) about a fixed vertical line (let us say [). = 3+ Urner nappe Here, the fixed line [is called the axis of the cone and mr is called the generator of the cone. ‘The intersection (V) of F'and mis called the vertex of the cone. Different conics formed by intersecting a plane and a double-napped cone IF @ is the angle between the axis and the generator and @ is the angle between the plane and the axis, then, for different conditions af 6 and 6, we get different conics, which are ‘described with the help of a table as shown below. 0 < & < 90" (Only one nappe of the cone is ‘entirely cut by the plane) An cllipse 4, = 6 (Only one nappe of the cone is entirely cut by the plane) “A parabola 0< A <6 Both the ‘mappes of the cone are entirely cut by the plane) Alhyperbola Degenerated conics ‘The conics obtained by cutting a plane with a double-napped cone at its vertex are known as degenerating conic sections. IF @ is the angle between the axis and the generator and @ is the angle between the plane and the axis, then, for different conditions of 6 and 6, we get different conics, which are described with the help of a table as shown below. “meritnation \ we | NK a=& A straight line LY + 0508 Alhyperbola 0502 0, > Circle A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point in the plane. ‘The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and the fixed distance from the centre is called the radius of the circle. > Equation of acirele + with centre at (8) and rads ris hs yb ‘© with centre is at origin and radius r is eter > Parabola A parabola is the set of al points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed line and a fixed point (not om the line in the plane), © The fixed line is called the directrix. ‘© The fixed point F is called the focus. + The line through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of the ‘parabola. ‘© The point of intersection of parabola with the axis is called the vertex of the parabol: ‘©The line segment that is perpendicular to the axis of the parabola through the focus and. ‘whose end points lie on the parabola is called the latus rectum of the parabola. ‘ Standard equations of parabola “meritnation Right yi=dax,a>0 (a0) (0.0) wena Positive x-axis Open Towards Left Standard Equation year, a>0 Coordinates of Focus (2,0) Coordinates of Vertex (0.0) Equation of Directrix rsa Length of Latus Rectum — | 4a Axis of Purabola Negative x-axis ‘Open Towards Upward ‘Standard Equation w=4ay,a>0 | Coordinates of Focus a) ‘Coordinates of Vertex (0.0) Equation of Directrix Length of Latus Rectum — | da Axis of Parabola Positive y-axis. “meritnation 2 =p “+ Axis of Parabola Negative y-axis If the fixed point lies on the fixed line, then the set of paints in the plane that are equidistant from the fixed point and the fixed line isa straight line through the fixed point and perpendicular to the fixed line. We call this straight line the degenerate case of parabola. + Bll ‘Ancliipse isthe set ofall points in a plane, the sum of whose distances from two fixed points in the plane is a constant. + The two fixed points are called the foci. ‘© The constant, which is the sum of the distances of 2 point on the ellipse from the two fixed points, is always greater than the distance between the two fixed points. + The mid-point of the line segment joining the foci is called the cenire of the ellipse. ‘©The line segment through the foci of the ellipse is called the major axis and the line ‘segment through the centre and perpendicular to the major axis is called the minor axis. + The end poinis of the major axis are called the vertices of the ellipse. ‘© The eccentricity of the ellipse is the ratio of the distances from the centre of the ellipse to cane of the foci and to one of the vertices of the ellipse. + Amcllipse issymmetric with respect to both the coordinate axes, ‘©The line segment that is perpendicular to the major axis of the ellipse through the focus and whose end points lie om the ellipse is called the latus rectum of the ellipse. “meritnation Length of major axis Length of minor Axis Length between foci Relation between a, b and Length of latus rectum, Evcentricity (¢-<1) y Standard Equation Centre ‘Vertex End points of minor Foci a) on Length of major axis Length of minor Axis Length between foci Relation between a, b and ¢ Bio, = Length of Latus rectum, Evcentricity (<1) + Special cases of an ellipse © When both the foci merge together, then the ellipse becomes a circle, © When c=a, then b = 0. In such a case, the ellipse reduces to a line segment joining the foci. This means the length of the line segment is 2c. ‘ Hyperbola A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose distances from two fixed points in the plane is a constant. © The two fixed points are called the foci. “meritnation ‘© The constant, which is the difference of the distances of a point on the hyperbola from the ‘two fixed points, is always less than the distance between the two fixed points. + The mid-point of the line segment joining the faci is called the centre of the hyperbola. ‘©The line through the foci is called the transverse axis and the line through the centre and. ‘perpendicular to the transverse axis is called the conjugate axis. ‘© The points at which the hyperbola intersects the transverse axis are called the vertices of