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HANDBOOK OF VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS
Design, Implementation, and Applications
HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS
Gavriel Salvendy, Series Editor
Stephanidis, C. (Ed.): User Interfaces for All: Concepts, Methods, and Tools
Smith, M. J., Salvendy, G., Harris, D., and Koubeck, R. J. (Eds.): Usability
Evaluation and Interface Design: Cognitive Engineering, Intelligent Agents and
Virtual Reality
Meister, D., and Enderwick, T.: Human Factors in System Design, Development,
and Testing
For more information on LEA titles, please contact Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers, at www.erlbaum.com.
HANDBOOK OF VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS
Design, Implementation, and Applications
Edited by
Kay M. Stanney
University of Central Florida
This book was typeset in 10/12 pt. Times, Italic, Bold, Bold Italic. The heads were
typeset in Helvetica Bold, and Helvetica Bold Italic.
The editor, authors, and the publisher have made every effort to provide accurate and
complete information in this handbook but the handbook is not intended to serve as a
replacement for professional advice. Any use of this information is at the reader’s
discretion. The editor, authors, and the publisher specifically disclaim any and all
liability arising directly or indirectly from the use or application of any information
contained in this handbook. An appropriate professional should be consulted
regarding your specific situation.
Series Foreword xi
Foreword xiii
Perspective xv
Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxiii
Advisory Board xxv
About the Editor xxix
Contributors xxxi
I: INTRODUCTION
1 Virtual Environments in the 21st Century 1
Kay M. Stanney and Michael Zyda
2 Virtual Environments Standards and Terminology 15
Richard A. Blade and Mary Lou Padgett
vii
viii CONTENTS
Software Requirements
12 Virtual Environment Models 255
G. Drew Kessler
13 Principles for the Design of Performance-oriented Interaction Techniques 277
Doug A. Bowman
14 Technological Considerations in the Design of Multisensory Virtual
Environments: The Virtual Field of Dreams Will Have to Wait 301
W. Todd Nelson and Robert S. Bolia
15 Embodied Autonomous Agents 313
Jan M. Allbeck and Norman I. Badler
16 Internet-based Virtual Environments 333
Charles E. Hughes, J. Michael Moshell, and Dean Reed
Application Requirements
17 Structured Development of Virtual Environments 353
John R. Wilson, Richard M. Eastgate, and Mirabelle D’Cruz
18 Influence of Individual Differences on Application Design for Individual
and Collaborative Immersive Virtual Environments 379
David B. Kaber, John V. Draper, and John M. Usher
19 Using Virtual Environments as Training Simulators: Measuring Transfer 403
Corinna E. Lathan, Michael R. Tracey, Marc M. Sebrechts,
Deborah M. Clawson, and Gerald A. Higgins
V: EVALUATION
34 Usability Engineering of Virtual Environments 681
Deborah Hix and Joseph L. Gabbard
35 Human Performance Measurement in Virtual Environments 701
Donald Ralph Lampton, James P. Bliss, and Christina S. Morris
36 Virtual Environment Usage Protocols 721
Kay M. Stanney, Robert S. Kennedy, and Kelly Kingdon
37 Measurement of Visual Aftereffects Following Virtual Environment Exposure 731
John P. Wann and Mark Mon-Williams
38 Proprioceptive Adaptation and Aftereffects 751
Paul DiZio and James R. Lackner
39 Vestibular Adaptation and Aftereffects 773
Thomas A. Stoffregen, Mark H. Draper, Robert S. Kennedy,
and Daniel Compton
40 Presence in Virtual Environments 791
Wallace Sadowski and Kay Stanney
41 Ergonomics in Virtual Environments 807
Pamela R. McCauley Bell
VII: CONCLUSION
56 Virtual Environments: History and Profession 1167
Richard A. Blade and Mary Lou Padgett
With the rapid evolution of highly sophisticated computers, communications, service, and
manufacturing systems, a major shift has occurred in the way people use and work with tech-
nology. The objective of this series on human factors and ergonomics is to provide researchers
and practitioners alike with a platform through which to address a succession of human factors
disciplines associated with advancing technologies, by reviewing seminal works in the field,
discussing the current status of major topics, and providing a starting point to focus future
research in these ever evolving disciplines. The guiding vision behind this series is that human
factors and ergonomics should play a preeminent role in ensuring that emerging technologies
provide increased productivity, quality, satisfaction, safety, and health in the context of the
“Information Society.”
