Modern Physics

Lecture N0
Standard model & Fundamental forces
Kittiphop Khiansa, Chontiwa Chonchanokboon
Trai Ungvisitwong, Runch Makmay
The weak force is often the most overlooked, but it is
essential for the life processes that fuel the stars...
Fundamental forces, also known as fundamental interactions, are the basic forces that govern the
interactions between particles in the universe. There are four recognized fundamental forces in nature

The four fundamental forces act

upon us every day. From playing
basketball, to launching a rocket into
space, to sticking a magnet on your
refrigerator - all the forces that all of
us experience every day can be
whittled down to a critical quartet:
Gravity, the weak force,
electromagnetism, and the strong
force.
Gravity was the first force to be investigated scientifically. The gravitational force was described
systematically by Isaac Newton in the 17th century. Newton stated that the gravitational force acts
between all objects having mass (including objects ranging from atoms and photons to planets and stars)
and is directly proportional to the masses of the bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the bodies. Since energy and mass are equivalent, all forms of energy (including light)
cause gravitation and are under its influence. The range of this force is ∞ , and it is weaker than the other
forces. This relationship is shown in the equation below.
One of the four fundamental forces, the weak interaction involves the exchange of the intermediate vector
bosons, the W and the Z. Since the mass of these particles is on the order of 80 GeV, the uncertainty principle
-18
dictates a range of about 10 meters which is about 0.1% of the diameter of a proton.

The weak interaction changes one flavor of quark into another. It is crucial to the structure of the universe in
that

1. The sun would not burn without it since the weak interaction causes the transmutation p -> n so that
deuterium can form and deuterium fusion can take place.
2. It is necessary for the buildup of heavy nuclei.
A free neutron will When a neutrino This interaction is the A neutron or proton can
-
decay by emitting a W interacts with a neutron, same as the one at left interact with a neutrino
- +
, which produces an a W can be exchanged, since a W going right to or antineutrino by the
- 0
electron and an transforming the neutron left is equivalent to a W exchange of a Z .
antineutrino. into a proton and going left to right.
producing an electron.
 Fine-structure constant (α)

One of the four fundamental forces, the electromagnetic force manifests itself through the forces between
charges (Coulomb's Law) and the magnetic force, both of which are summarized in the Lorentz force law.
Fundamentally, both magnetic and electric forces are manifestations of an exchange force involving the
exchange of photons. The quantum approach to the electromagnetic force is called quantum electrodynamics
or QED. The electromagnetic force is a force of infinite range which obeys the inverse square law, and is of the
same form as the gravity force.
The electromagnetic force holds atoms and molecules together. In fact, the forces of electric attraction and
repulsion of electric charges are so dominant over the other three fundamental forces that they can be
considered to be negligible as determiners of atomic and molecular structure. Even magnetic effects are
usually apparent only at high resolutions, and as small corrections.
A force which can hold a nucleus together against the enormous forces of repulsion of the protons is strong
indeed. However, it is not an inverse square force like the electromagnetic force and it has a very short range.
Yukawa modeled the strong force as an exchange force in which the exchange particles are pions and other
heavier particles. The range of a particle exchange force is limited by the uncertainty principle. It is the
strongest of the four fundamental forces.
Since the protons and neutrons which make up the nucleus are themselves considered to be made up of
quarks, and the quarks are considered to be held together by the color force, the strong force between
nucleons may be considered to be a residual color force. In the standard model, therefore, the basic exchange
particle is the gluon which mediates the forces between quarks. Since the individual gluons and quarks are
contained within the proton or neutron, the masses attributed to them cannot be used in the range relationship
to predict the range of the force. When something is viewed as emerging from a proton or neutron, then it must
be at least a quark-antiquark pair, so it is then plausible that the pion as the lightest meson should serve as a
predictor of the maximum range of the strong force between nucleons.

The gluon interaction between nucleons could take, this one

involving up-antiup pair production and annihilation and producing
a π- bridging the nucleons.
 The Standard Model of Particle Physics is scientists’ current best theory to describe
the most basic building blocks of the universe. It explains how particles called
quarks (which make up protons and neutrons) and leptons (which include
electrons) make up all known matter. It also explains how force carrying particles, which
belong to a broader group of bosons, influence the quarks and leptons.
Standard model consist of two component
which include Fermions and Bosons

Fermions are a type of elementary particle

that follow Fermi-Dirac statistics, named
after the physicists Enrico Fermi and Paul
Dirac thay’re simply the building block of
matter.
Bosons are a type of elementary particle
that follow Bose-Einstein statistics, named
after the physicists Satyendra Nath Bose
and Albert Einstein.
 Quarks are elementary particles and a fundamental constituent of
matter. They are one of the building blocks of protons, neutrons, and
other hadrons, and they interact via the strong force, which is mediated
by particles called gluons.

