Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education
Region 02
Division of Cagayan
ABULUG SCHOOL OF FISHERIES

GRADE 7 SCIENCE
Cellular Functions
(Cell Division)

SELF-LEARNING MODULE

Prepared by:

GLENN V. MENDOZA
Abulug School of Fisheries
Centro, Abulug, Cagayan
For the learner,

Welcome to the Biotechnology for Grade 8 Self-Learning Module on Cellular Functions (Cell
Division)!

You have learned in the last module (Grade 8 Self-Learning Module on Cellular Functions –
Cellular Transport) that one of the vital cellular functions is the transport of materials through
the cell. You have learned that the cell membrane plays a very important role in achieving
this function of all cells. You were able to know that these materials move either without the
expenditure of energy in the passive transport, or with the consumption of ATP through the
active transport processes. The transport of materials through the cell membrane allows it to
carry out many important metabolic processes within the cell. One such process is the cell
division – the process involved in the perpetuation of life.
Did you ever wonder how or why wounds heal? Or perhaps you once asked your mother why
babies grow to be as big as their mother or father. Why do lizards able to grow their tail back
after being detached? These are only few questions that can be explained when you study
this module.
With this module, you will learn about the cell cycle and the processes involved in cell
division. You will also obtain knowledge on the types of cell division, their importance as well
as their differences. Just like in the previous modules, this module will provide you with fun
and meaningful opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and
time. You will be able to process the learning resource's contents while being an active
learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

What I Need to Know This will give you an idea of the skills or
competencies you are expected to learn in the
module.

What I Know This part includes an activity that aims to check

what you already know about the lesson to take. If
you get all the answers correct (100%), you may
decide to skip this module.

What’s In This is a brief drill or review to help you link the

current lesson with the previous one.

What’s New In this portion, the new lesson will be introduced to

in various ways such as a story, a song, a poem, a
problem opener, an activity or a situation.

What Is It This section provides a brief discussion of the

lesson. This aims to help you discover and
understand new concepts and skills.

What’s More This comprises activities for independent practice to

solidify your understanding and skills of the topic.

What I Have Learned This includes questions or blank

sentence/paragraph to be filled in to process what
you learned from the lesson
 What I Can Do This section provides an activity which will help you
transfer your knowledge or skill into real life
situations or concerns.

Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your level of

mastery in achieving the learning competency.

Additional Activities In this portion, you will be given another activity to

enrich your knowledge or skill of the lesson learned.
This also tends retention of learned concepts.

Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in the module.

At the end of this module you will also find:

References This is a list of all sources used in developing this

module.

The following are some reminders in using this module:

1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of the
module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering all the
exercises/activities. Do not fail to write your name, grade level, section,
subject, barangay, and activity labels on your answer sheets.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities
included in the module.
3. Read the instructions carefully before doing any task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.

If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not hesitate to
consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are not alone.

We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and gain deep
understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you develop
knowledge about cell division and find practical applications for your learnings. The scope of
this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language used
recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. These lessons are arranged to follow
the standard sequence of the course.

This module is divided into three lessons, namely:

 Lesson 1 – The Cell Cycle

  Lesson 2 – Mitosis
 Lesson 3 – Meiosis

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Explain the events that take place in the cell cycle
2. Describe the remarkable events that take place in mitosis
3. Distinguish among the stages of meiosis
4. Differentiate mitosis and meiosis
5. Cite importance of mitosis and meiosis

What I Know
Before reading and understanding this lesson, let us find out what you already know and
what you still need to know about cell functions, particularly the cell cycle and cell division.
Take a moment to answer the following questions.

Directions: Read each item carefully, then write the letter of your choice on your answer
sheet.

1. The repeated drama of cell division and cell growth is called

a. cell phase c. cell cycle
b. interphase d. cytokinesis
2. Which of the following happens when a cell divides?
a. The cell’s volume increases.
b. The cell has DNA overload
c. It becomes more difficult for the cell to get enough oxygen.
d. Each daughter cell receives its own copy of the parent cell’s DNA
3. During which phase of Mitosis do chromosomes first become visible?
a. anaphase c. prophase
b. metaphase d. telophase
4. A cell with 10 chromosomes undergoes mitosis. How many daughter cells are created with
how many chromosomes each?
a. 2, 5 c. 4, 5
b. 2, 10 d. 4, 10
5. During which phase of mitosis do the chromosomes line up along the middle of the
dividing
cell?
a. Prophase c. Anaphase
b. Metaphase d. Telophase
6. Which is the proper sequence of phases in the cell cycle?
a. Gap 1, Gap 2, Synthesis, M Phase c. M phase, Gap 1, Gap 2, Synthesis
b. Gap 1, Synthesis, Gap 2, M Phase d. Synthesis, M Phase, Gap 1, Gap 2
7. In the cell cycle, cells spend most of their time in what phase?
a. Cytokinesis c. Meiosis
b. Interphase d. Mitosis
8. The process where the cytoplasm divides is called ______.
a. cell plate c. cytokinesis
b. cleavage furrow d. diakinesis
9. Sister chromatids are ____.
a. dense patches within the nucleus
b. bacterial chromosomes
c. joined strands of duplicated genetic material
d. prokaryotic nuclei
10. What structure(s) allows chromosomes to separate and move during mitosis?
a. chromatids c. radiating fibers
b. nuclear envelope d. spindle apparatus

Use the diagram below to answer the next question.