The present volume is published at a very opportune time. Now more than ever technology
is becoming pervasive in every aspect of the Information Society, both in the workplace and
in everyday life activities. The field of virtual environments (VEs) emerged some 40 years
ago as a very exotic, extremely expensive technology whose use was difficult to justify. The
discipline has matured, and the cost of VE technology has decreased by over 100-fold, while
computer speed has increased by over 1,000 fold, which makes it a very effective and viable
technology to use in a broad spectrum of applications, from personnel training to task design.
With this viability and broad potential application come numerous issues and opportunities, and
a responsibility on the part of researchers, practitioners, designers, and users of this powerful
technology to ensure that it is deployed appropriately.
The Handbook of Virtual Environments was guided by a distinguished advisory board of
scholars and practitioners, who assisted the editor in ensuring a balanced coverage of the
entire spectrum of issues related to VE technology, from fundamental science and technology
to VE applications. This was achieved in a thorough and stimulating presentation, covered in
56 chapters, authored by 121 individuals from academia, industry, and government laboratories
from Europe, Asia and the United States on topics of system requirements (including hardware
and software), design and evaluation methods, and an extensive discussion of applications. All
this was presented, after careful peer reviews, to the publisher in 1,911 manuscript pages,
including 3,012 references for further in-depth reading, 255 figures, and 76 tables to illustrate
concepts, methods, and applications. Thus, this handbook provides a most comprehensive
account of the state of the art in virtual environments, which will serve as an invaluable source
of reference for practitioners, researchers, and students in this rapidly evolving discipline.
xi
xii SERIES FOREWORD
This could not have been achieved without the diligence and insightful work of the editor and
cooperative efforts of the chapter authors who have made it all possible. For this, my sincere
thanks and appreciation go to all of you.
—Gavriel Salvendy
Series Editor
Foreword
An explosion has occurred in recent years in our understanding of virtual environments (VEs)
and in the technologies required to produce them. Virtual environments, as a way for humans
to interact with machines and with complex information sets, will become commonplace in
our increasingly technological world. In order for this to be practical, multimodal system
requirements must be developed and design approaches must be addressed. Potential health
and safety risks associated with VE systems must be fully understood and taken into account.
Finally, ergonomic and psychological concerns must be investigated so people will enjoy using
VE technology, be comfortable using it, and seek out its application.
This book provides an up-do-date discussion of the current research on virtual environments.
It describes the current VE state of the art and points out the many areas where there is still
work to be done. The Handbook of Virtual Environments provides an invaluable comprehen-
sive reference for experts in the field, as well as for students and VE researchers. Both the
theoretical and the practical side of VE technologies are explored.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has long been interested in
virtual environments. This interest arises from the need for humans to efficiently interact with
complex spacecraft systems and to work with very large data sets generated by satellites. In
the future, when humans travel beyond low Earth orbit to explore the universe, the relationship
between the space-faring crew and the technologies they bring with them must be extremely
intimate. The need for a small number of people to be able to work with a huge number of
different technologies will be unprecedented. Virtual environment trainers, for example, are
particularly attractive as a means of conducting just-in-time training before a crew member
conducts a maintenance procedure not practiced for many months. In terrestrial applications,
the complete life cycle for the design of complex systems such as aerospace vehicles will be
completed virtually, before a single piece of metal is cut.
NASA’s needs are unique in some respects but share much in common with other endeav-
ors in today’s world. Virtual environment technologies will also find military, medical, and
commercial (e.g., in manufacturing and in entertainment) applications. As the science and tech-
nology of VEs progress, full-immersion technologies will likely become a standard interface
between humans and machines. This book will help to make that vision a “real” reality.
—Guy Fogleman
Acting Director, Bioastronautics Research Division
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Washington, DC
xiii
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Perspective
We read that we are in a new economy and that the pace of technological change is accelerating.