There are 6 type of quark including Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top
and Bottom

Up having a charge of 2/3 and spin of 1/2 same with Charm and Top
but more massive in corresponding order.
On the other hand, Down having a charge of -1/3 and spin of 1/2 same
with Strange and Bottom but more massive in corresponding order.
 A lepton is an elementary particle that does not undergo strong
interactions (unlike quarks). Leptons are one of the fundamental
building blocks of matter and are involved in weak interactions,
electromagnetic interactions, and gravitational interactions. Leptons are
fermions, meaning they have half-integer spin, and they follow the Pauli
exclusion principle.

There are 6 type of quark including Electron, Muon, Tau and their
neutrino partner.

electron having a charge of -1 and spin of 1/2 same with Muon and
Tau but more massive in corresponding order.
On the other hand, neutrino having a charge of 0 and spin of 1/2 same
with Muon and Tau neutrino but more massive in corresponding
order.
 Bosons are one of the two main categories of elementary particles, the other being fermions. Bosons are characterized by
having integer spin (0, 1, 2, etc.), and they obey Bose-Einstein statistics. These particles are responsible for mediating the
fundamental forces of nature, and unlike fermions, multiple bosons can occupy the same quantum state simultaneously.

Gauge bosons are a special category of bosons that act as force

carriers in the Standard Model of particle physics. They mediate the The Higgs boson is a fundamental particle
fundamental forces between elementary particles, and their existence is associated with the Higgs field, which is responsible
predicted by the principles of gauge theory, which is a type of field for giving mass to other elementary particles. It is a
theory that describes how particles interact with each other. key component of the Standard Model of particle
physics, and its discovery in 2012 at the Large
Hadron Collider (LHC) was a significant milestone in
understanding how particles acquire mass.
 Standard Model Lagrangian

The Standard Model Lagrangian is a

mathematical formulation that describes the
fundamental interactions between particles in the
Standard Model of particle physics. It includes
the forces mediated by gauge bosons and the
interactions of these particles with the Higgs field.

“theory of everything”
 Simplified Lagrangian

Complex Lagrangian
แรงพื้นฐานชนิดใดในธรรมชาติที่เกียวข้องกับการสลายตัวของนิวตรอนภายในนิวเคลียส?

ก. แรงนิวเคลียร์อย่างเข้ม

ข. แรงนิวเคลียร์อย่างอ่อน

ค. แรงแม่เหล็กไฟฟ้า

ง. แรงโน้มถ่วง
 ข. แรงนิวเคลียร์อย่างอ่อน

แรงนิวเคลียร์อย่างอ่อนเป็นแรงพื้นฐานที่เกี่ยวข้องกับการสลายตัวของอนุภาคบางชนิด เช่น
นิวตรอนภายในนิวเคลียส โดยแรงนี้ทำหน้าที่ในกระบวนการที่เรียกว่า "การสลายตัวแบบบีต้า" ซึ่ง
เป็นกระบวนการที่นิวตรอนแปลงตัวเองเป็นโปรตอนพร้อมกับการปล่อยอิเล็กตรอนและแอนตินิว
ตริโนออกมา
ในโมเดลมาตรฐานของฟิสิกส์อนุภาค (The Standard Model of Particle Physics)
อนุภาคใดต่อไปนี้ที่ไม่จัดอยู่ในกลุ่มเฟอร์มิออน (Fermions)?

ก. อิเล็กตรอน (Electron)

ข. มิวออน (Muon)

ค. โฟตอน (Photon)

ง. นิวทริโน (Neutrino)
ค. โฟตอน (Photon)

ในโมเดลมาตรฐานของฟิสิกส์อนุภาค อนุภาคถูก
แบ่งออกเป็นสองกลุ่มหลัก คือ เฟอร์มิออน
(Fermions) และโบซอน (Bosons) เฟอร์มิออน
เป็นอนุภาคที่เป็นองค์ประกอบพื้นฐานของสสาร
เช่น อิเล็กตรอน มิวออน และนิวทริโน ซึ่งมีสปิน
เป็นจำนวนครึ่งคี่ (1/2, 3/2, ฯลฯ) ในขณะที่โบซอน
เป็นอนุภาคที่ทำหน้าที่เป็นตัวกลางในการส่งผ่าน
แรงพื้นฐาน เช่น โฟตอน ซึ่งมีสปินเป็นจำนวนเต็ม
(0, 1, ฯลฯ) ดังนั้น โฟตอนเป็นอนุภาคในกลุ่มโบ
ซอน ไม่ใช่เฟอร์มิออน