11. The diagram above shows mitosis and interphase. What is the correct sequence of
events based on the diagram?
a. I, II, III, IV, V, VI c. III, VI, I, IV, II, V
b. VI, II, I, IV, V, III d. V, II, IV, I, II, VI
12. At the end of meiotic cell division, how many haploid cells are formed from one cell?
a. one c. three
b. two d. four
13. The cells produced from meiosis contains half the number of chromosomes and are
called
a. haploid c. polyploid
b. diploid d. tetraploid
14. In meiosis, the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the separation of
a. chromatids. c. gametes.
b. daughter cells. d. homologous chromosomes.
15. Meiosis results in the direct production of
a. zygotes c. heterozygous cells
b. gametes d. homozygous cells

What’s In

The previous module taught you about the function of the cell membrane in regulating the
materials that are important to the cell in carrying out its metabolic processes. Do you think
the cell membrane plays a role in cell division? It calls for an intensive study to provide an
answer to the question. However, as a scientist, you may have presumptions about the
question, right? Let’s then find out your suppositions in the first activity. Your answers may
not necessarily be accurate.

Activity 1: In My Opinion!

Directions: Answer the following questions briefly. Write your answers on your answer
sheet.
1. In your opinion, what structure/s of the cell membrane is/are important in carrying out the
cell division?
2. In your opinion, how does the cell membrane help in cell division?
3. In your opinion, why is the cell membrane important in cell division?
4. In your opinion, will the cell division occur without the cell membrane?
5. In your opinion, what question will you be asking if you were given the chance to conduct a
study on the relationship that exist between cell membrane and cell division?

What’s New

Every day, every hour, every second one of the most important events in life is going on in
your body—cells are dividing. When cells divide, they make new cells. A single cell divides to
make two cells, then divide to make four cells, and so on. We call this process "cell division"
and "cell reproduction," because new cells are formed when old cells divide. The ability of
cells to divide is unique for living organisms. This process is the reason why there is a
perpetuation of life. In other words, this metabolic process of cells is the reason why life
continues to exist. The following activities will help you build your knowledge about this
concept.

Cell division is only a part of the life cycle of the cell called the cell cycle. The cell cycle is
the repeated drama of cell growth and cell division. Several stages or phases make up this
process. The cell cycle is composed of the following stages: Gap 1 (Growth 1), Synthesis,
Gap 2 (Growth 2), and M phase (cell division phase). The M phase on the other hand is also
divided into phases which include the Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. You
will get to know and be able to remember them better by undergoing the activity below.

Activity 2: Magical or Logical?

Directions: Read the puzzle below. Write the answer and provide a brief explanation of your
answer on your answer sheet.

Puzzle:
A Petri dish hosts a healthy colony of
bacteria. Once a minute every
bacterium divides into two. The colony
was founded by a single cell at noon.
At exactly 12:43 (43 minutes later) the
Petri dish was half full. At what time
will the dish be full?

Check later if you were able to answer

the puzzle right. This is a puzzle that
gives you an idea of what is contained
in this module – reproduction and
division.

Source: https://www.livescience.com/65598-penicillin.html
This time, acquaint yourself with the terms you may come across within this module. Find
them on the next activity.

Activity 3: Decode! Decipher! Decrypt!

Directions: Work out the given clues to discover the word/s hidden in each item. Use the
Code Cracker given below. Also, identify the representation of the word you have discovered
by writing the letter of the figure (representation) opposite the decoded word. Write your
answer on your answer sheet.

1. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ CODE CRACKER

28 16 28 8 12 36 Letter Code Letter Code
A 12 N 14
2. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ B 20 O 18
64 12 30 27 18 9 36 C 15 P 30
3. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ D 36 Q 50
36 9 30 27 18 9 36 E 16 R 8
F 25 S 10
4. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ G 42 T 28
42 12 21 16 28 16 10 H 64 U 22
I 9 V 81
5. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
10 40 14 12 30 10 9 10 J 100 W 49
K 24 X 35
6. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ L 27 Y 40
15 64 8 18 21 12 28 9 36 M 21 Z 72
7. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
15 16 14 28 8 18 21 16 8 16

8. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
15 64 8 18 21 18 10 18 21 16

9. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
64 18 21 18 27 18 42 18 22 10
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
15 64 8 18 21 18 10 18 21 16 10

10. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
15 40 28 18 24 9 14 16 10 9 10

11. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
8 16 30 27 9 15 12 28 9 18 14

12. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ - ___ ___ ___ ___
15 8 18 10 10 9 14 42 18 81 16 8

13. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
42 12 21 16 28 18 42 16 14 16 10 9 10

14. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
15 27 16 12 81 12 42 16 25 22 8 8 18 49

15. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
16 50 22 12 28 18 8 9 12 27 30 27 12 28 16
 WORD REPRESENTATION
A. B. C.