This seems true because there are so many revolutionary innovations popping up. However,
from the vantage of a given field, the picture can seem very different. It is over 35 years
since Ivan Sutherland gave his address, “The Ultimate Display,” at the National Computer
Conference. Part of the delay is explained by the observation that problems that are not worked
on do not get solved. Only a few years ago, I could argue that progress in the field was being held
back because the enabling devices being used—the Polhemus magnetic tracker, the DataGlove,
and the screens from handheld consumer television sets—were invented decades earlier. No
one ever disagreed with those assertions. Today, it is different. In the best “divide and conquer”
tradition, researchers have deployed themselves around every possible research problem. All
of the easy problems have been run over and very smart people are working on most of the
hard problems. In this book, those same people are reporting where things stand.
In fact, at least one hard problem has been solved, at least in preliminary form. Thirty
years ago, I considered head-mounted displays (HMDs), but reasoned that they would be
unacceptable unless they were wireless and permitted natural ambulation around a large area.
I rejected the approach—not because I thought it was too hard but because I felt that the
encumbering paraphernalia would be too awkward. I did not then appreciate how fast and
how accurate the tracking would have to be and understood little about multipath transmission
problems and diversity receivers. After 20 years of effort, the University of North Carolina
recently demonstrated a wide-area tracking system with the needed performance and reported
that its impact on the user’s experience was every bit as powerful as one would hope it would
be. Finally, it is possible to show what an HMD can do that no other display can.
A host of applications have been attempted in visualization, training, and entertainment.
Even once unlikely opportunities have been gaining traction. In 1970, I received what I suspect
was the first job offer in virtual reality. Dr. Arnold Ludwig came into my interactive installation
and was so impressed with its impact on people’s behavior that he wanted me to join him in
the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Kentucky and to focus my interactions on
psychotherapy. Today, virtual therapy is a thriving field with nothing to fear but the running
out of phobias.
However, many of these “applications” have been motivated by the desire to do research
rather than the expectation that the results would be immediately practical. Some of these
systems are being used to do real work within the organizations that created them. An even
smaller number have been sold to early adopters. But virtual environment (VE) applications are
xv
xvi PERSPECTIVE
not yet being sucked into the marketplace by irresistible demand. Thus, while VE technology
may be able to do a job, it is not yet recognized as the best or most cost effective way to do
any job.
On the other hand, virtual environments have been unusually successful at spinning off
its technology into adjacent fields even before it has gotten under way itself. Techniques for
tracking human motion developed for VEs are now standard procedure in the film industry.
Haptic devices are working their way into desktop and automotive systems. Virtual surgery,
once a wild speculation, then a Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) pro-
gram managed by Richard Satava, and now a nascent industry with publicly traded companies,
is selling robotic surgical systems and surgical simulations to hospitals. Finally, the HMD has
been incorporated into eyeglasses and has to be considered a competitor for the mobile display
of the future.
In the background, Moore’s law has continued to operate, assuring the increase in computer
power and the advance of computer graphics. However, it is important to note that while the
film industry routinely spends an hour computing a single frame of graphic animation, a VE
1 1
system has only 30 or 60 of a second to create its necessarily simpler image. This is a 100,000:1
difference in time, or 16 doublings, or a 24-year lag between the time a state-of-the-art image
appears in film and when a similarly complex image can be used in virtual environments. Mere
doublings do not guarantee subjective improvement; only orders of magnitude are discernible.
Nevertheless, we can be confident that ultimately the needed processing and graphics capacity
will be readily affordable.
At that point, all that remains to be developed is the VE technology itself: the tracking, the
displays, and an answer to the question that I posed well over a decade ago: Would you use
it if it was free? Whatever you are willing to pay for a technology, once you own it, it is free.
How much you choose to use it at this point determines its future as much as the economics
of its purchase or the efficacy of its performance. If it is a pleasure to use, you will try to use
it for everything you can think of. If it is awkward and uncomfortable, you will not use it for
any task where it is not absolutely required. In fact, you will be looking for an alternative way
to perform the tasks for which it is suited.