the hyperbola. © The eccentricity of the hyperbola is the ratio-of the distances from the centre of the tocone of the foci and to one of the vertices of the ellipse. © A hyperbola is symmetric with respect ta both the coordinate axes. + The line segment that is perpendicular to the transverse axis through the focus and whose ‘end points lic on the hyperbola is called the latus rectum of the hyperbola. “> ‘Standard equations of hyperbola Relation between a, b and « Length of latus rectum Eccentricity (e > 1) “meritnation [Length of conjugate axis | Length of transverse axis Length between foci Relation between a, bande Length of latus rectum Eccentricity (e > 1) > A hyperbola having equal lengths of both the axes, ic., transverse and conjugate (a = b) is called an equilateral hyperbola. ‘Chapter 12: Introduction to Three Dimensional Geometry, + Coondinate axes and coordinate planes ‘© In three-dimensions, the coordinate axes of a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system are ‘three mutually perpendicular lines. The axes are called x, v, and z-uxes. ‘© The three planes determined by the pair of axes arc the coordinate planes, called XY, YZ sand ZX-planes. ‘The three coordinate planes divide the space into eight parts known as octants. % Coondinates of a point ‘© In three-dimensional geometry, the coordinates of a point Pare always written in the form of triplets ie., (x,y. ). Here, x,y, and < are the distances from the ¥2, 2X and X¥- planes. ‘Also, the coordinates of the origin are (0, 0,0) Zz “meritnation ‘© The sign of the coordinates of a point determine the octant in which the point lies. The following table shows the signs of the coordinates in the eight octants. x + = = + + = = + y + = = = + + = = z = + + + = = = = ‘* Coordinates of points lying on different axes 4G) Any point on the x-axis is of the form (x, 0,0) isof the form (0, v0) i) Any point on the z-axis is of the form (0,0, 2) + Coordinates af points singin diffrent planes the V2-plane a ofthe form (3, ) ‘© externally in the ratio ar: n are a Se SS) “meritnation Chapter 13: Limits and Derivatives + Limit of a function © lim f(x) is the expected value of f atx = a, given the values of f near x to the left of a. ‘value is called the left hand limit of f(x) at a F(2) is the expected value of f atx = a, given the values of finear x to the right of a. ‘This value is called the right hand limit of f(x) at a. ‘© Ifthe right and left hand limits coincide, we call that common value the limit of f(x) at x =a, and denote it by lim f(x). Fora function f and areal number a, lim f(x) and fia) may not be the same. } Algebra of limits ‘Let f and g be two functions such that both lim f(x) and lim x (x)exist. Then, © tim [f(0) g()] =lim f(x) + lim g(x) + Fim Lf€29-g(0)] = lim f(2)-Limn (09) * Him [4 fX2)] im f(x) . where 4 is a constant lim f(x) Him Led bens ev gia) timgt) where lim go} #0 > Some standard limits + Fora polynomial function fix) lim fix) = fa). . 16 ois arasiona fanetion ofthe Form f(x) = SE. where (and) ae polyoma functions ach that <0, hen fim fs) = Hm 2 = = na, where n isa positive integer or any mtional namber and a is positive > Let fand g be two real-valued functions with the same domain, such that flr) S g(x) for all.x in the domain of definition. For some a, if both lim f(x)and lim g(x) exist, then lim f(x) = lim g(x). “meritnation “Sandwich theorem Let, g, and J be real functions such that fix) $ g(x) fib, Bis the event ‘A and B" ‘That is, event ‘A and B’=A 1B = (os: « € Aand we B) ‘© Event *A but not 4": When sets A and # are two events associated with a sample space, ‘then the set A ~ Bis the event ‘A but not B’. ‘That is, event “A but not B° =A —B=A 7B =|: 0 Aand w¢ B) Example: - ‘Consider the experiment of tossing 2 coins. Let A be the event “getting at least one head’ and i be the event “getting exactly two heads’, Find the sets representing the events @) complement of “A ar B° Here, 5 = (HH, HT, TH, TT) ‘A= (HH, HT, TH}. B= (HH} @) Aor B=A U B= (HH, HT, TH} Hence, complement of “A or Aand B=AOB= {HH} A but not B= A—B= (HT, TH) (Aor ay = (AU By = {TT} ‘Two events, A and #, are called mutually exclusive events if the occurrence of any one of them excludes the occurrence of the other event ic., if they cannot occur simultaneously. Inthis case, sets A and B are disjointie, AM B= WE; E>, ... E, are nevents of a sample space S, and if BE... UE OE =S, then £y,£s... E, ace called routually exhaustive events. Tn other words, a least onc of E,, E; ... E, necessarily occurs whenever the experiment is performed. ‘The events £1, Es... Ex ie.,n events of a sample space (S) are called mutually exclusive and exhaustive events i © E,nkj=¢ facie + dees ‘events £, and E, are pairwise disjoint, and ‘The number P (e1) ic., the probability of the outcome ox, is such that © OSP(myst + EP(a)= I for all pe 5 © Forany event A, P(A) = 5 Pea) for all ay & A For a finite sample space, S, with equally likely outcomes, the probability of an event A is denoted as P(A) and it is given by “meritnation may TS" Where, n(A) = Number of elements in sect A and n($) = Number of elements in set 5 WA and Bare two events, then PAU B)=P(A)+P(B)- PLANE) fA and Bare mutually exclusive events, then P(AUB)=P (A) +P(B) Ais any event, then P(y=1-Paay

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