D. E. F.

G. H. I.

J. K. L.

M. N. O.

Spectacular! These words you were able to crack will be necessary in understanding the
contents of this module. Take note of these words and look for their meaning from any
available reference you have. You may also find their meaning in the internet if you can
access it. After accomplishing this task, proceed to the next part of the module.
What actually is happening in the cell cycle? How do cells actually divide? Is there any
importance of cell division that directly benefits you? Find it out by reading carefully and
comprehending the lessons on the next part.
 What Is It

As mentioned earlier in this module, cell division and cell reproduction is a process unique to
all living things for the perpetuation of their own species. All organisms, even the largest,
start their life from a single cell. You may wonder how a single cell then goes on to form such
large organisms. All cells reproduce by dividing into two, with each parental cell giving rise to
two daughter cells each time they divide. These newly formed daughter cells can themselves
grow and
Lesson divide, giving

1
rise to a new
The Cell Cycle cell population
that is formed
by the growth
The Cell Cycle: Source: https://www.genome.gov/sites/default/files/tg/en/illustration/cell_cycle.jpg
and division of
a single parental cell and
its progeny. In other
words, such cycles of
growth and division allow
a single cell to form a
structure consisting of
millions of cells.

Cell division is a very

important process in all
living organisms. It is the
process in which one cell,
called the parent cell,
divides to form two new
cells, referred to as
daughter cells. During the
division of a cell, DNA
replication and cell growth
take place. All these
processes, (cell division,
DNA replication, and cell
growth) have to take
place in a coordinated
way to ensure correct
division and formation of daughter cells containing intact genomes (complete set of genetic
instruction).

Phases of the Cell Cycle

A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. These cells divide once in
approximately every 24 hours. However, this duration of cell cycle can vary from organism to
organism and also from cell type to cell type. Yeast for example, can progress through the
cell cycle in only about 90 minutes. The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases:
Interphase and M Phase (Mitosis phase).

I. INTERPHASE. The interphase though called the resting phase is the time during which the
cell is preparing for division by undergoing both cell growth and DNA replication in an orderly
manner.
The Interphase of the eukaryotic cell cycle can be subdivided into the following three phases:
1. Growth Phase 1 (G1): The cell spends most of its life in the first gap (sometimes
referred to as growth) phase, G1. During this phase, a cell undergoes rapid growth,
and the cell performs its routine functions. During this phase, the biosynthetic and
metabolic activities of the cell occur at a high rate. The synthesis of amino acids and
hundreds of thousands or millions of proteins that are required by the cell occurs
during this phase. Proteins produced include those needed for DNA replication.
2. Synthesis Phase (S): Dividing cells enter the Synthesis (S) phase from G1. For two
genetically identical daughter cells to be formed, the cell’s DNA must be copied
through DNA replication. Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-
condensed chromatin configuration. In the S phase, DNA replication results in the
formation of two identical copies of each chromosome—sister chromatids—that are
firmly attached at the centromere region. At this stage, each chromosome is made of
two sister chromatids and is a duplicated chromosome. The centrosome is duplicated
during the S phase. The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the
apparatus that coordinates the movement of chromosomes during mitosis. The
centrosome consists of a pair of rod-like centrioles at right angles to each other.
Centrioles help organize cell division. Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of
many eukaryotic species, such as plants and most fungi.
3. Growth Phase 2 (G2): The second gap (growth) (G2) phase is a shortened growth
period in which many organelles are reproduced or manufactured. Parts necessary for
mitosis and cell division are made during G2. Here, the cell replenishes its energy
stores and synthesizes the proteins necessary for chromosome manipulation. Some
cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources
for the mitotic spindle. There may be additional cell growth during G2. The final
preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the cell is able to enter
the first stage of mitosis.

II. MITOSIS PHASE (M PHASE)

To make two daughter cells, the contents of the nucleus and the cytoplasm must be divided.
The mitotic phase is a multistep process during which the duplicated chromosomes are
aligned, separated, and moved to opposite poles of the cell, and then the cell is divided into
two new identical daughter cells. The first portion of the mitotic phase, mitosis, is composed
of five stages, which accomplish nuclear division. The second portion of the mitotic phase,
called cytokinesis, is the physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two
daughter cells, or in short, it is the division of cytoplasm.
 Resting
The Cell Cycle and the Checkpoints
If the cell cycle occurred without 2. DNA Synthesis Checkpoint 1. Cell Growth Checkpoint
regulation, cells might go from one Source: https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/
phase to the next before they were
ready. What controls the cell cycle? How
does the cell know when to grow,
synthesize DNA, and divide? The cell
cycle is controlled mainly by regulatory
proteins. These proteins control the cycle
by signaling the cell to either start or
delay the next phase of the cycle. They
ensure that the cell completes the previous phase before moving on. Regulatory proteins
control the cell cycle at key checkpoints, which are shown in the figure on the right.