The question is: How good does it have to be? Not so long ago, I attended a conference at
which the keynote speaker declared computer graphics to be the key to VE technology and
that more realistic images would assure its success. I asked him, “If we turned out the lights,
would we still be here?” The point was that graphic realism does not appear to be necessary
or sufficient. It would seem simple to depict a dark, cloudy night—or just a dark room—with
current graphic technology, but instinct suggests that the experience would not be convincing.
There is still a long distance between depiction and illusion.
In visualization applications, believability is not so important. Training can be useful even
if the experience is not totally persuasive. A game or a story can be entertaining even if
the participant never suspends disbelief, but in each case, there is a threshold at which a
technology goes beyond serviceable and becomes compelling. When this threshold is crossed,
the technology is poised to go from being a niche solution to becoming a way of life.
It is not clear where critical mass will be reached first. Will one of the immersion applications
take hold? Will a VE entertainment system supplant traditional video games? Or will the desire
for portable wearable devices lead to the routine wearing of HMDs unobtrusively integrated
with eyeglasses? At the moment, I would bet on the latter because the standards for success
are so low. Text is easy to display. The screens on cell phones and handheld computers are too
small. And while speech may be ideal for answering questions, it is too slow for presenting
options. Only an eyeglass-mounted display can provide the full screen of information that we
take for granted at the desktop. If popular, such limited devices would inevitably be used for
gaming, just as cell phones are today. Head tracking would make those games more interactive,
PERSPECTIVE xvii
if not more convincing, and augmented reality applications could be implemented in specific
locations like grocery stores. More immersive displays could then evolve over a period of time,
always assured of this installed base.
Starting from the other direction, real breakthroughs are needed in HMD design to provide
immersive experiences that are guaranteed to work. A wide field of view and minimal weight
are required before we can be confident that the HMD wearer will forget the apparatus and
embrace the virtual world.
Whatever the path or pace of the technology and its deployment, virtual reality will maintain
its proper role as the best metaphor for the world that is evolving around us. It will continue to
be depicted in films and incorporated into everyday thought to the point that it is so familiar
as a concept that by the time the real thing seeps into our daily lives, we may barely notice.
—Myron Krueger
President
Artificial Reality Corporation
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Preface
When computers first permeated the public domain, thoughts of the Turing Test arose yet
were quickly extinguished, as users labored over perplexing interfaces, which often left them
bewildered and thoroughly frustrated. There had to be a better way, and so began the field
of human–computer interaction (HCI). HCI efforts have substantially improved computer
interaction, yet barriers to user friendliness still exist due to the abstract concepts that must
be conquered to successfully use a computer. A user must work through an interface (e.g.,
window, menu, icon, or some other mechanism) to achieve desired goals. They cannot access
these goals directly, but only through their interface surrogates. Until now.
Virtual environments (VEs) allow users to be immersed into three-dimensional digital
worlds, surrounding them with tangible objects to be manipulated and venues to be traversed,
which they experience from an egocentric perspective. Through the concrete and familiar, users
can enact known perceptual and cognitive skills to interact with a virtual world; there is no
need to learn contrived conventions. Virtual environments also extend the realm of computer
interaction, from the purely visual to multimodal communication that more closely parallels
human–human exchanges. VE users not only see visual representations, they can also reach
out and grab objects, “feel” their size, rotate them in any given axis, hear their movement, and
even smell associated aromas. Such experiences do not have to be in solitude, as VE users
can take along artificial autonomous agents or collaborate with other users who also have
representations within the virtual world. Taken together, this multisensory experience affords
natural and intuitive interaction.
The paragraph above describes an ideal, but not, unfortunately, the current state of the
art. In today’s virtual environments, users are immersed into an experience with suboptimal
visual resolution, inadequate spatialization of sound, encumbering interactive devices, and
misregistration of tracking information. These issues are among the scientific and technological
challenges that must be resolved to realize the full potential of VE technology, which were
well defined by Nathaniel Durlach and Anne Mavor in their seminal work, Virtual Reality:
Scientific and Technological Challenges. Chapter 1 of this handbook furthers this definitional
effort by reviewing the recommendations set forth by Durlach and Mavor and identifying the
current status of those objectives, the sine qua non being that VE technology, both hardware
and software, has realized substantial gains in the past decade and is posed to support the
next generation of highly sophisticated VE systems. However, psychological considerations
and VE usability evaluation require additional study to identify how best to design and use
VE technology. In addition, Durlach and Mavor (1995, p. 2) mentioned in their work the
xix
xx PREFACE
more intuitive and natural manner, with multidisciplinary design teams communicating their
ideas via the VE medium. Advances in information visualization are enabling dynamic inves-
tigation of multidimensional, highly complex data domains. Manufacturing VE applications
have led to advances in the design of manufacturing activities and manufacturing facilities,
execution of planning, control, and monitoring activities, and execution of physical processing
activities. Likely the most popular of all VE applications, the entertainment industry is leading
the way to truly innovative uses of the technology. From interactive arcades to cyber cafes,
the entertainment industry has leveraged the unique characteristics of this communications
medium, providing dynamic experiences to those who come along for the ride.
This handbook closes with a brief review of the history of VE technology, as we must ac-
knowledge the pioneers whose innovativeness and courage provided the keystones for contem-
porary successes. The final chapter also provides information on the VE profession, providing
those interested with a number of sources to further their quest for the keys to developing the
ultimate virtual world.
The main objective of this handbook is to provide practitioners with a reference source
to guide their development efforts. We have endeavored to provide a resource that not only
addresses technology concerns but also tackles the social and business implications with which
those associated with the technology are likely to grapple. While each chapter has a strong
theoretical foundation, practical implications are derived and illustrated via the many tables
and figures presented.
Taken together, the chapters present systematic and extensive coverage of the primary areas
of research and development within VE technology. The handbook brings together a com-
prehensive set of contributed articles that address the principles required to define system
requirements and design, build, evaluate, implement, and manage the effective use of VE
applications. The scope and detail of the handbook are extensive, and no one person could
possibly do justice to the breadth of coverage provided. Thus, the handbook leveraged author-
itative specialists that were able to provide critical insights and principles associated with their
given area of expertise. It is through the collective effort of the many contributing authors that
such a broad body of knowledge was assembled.
If men will not act for themselves, what will they do when the benefit of their effort is for all?
—Elbert Hubbard, A Message to Garcia (p. 23)
In the case of the many contributors to this handbook, the answer to this question is that they will
selflessly endeavor to provide the insights and assistance required to realize this tremendous
effort. In many ways I feel the creation of this handbook is “our Message to Garcia,” one
developed through altruistic dedication, the only impetus being that such a source is direly
needed in the field. Many individuals openly gave of their time, energy, and knowledge in order
to develop this handbook, often when they were fully loaded with their own responsibilities.
The efforts of the many contributing authors and to the advisory board, which helped formulate
the content coverage, are most sincerely appreciated.
To Gavriel Salvendy, who has provided me with many opportunities, including the invitation
to edit this handbook, which have shaped and molded my career I am forever grateful. I have also
been blessed with the finest of mentors, Robert S. Kennedy, who gives tirelessly of himself—
thank you. I am greatly appreciative of the support of the National Science Foundation, Office
of Naval Research, and Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division, in particular Gary
W. Strong, Helen M. Gigley, and Robert Breaux. The National Science Foundation CAREER
Award and ONR Young Investigator Award have provided me with the opportunity to develop
technical depth in human-computer interaction and virtual environment technology and fos-
tered interchange with experts in the field, many of whom contributed chapters to this handbook.
Each chapter in the handbook was peer reviewed. I would like to thank the many advisory
board members and chapter contributors who assisted with this process, as well as the fol-
lowing individuals who kindly gave of their time to the review process: Andi Cowell, Chuck
Daniels, Nathaniel Durlach, Jason Fox, Thomas Furness, Phillip Hash, Susan Lanham, Dennis
McBride, Dean Owen, Randy Pausch, Leah Reeves, Mario Rodriguez, Randy Stiles, and
Mark Wiederhold.
For the persistent efforts and encouragement of Anne Duffy, our Lawrence Erlbaum senior
editor, who stuck with me even as I missed deadlines and acted out of frustration, I am deeply
grateful.