1. Cell Growth Checkpoint. The G1 checkpoint, just before entry into S phase, males the
key decision of whether the cell should divide. It occurs towards the end of the growth
phase 1. It checks whether the cell is big enough and has made the proper proteins
for the synthesis phase. If not, the cell goes through a resting period (G0 phase) until
it is ready to divide.
2. The S checkpoint occurs during the S phase. It determines if the DNA has been
replicated properly. If so, the cell continues on to mitosis (M phase).
3. The mitosis checkpoint ensures that all the chromosomes are properly aligned before
the cell is allowed to divide. It occurs during the mitosis phase. It checks whether
mitosis is complete. If so, the cell divides, and the cell cycle repeats.

Cancer and the Cell Cycle

Cancer is a disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated. This happens
because a cell’s DNA becomes damaged. This results in mutations in the genes that regulate
the cell cycle. Damage can occur due to exposure to hazards such as radiation or toxic
chemicals. Cancerous cells generally divide much faster than normal cells. They may form a
mass of abnormal cells called a tumor. The rapidly dividing cells take up nutrients and space
that normal cells need. This can damage tissues and organs and eventually lead to death.
When uncontrolled cell division happens in the bone marrow, abnormal and non-functional
blood cells are
Lesson produced

2 Mitotic Cell Division

because the
division is
happening
before the cell
is ready for
division. In these types of cancer, there is not any evident tumor
.
In mathematics division and multiplication have different meanings. In biology, these two
different words mean the same. That is at least when we talk about reproduction, particularly
in the process of mitosis. Mitosis, sometimes known as replication division, is the division of
the nucleus, thus involve in multiplication of cells. This is the most dramatic period of the cell
cycle, involving a major reorganization of almost all components of the cell. Mitosis is how
somatic—or non-reproductive cells—divide. Somatic cells make up most of your body's
tissues and organs, including skin, muscles, lungs, gut, and hair cells. Reproductive cells
(like eggs) are not somatic cells.
In mitosis, the important thing to remember is that the daughter cells each have the same
chromosomes and DNA as the parent cell. The daughter cells from mitosis are called diploid
cells. Diploid cells have two complete sets of chromosomes. Since the daughter cells have
exact copies of their parent cell's DNA, no genetic diversity is created through mitosis in
normal healthy cells.
Biologists divide the events of mitosis into four phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase
and Telophase. Below is the summary of the most remarkable events that occur in each
phase.

I. PROPHASE. Prophase is the first and longest phase of mitosis.

 Chromosomes condense and become visible
 Spindle fibers emerge from the centrosomes (region where
the centrioles are located)
 Nuclear envelope breaks down
 Nucleolus and other cellular components (ER, Golgi
complex) disappears
 Kinetochore (Proteins in the centromere where spindle fibers
are attached) appear at the centromeres
 Centrioles move towards opposite poles

Centriole
II. METAPHASE. The second phase of mitosis is metaphase.
 Mitotic spindle is fully developed, centrioles are at opposite
poles of the cell
 Chromosomes are lined up at the center of the cell or
metaphase plate (equatorial plate)
 Each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber
originating from opposite poles
Spindle

. Individual
III. ANAPHASE. Anaphase is the third phase of mitosis. chromosomes
 Sister chromatids (now called chromosomes) are
separate and are pulled toward opposite poles
 Non-kinetochore spindle fibers (those that are not
attached to the kinetochore) lengthen, elongating
the cell.

IV. TELOPHASE. Telophase is the fourth and final phase of mitosis.

 The chromosomes arrive at the opposite poles and begin to
de-condense
  Nuclear envelope materials form around each set of chromosomes
 The mitotic spindle breaks down
 Nucleolus and other cellular components reappear

Cytokinesis Cytokinesis in Animal Cells Cytokinesis in Plant Cells

Cytokinesis is the division of the microfilaments ring
cytoplasm in eukaryotes as well as
prokaryotes. During cytokinesis, the
cytoplasm splits in two and the cell
divides. The process is different in
plant and animal cells (see figure). In cleavage furrow cell plate
cell plate joins to the plasma
membrane
animal cells, the process starts with
the formation of the cleavage furrow,
wherein the plasma membrane of the
parent cell pinches inward along the
cell’s equator until two daughter cells
form. In plant cells, it starts when a cell
plate forms along the equator of the
parent cell. Then, a new plasma
membrane and cell wall form along
each side of the cell plate.