Much appreciation goes to Branka Wedell, who took my amorphous ideas and, through her
inspired creativity, designed the striking cover art for this handbook.
xxiii
xxiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The efforts of David Bush are greatly appreciated, as he assisted with many of the activities
associated with the handbook and always with a smile on his face. I am also indebted to Kelly
Kingdon, who assisted me with many of my personal responsibilities so that I had more time
to dedicate to this effort.
To those individuals who constitute the fabric of my life, my parents who instilled the work
ethic that allowed me to persevere and see this effort through to completion, my sisters and
brother, my very best friends, my brother-in-law who introduced me to A Message to Garcia
at an opportune moment, and my three sons, Sean, Ryan, and Michael, who fill my world with
sunshine, I have been blessed by your encouragement and confidence.
Above all, I am deeply indebted to my husband, who not only encouraged me as I fretted
that this handbook would remain a virtual reality, but also rolled up his sleeves and assisted
with editing and proofreading. His love is my pillar and his steadfast support of my career is
my forte.
—Kay M. Stanney
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MIES.
Hoi, Jakob!
(Jakob tulee.)
JAKOB.
(Menee.)
IV
PAPPIEN KUORO.
ENSIMÄINEN KREIVI.
TOINEN KREIVI.
Luulee maailman mullistaneensa.
KOLMAS KREIVI.
ENSIMÄINEN KREIVI.
TOINEN KREIVI.
ARKKIPIISPA.
ÄÄNIÄ.
ARKKIPIISPA.
Eläköön, eläköön!
ERÄS ÄÄNI.
En hyväksy!
TOISIA ÄÄNIÄ.
MIES.
(Hetken äänettömyys.)
PAPPIEN KUORO.
MIES.
Vannomme.
KUORO.
ÄÄNIÄ.
Vannomme.
MIES.
KREIVI.
Ennen mitä?
MIES.
Ennen kuolemaa.
Kreivi, kerrotaan että sinä olet nähnyt sen julman ihmisen. Onko
hänellä pisaraakaan sääliä kohtaamme, kun joudumme hänen
käsiinsä?
MIES.
PARONI.
MIES.
RUHTINAS.
(Menevät syrjään.)
RUHTINAS.
MIES.
Hiljaa, hiljaa!
RUHTINAS.
Miksi?
MIES.
KAIKKI.
(Menevät.)
*****
Missä on poikani?
JAKOB.
MIES.
JAKOB.
MIES.
(Jakob menee.)
Muutama päivä vielä, eikä kenties enään ole olemassa minua eikä
ketään niistä kurjista, jotka ovat suuret esi-isänsä unhoittaneet. Oli
miten oli, joku päivä on vielä jälellä, minä käytän heitä omaksi
tyydytyksekseni, olen hallitseva, taisteleva, elävä. Se on viimeinen
lauluni!
*****
MIES.
Käske jättämään sata miestä vallituksille. Loput levätkööt niin
pitkän tappelun jälkeen.
MIES.
ORCIO.
MIES.
ORCIO.
MIES.
ORCIO.
MIES.
ORCIO.
(Laskeutuu alas.)
*****
MIES.
MIES.
ORCIO.
MIES.
ORCIO.
ÄÄNIEN KUORO.
MIES.
Mitä näet?
ORCIO.
MIES.
ORCIO.
Isä, isä!
ÄÄNI.
ÄÄNTEN KUORO.
MIES.
En voi mitään nähdä, mutta kuulen maan alta, maan yltä ja
sivuilta huokauksia ja valituksia, ennuslauseita ja uhkauksia.
ORCIO.
Hän korotti nyt päänsä kuten sinä, isä, kun olet vihoissasi, ja
vastasi ylpein sanoin kuten sinä, isä, kun halveksit.
ÄÄNTEN KUORO.
ERÄS ÄÄNI.
MIES.
ORCIO.
ORCIO.
Se on haamu.
MIES.
Kenen?
ORCIO.
(Vaipuu polvilleen.)
(Vaipuu tainnoksiin.)
*****
MIES.
NAISTEN ÄÄNIÄ.
MIESTEN ÄÄNIÄ.
RISTI-ISÄ.
MIES.
(Syrjään Jakobille.)
PARONI.
TOINEN.
RUHTINAS.
RISTI-ISÄ.
USEITA ÄÄNIÄ.