Significance of Mitosis
1. Genetic stability. Different species have different number of chromosomes. Humans for
example have 46 or 23 pairs of chromosomes. This number of chromosomes is being
maintained by mitosis. Mitosis helps in the splitting of chromosomes during cell division and
generates two new daughter cells. Consequently, the chromosomes form from the parent
chromosomes by copying the exact DNA. Therefore, the daughter cells formed as
genetically uniform and identical to the parent as well as to each other. Thus mitosis helps in
preserving and maintaining the genetic stability of a particular species or population.
2. Growth and Development. Mitosis helps in increasing the number of cells in a living
organism thereby playing a significant role in the growth of a living organism.
3. Replacement and regeneration of new cells. Regeneration and replacement of worn-
out and damaged tissues is a very important function of mitosis in living organisms. Mitosis
helps in the production of identical copies of cells and thus helps in repairing the damaged
tissue or replacing the worn-out cells. But the degree of regeneration and replacement in
multicellular organisms vary from one another. For example, mitosis process is used in order
to regrowth the legs of newts and crustaceans. However, the degree of regrowth may vary.
4. Asexual reproduction. Mitosis is used in the production of genetically similar offspring.
For example budding of hydra and yeast, binary fission in amoeba, etc. It is also the process
that takes place in vegetative propagation of plants (cutting, budding, etc.)
5. Repair of injured tissues or organs. An essential purpose of mitosis is to replace dead
or damaged cells like skin cells that are constantly being shed. Mitosis also gets to work
when the body experiences a cut or a broken bone. Mitosis quickly replaces lost cells to
restore normal functioning.

Do you know any other importance of mitosis aside from those mentioned above? You can
do a research on the role of mitosis in specific fields like agriculture, environment, medicine,
industry, etc.
 Lesson

3 Meiotic Cell Division

Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent cell
by half and produces four daughter cells. Thus, this type of cell division is called the
reduction division. Meiosis is a process of cell division in eukaryotes characterized by (a) two
consecutive divisions which are meiosis I and meiosis II; (b) no DNA synthesis (no S phase)
between the two divisions; and, (c) the result is 4 cells with half the number of chromosomes
of the starting cell. Meiosis is used for just one purpose in the human body: the production of
gametes—sex cells, or sperm and eggs. Its goal is to make daughter cells with exactly half
as many chromosomes as the starting cell.
To put that another way, meiosis in humans is a division process that takes us from a diploid
cell—one with two sets of chromosomes—to haploid cells—ones with a single set of
chromosomes. In humans, the haploid cells made in meiosis are sperm and eggs. When a
sperm and an egg join in fertilization, the two haploid sets of chromosomes form a complete
diploid set: a new genome (genetic material of an organism).

Phases of Meiosis
I. Meiosis I. Before entering meiosis I, a cell must first go through interphase. As in mitosis,
the cell grows during G1 phase, copies all of its chromosomes during S phase, and prepares
for division during G2 phase.
1. Prophase I. Prophase of the first meiotic division is typically longer and more
complex when compared to prophase of mitosis. It has been further subdivided into
the following five phases based on chromosomal behaviour, i.e., Leptotene, Zygotene,
Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis.
 During leptotene stage, the chromosomes become gradually visible under the
light microscope. The compaction of chromosomes continues throughout
leptotene.
 During zygotene stage, chromosomes start pairing together and this process
of association is called synapsis. Such paired chromosomes are called
homologous chromosomes. Chromosome synapsis is accompanied by the
formation of complex structure called synaptonemal complex. The complex
formed by a pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is called a bivalent or
a tetrad.
 During pachytene stage, bivalent chromosomes now clearly appears as
tetrads. This stage is characterised by the appearance of recombination
nodules, the sites at which crossing over occurs between non-sister
chromatids of the homologous chromosomes. Crossing over is the exchange
of genetic material between two homologous chromosomes which leads to
recombination of genetic material on the two chromosomes.
  The beginning of diplotene is recognised by the dissolution of the
synaptonemal complex and the tendency of the recombined homologous
chromosomes of the bivalents to separate from each other except at the sites
of crossovers. These X-shaped structures, are called chiasmata (singular
chiasma).
 During diakinesis phase, the chromosomes are fully condensed and the
meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare the homologous chromosomes for
separation. By the end of diakinesis, the nucleolus disappears and the nuclear
envelope also breaks down. Diakinesis represents transition to metaphase.
2. Metaphase I
 The meiotic spindle, a network of protein filaments, emerges from two
structures called the centrioles, positioned at either end of the cell. The meiotic
spindle latches onto the fused sister chromatids.
 The microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle attach to the pair of
homologous chromosomes.
 The homologous pairs of chromosomes align on the equatorial plate.
3. Anaphase I
 Spindle fibers shorten, and the chromosomes of each homologous pair start to
separate from each other.
 One chromosome of each pair moves toward one pole of the cell, and the other
chromosome moves toward the opposite pole.
 Chiasmata slip apart as the homologous chromosomes move towards the
opposite poles.
4. Telophase I and Cytokinesis. In some organisms, the nuclear membrane re-forms
and the chromosomes de-condense, although in others, this step is skipped—since
cells will soon go through another round of division, Meiosis II.
 The spindle breaks down.
 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
 The cytoplasm of the cell divides (cytokinesis)
 Two haploid daughter cells result. Each daughter cell is haploid because each
has only one set of chromosomes, or half the total number of chromosomes of
the original cell.

MEIOSIS I

Interphase Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I

and
Cytokinesis
Although in many cases the chromosomes do undergo some dispersion, they do not reach
the extremely extended state of the interphase nucleus. The stage between the two meiotic
divisions is called interkinesis and is generally short lived. Interkinesis is followed by
meiosis II, a much simpler division than meiosis I. Meiosis II is much more similar to mitosis
than meiosis I because the daughter cells from meiosis I are only copied or replicated.

II. Meiosis II. The cells that enter meiosis II are the ones made in meiosis I. These cells are
haploid—have just one chromosome from each homologue pair—but their chromosomes still
consist of two sister chromatids. In meiosis II, the sister chromatids separate, making haploid
cells with non-duplicated chromosomes.
1. Prophase II
 Chromosomes condense
 The nuclear envelope breaks down, if needed.
 The centrosomes move apart, the spindle forms between them, and the spindle
microtubules begin to capture chromosomes.
 The centrioles also start to separate.
2. Metaphase II
 The chromosomes align at the equator.
 The microtubules from opposite poles of the spindle get attached to the
kinetochores.
3. Anaphase II
 It begins with the simultaneous splitting of the centromere of each chromosome
(which was holding the sister chromatids together).
 Chromosomes start to move toward opposite poles of the cell.
4. Telophase II and Cytokinesis
 The chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to de-condense.
 Nuclear envelopes form around the chromosomes.
 Cytokinesis separates the two cells into four unique haploid cells.
 The cells produced are genetically unique because of the random assortment
of paternal and maternal homologs and because of the recombination of
maternal and paternal segments of chromosomes (with their sets of genes) that
occurs during crossing over.

MEIOSIS II

Telophase I Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II and

and Cytokinesis Cytokinesis

Gametogenesis
At the end of meiosis, four haploid cells have been produced, but the cells are not yet
gametes. The cells need to develop before they become mature gametes capable of
fertilization. The development of haploid cells into gametes is called gametogenesis.
Gametogenesis may differ between males and females. Male gametes are called sperm.
Female gametes are called eggs. In human males, for example, the process that produces
mature sperm cells is called spermatogenesis. During this process, sperm cells grow a tail
and gain the ability to “swim”. In human females, the process that produces mature eggs is
called oogenesis. Just one egg is produced from the four haploid cells that result from
meiosis.

1. Spermatogenesis
During spermatogenesis, primary spermatocytes go through the first cell division of meiosis
to produce secondary spermatocytes. These are haploid cells. Secondary spermatocytes
then quickly complete the meiotic division to become spermatids, which are also haploid
cells. The four haploid cells produced from meiosis develop a flagellum tail and compact
head piece to become mature sperm cells, capable of swimming and fertilizing an egg. The
compact head, which has lost most of its cytoplasm, is key in the formation of a streamlined
shape. The middle piece of the sperm, connecting the head to the tail, contains many
mitochondria, providing energy to the cell. The sperm cell essentially contributes only DNA to
the zygote.

2. Oogenesis
Oogenesis begins before birth and is not completed until after fertilization. Oogenesis begins
when oogonia (singular, oogonium), which are the immature eggs that form in the ovaries
before birth and have the diploid number of chromosomes, undergo mitosis to form primary
oocytes, also with the diploid number. Oogenesis proceeds as a primary oocyte undergoes
the first cell division of meiosis to form secondary oocytes with the haploid number of
chromosomes. A secondary oocyte only undergoes the second meiotic cell division to form a
haploid ovum if it is fertilized by a sperm. The one egg cell that results from meiosis contains
most of the cytoplasm, nutrients, and organelles. This unequal distribution of materials
produces one large cell, and one cell with little more than DNA. This other cell, known as a
polar body, eventually breaks down. The larger cell undergoes meiosis II, once again
producing a large cell and a polar body. The large cell develops into the mature gamete,
called an ovum. The unequal distribution of the cytoplasm during oogenesis is necessary as
the zygote that results from fertilization receives all of its cytoplasm from the egg. So the egg
needs to have as much cytoplasm as possible.

Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis

Significance of Meiosis
1. Meiosis is responsible for the formation of sex cells or gametes that are responsible for
sexual reproduction.
2. It activates the genetic information for the development of sex cells and deactivates the
sporophytic information.
3. It maintains the constant number of chromosomes by halving the same. This is important
because the chromosome number doubles after fertilization.
4. In this process independent assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes takes
place. Thus the chromosomes and the traits controlled by them are reshuffled.
5. The genetic mutation occurs due to irregularities in cell division by meiosis. The mutations
that are beneficial are carried on by natural selection.
6. Crossing over produces a new combination of traits and variations.

What’s More

Activity 4: Mnemonics Time!

Directions: In order to remember the correct sequence of the phases or stages of the cell
cycle and cell division easier, mnemonics are used. For example, the mnemonic used for the
stages of the cell cycle (Gap 1, Synthesis, Gap 2, and M phase) is Grow Strong, Grow
Mighty and the mnemonic for the phases of the M phase (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,
and Telophase) is Papa, Mama Are Together. Now, it’s your turn. In this activity, you are
going to make your own mnemonic for the stages mentioned above. Write your answer on
your answer sheet. (NOTE: Filipino Words are accepted/considered)

Cell Cycle M Phase

G– P–
S– M–
G– A–
M– T–

Great job! You can now recall the sequence of these processes with ease because you
made your own mnemonics. It’s quite easy right? You can also create your own mnemonic in
your other subjects if you have difficulty in memorizing the sequence of events.

Activity 5: SQ3R
Directions: Provide the necessary answers to the following items. Write your answers on
your answer sheet.

Topics/Titles: Cell Cycle and Cell Division

Survey: Write at least 3 important descriptions for each title.
a. Cell Cycle b. Cell Division (Mitosis and/or
Meiosis)
_____________________________ _____________________________
_____________________________ _____________________________
_____________________________ _____________________________

Question: Write “What, Where, Why, and How questions from each of the main topics (titles)
What: _______________________________________________________________
Where: ______________________________________________________________
Why: ________________________________________________________________
How: ________________________________________________________________

Read: Write answers to questions from above.

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Recite: Record key facts and phrases needed for each question.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Review: Create a short summary paragraph for each topic (titles)

Cell Cycle: ___________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Cell Division: _________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

What I Have Learned

Activity 6: Cloze!

Directions: Complete the following paragraph with the correct word/phrase. Write your
answer on your answer sheet.

A. Cell Cycle
(1) ______ is the name we give the process through which cells replicate and make two new
cells. It has two main phases called the (2) ______ and (3) ______. The interphase is the
period of cell (4) ______, wherein there is no sign of cell division yet. It is subdivided further
into three stages. (5) ______ is the stage where the cell is preparing to divide. To do this, it
then moves into the S phase where the cell copies all the DNA. So, S stands for (6) ______.
After the DNA is copied and there's a complete extra set of all the genetic material, the cell
moves into the (7) ______ stage, where it organizes and condenses the genetic material, or
starts to condense the genetic material, and prepares to divide. The next stage is (8) ______
stage. It is the period of actual cell (9) ______ and this is where the cell actually partitions the
two copies of the genetic material into the (10) ______ daughter cells. After M phase
completes, cell division occurs and two cells are left, and the cell cycle can begin again.

B. Mitosis
The second phase of the cell cycle is known as (1) ______, which is the division of the (2)
______. This type of division is sometimes called the (3) ______ division because the
number of chromosomes are not changed. Mitosis produces (4) ______ daughter cells that
are genetically the same. The daughter cells are called (5) ______, which means that they
contain the complete set of chromosomes of the organism. It is divided into four stages
known as (6) _______, (7) _______, (8) _______, and (9) _______.
Mitosis is completed after the division of the cytoplasm, known as (10) _______.

C. Meiosis
(1) ______ is a type of cell division that reduces the number of (2) ______ in the parent cell
by half and produces (3) ______ gamete cells. This process is required to produce (4)
______ and (5) ______ cells for sexual reproduction. During reproduction, when the sperm
and egg unite to form a single cell, the number of chromosomes is restored in the offspring.
The parent cell undergoes one round of DNA replication followed by two separate cycles of
nuclear division. The process results in four daughter cells that are (6) ______, which means
they contain half the number of chromosomes of the diploid parent cell. Meiosis begins
following one round of DNA replication in cells in the male or female sex organs. The process
is split into (7) ______ and (8) ______, and both meiotic divisions have multiple phases.
Meiosis I is a type of cell division unique to (9) ______ or germ cells , while meiosis II is
similar to (10) ______.

Congratulations! You are now informed of the different processes involved in cell cycle and
cell division. For additional learnings and skills, you may download free applications in “Play
Store” about cell cycle and cell division.
What are the practical applications of these learnings you have now? Is it important to know
all of these concepts? How can you apply them in real life situations? Try the next activity to
find out.

What Can I Do

Activity 7: The Story of My Life

Directions: Make a narrative of your personal experiences on how any of the lessons/topics
in this module became important to you (or any family member) in any way. Use the rubric
below as your guide:
 Category 4 3 2 1
There is a well-developed
Background
introduction with an
details are a
attention grabber that
Introduction random, unclear
grabs the reader’s interest Introduction
adequately collection of
and continues to engage creates interest.
explains the information.
the reader. The narrative Narrative states
background, but Narrative is
INTRODUCTION should clearly state the the position.
may lack detail. vague and
and CONCLUSION experience or event that Conclusion
Narrative states unclear.
will be described as well effectively
the topic, but key Conclusion is
as the effect on the writer. summarizes the
elements are not effective
Conclusion should topic.
missing and does not
effectively wrap up and re
summarize
stresses the importance of
main points.
the narrative.
Three or more
main points relate
Three or more Less than three
Well-developed main to the narrative,
main points are ideas/main
points/topic sentences that but some may
present, but lack points are
relate directly to the lack details. The
details in explained
MAIN POINTS narrative. Supporting narrative shows
describing the and/or they are
(Body Paragraphs) examples are concrete events from the
event. Little poorly
and detailed. The author’s point of
descriptive developed. The
narrative is developed with view, but could
language is story tells; it
an effective point of view. use more
used. doesn’t show
descriptive
language.
Logical Progression of
Logical
ideas with a clear Organization is Writing is not
progression of
structure that enhances clear. organized. The
ORGANIZATION ideas. Transitions
the narrative. Transitions Transitions are transitions
(Structure and are present
are effective and vary present at times, between ideas
Transitions) throughout the
throughout the paragraph, but there is very are unclear or
essay, but lacks
not just in the topic little variety. nonexistent.
variety.
sentences.
Writing is clear,
Writing is smooth, skillful, Writing is
Writing is clear but could use a
and coherent. Sentences confusing and
and sentences little more
STYLE are strong and expressive hard to follow.
have varied sentence variety
(Sentence Flow, with varied structure. Contains
structure, to make the
Variety, Diction) Language is consistent fragments
Language is writing more
and words are well and/or run-on
consistent. interesting.
chosen. sentences.
Punctuation,
MECHANICS There are only a Distracting
spelling, and
(Spelling, few (3-4) errors errors in
Punctuation, spelling, and capitalization are
Punctuation, in punctuation, punctuation,
capitalization are all generally correct
Capitalization) spelling, and spelling, and
correct. No errors. with few errors
capitalization. capitalization.
(1-2)

Assessment

Activity 8: What Division Are You?

Directions: Identify the following statements whether a characteristic of mitotic cell division
or meiotic cell division. Write MITOSIS if it describes a mitotic cell division and MEIOSIS if it
describes a meiotic cell division on your answer sheet.

1. Creates all body cells (somatic) apart from the germ cells (eggs and sperm)
2. Creates germ cells (eggs and sperm) only
3. Daughter cells are genetically different
4. Daughter cells are genetically identical
5. Individual chromosomes (pairs of chromatids) line up along the equator
6. Involves one cell division.
7. Involves recombination/crossing over of chromosomes
8. Involves two successive cell divisions
9. No recombination/crossing over occurs
10. Occurs in all organisms except viruses
11. Pairs of chromosomes line up along the equator
12. Results in diploid daughter cells (chromosome number remains the same as parent cell)
13. Results in four daughter cells
14. Results in haploid daughter cells (chromosome number is halved from the parent cell)
15. Results in two daughter cells
16. Tetrads are formed
17. The first stage is much shorter
18. The first stage takes much longer
19. The sister chromatids are separated into opposite poles
20. The sister chromatids move together to the same pole

Activity 9: What Stage Are You?

Directions: The drawings below show various stages of mitosis in a fast-growing onion root
tip. On your answer sheet, identify the cells (by number) which are in the following stages of
mitosis:
Interphase: __________ Metaphase: __________ Telophase: __________
Prophase: __________ Anaphase:
 Additional Activities

To tell whether you truly understood the concepts included in this module, construct a Venn
diagram of the following:
a. Interphase and Mitosis
b. Mitosis and Meiosis
c. Meiosis I and Meiosis II
Construct your Venn diagrams on your answer sheet.

References:

A. Books
1. Dr. Noor, H., et. al. (2007). Focus Super Biology. Latest Syllabus. Malaysia: The
Commercial Press Sdn. Bhd.
2. Biologydictionary.net Editors. “Cell Membrane.” Biology Dictionary,
Biologydictionary.net, 13 Mar. 2017
3. Audesirk, T., et. al. (1996). BIOLOGY Life on Earth. Fourth Edition. New Jersey:
Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company.
4. Curtis, H., et. al. (1985). Invitation to Biology. Fourth Edition. USA: Worth Publishers,
Inc.
5. Alexander P., Ph. D., et. al. (1986). Biology The Living World. New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall, Inc.

B. Other References (Internet Sources)

1. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/cell-division
2. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Book
%3A_Human_Biology_(Wakim_and_Grewal)/07%3A_Cell_Reproduction/
7.2%3A_Cell_Cycle_and_Cell_Division
3. https://www.cellsalive.com/cell_cycle.htm
4. https://www.britannica.com/science/cell-cycle
5. https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/cell-cycle-and-cell-division/mitosis/
6. https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Davis/BIS_2A
%3A_Introductory_Biology_(Britt)/Readings/22%3A_Meiosis
7. https://biologydictionary.net/meiosis/
8. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/heredity/meiosis-and-genetic-
diversity/a/phases-of-meiosis
9. https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/meiosis-88/
10. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/cell-division
11. https://byjus.com/biology/significance-of-meiosis/
12. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book
%3A_Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/02%3A_Cell_Biology/2.38%3A__Gametogenesis
13. https://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjm_Nz51O
DsAhUTzmEKHYdpAl4QFjAOegQIARAC&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fahs.aurorahuskies.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites
%2F3%2F2016%2F10%2Fdeep_map_essay_rubric.doc&usg=AOvVaw3yoytrVeYz8qj
KyN24iowP