1

ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEM
BIO 343
 OUTLINE
1) OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
2) INNATE IMMUNITY
3) ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
4) CELLULAR IMMUNITY
5) HUMORAL IMMUNITY
6) IMMUNE SYSTEM DISORDERS

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 OVERVIEW OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 The lymphatic system consists of a network of
vessels that penetrate nearly every tissue of the
body, and a collection of tissue and organs that
produce immune cells

 The components of the lymphatic system include:

• Lymph, the recovered fluid
• Lymphatic vessels, which transport the lymph
• Lymphatic tissue, composed of aggregates of
lymphocytes and macrophages
• Lymphatic organs, in which lymphatic cells are
especially concentrated

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 OVERVIEW OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 The lymphatic system has 3 main functions:

1) Fluid recovery
• Returns excess interstitial fluid to the blood
2) Immunity
• Provides defense against invading microorganisms and diseases
3) Lipid absorption
• Absorption of fats and fat soluble vitamins from the digestive system

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 LYMPH AND LYMPHATIC VESSELS
 Lymph is a clear, colorless fluid, similar to blood
plasma but low in protein
 Lymph flows through a system of lymphatic vessels
similar to blood vessels
• Vessels begin as lymphatic capillaries, which are
closed at one end
 A lymphatic capillary consists of a sac of thin
endothelial cells that loosely overlap each other
 Gaps between endothelial cells are large
• Allow bacteria, lymphocytes, and other cells to
enter along with the tissue fluid
© McGraw-Hill Companies.

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 LYMPH AND LYMPHATIC VESSELS
 Lymphatic vessels have a similar histology to that of
veins
• Tunica interna (inner layer), with endothelium
and valves (valves open when interstitial fluid
pressure is high, and close when it is low)
• Tunica media (middle layer), with elastic fibers
and smooth muscle
• Tunica externa (thin outer layer)

Valves of the lymphatic system

© McGraw-Hill Companies. 6
ROUTE OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 As the lymphatic vessels converge along
their path, they become larger vessels
 The route from the tissue fluid back to the
bloodstream is as follow:
Lymphatic capillaries

Collecting vessels

Lymphatic trunk

Collecting ducts

Subclavian veins Fluid exchange between the circulatory

and lymphatic system
© McGraw-Hill Companies. 7
 ROUTE OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 Lymphatic capillaries converge to form collecting vessels, which travel alongside
veins and arteries
• At irregular intervals, they empty into lymph nodes
 Collecting vessels converge to form larger lymphatic trunks, each of which drains
a major portion of the body
 The lymphatic trunks converge to form two collecting ducts (one left and one right)
• They are the largest of the lymphatic vessels
• Include the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct
 The primary mechanism of lymph flow within this system is through rhythmic
contractions of the lymphatic vessels themselves
• Lymph flow is also produced by skeletal muscles squeezing the lymphatic vessels

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 LYMPHATIC CELLS
 The lymphatic tissue is composed of a variety of lymphocytes and other cells
with various roles in defense and immunity. These include:
• Neutrophils (antibacterial leukocytes)
• Natural Killer cells (NK cells) (large lymphocytes that attack and destroy bacteria)
• T lymphocytes (T cells) (lymphocytes that mature in the thymus)
• B lymphocytes (B cells) (lymphocytes that secrete antibodies)
• Macrophages (phagocytotic cells)
• Dendritic cells (mobile antigen-presenting cells)
• Reticular cells (stationary antigen-presenting cells)

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 LYMPHATIC TISSUES
 Lymphatic (lymphoid) tissues are aggregations of
lymphocytes in the connective tissues of mucous
membranes and various organs
 The simplest form is diffuse lymphatic tissue, in
which the lymphocytes are scattered rather than
densely clustered
 It is particularly prevalent in body passages that
are open to the exterior (i.e. the respiratory,
digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts), where © McGraw-Hill Companies.

it is called mucosa associated lymphatic tissue

(MALT)

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 LYMPHATIC ORGANS
 Lymphatic (lymphoid) organs include the red bone marrow, the thymus, the
lymph nodes, the tonsils and the spleen

 The red bone marrow and thymus are regarded as primary lymphatic organs
• They are the sites where B and T lymphocytes become immunocompetent (able
to recognize and respond to antigens)
 The lymph nodes, tonsils, and spleen are called secondary lymphatic organs
• Immunocompetent lymphocytes migrate to these organs only after they mature
in the primary lymphatic organs

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 RED BONE MARROW
 There are two kinds of bone marrow: yellow
and red
 Yellow bone marrow is mainly adipose tissue
 Red bone marrow is involved in hematopoiesis
(blood formation) and immunity
• It is an important supplier of lymphocytes to
the immune system

Histology of the red bone marrow. The formed elements of

blood squeeze through the endothelial cells into the sinuses,
which converge on a central longitudinal vein at the lower left.
© McGraw-Hill Companies.

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 THYMUS
 The thymus is a member of the endocrine, lymphatic, and immune systems
• Bilobed organ located in the superior mediastinum
• Each lobule has a light central medulla populated by T lymphocytes, surrounded
by a dense, darker cortex
• Shows a remarkable degree of involution with age

Gross anatomy and histology of the thymus

© McGraw-Hill Companies.
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 LYMPH NODES
 Lymph nodes are the most numerous lymphatic organs
 They have an elongated and bean-shaped structure
 They are scattered throughout the body
 They serve two functions:
• To clean the lymph
• To act as a site of T and B cell activation

 Lymph nodes are also found in the lower part of the body

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 LYMPH NODES
 Stroma–supporting connective tissue
• Capsule, reticular tissue and trabeculae
 Outer C-shaped cortex
• Consists mainly of lymphatic nodules
• These nodules acquire light-staining germinal
centers where B cells multiply
• Also contains lymph-filled cortical sinuses
 Inner medulla
• Consists mainly of a branching network of
medullary cords
• Also contains lymph-filled medullary sinuses
Anatomy of a lymph node
© McGraw-Hill Companies.

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 TONSILS
 Tonsils are clusters of lymphatic tissue just
under the mucous membranes that line the
nose, mouth, and throat
 There are three groups of tonsils:
• The pharyngeal tonsilsꟷare located near the
opening of the nasal cavity into the pharynx
• The palatine tonsilsꟷare located near the
opening of the oral cavity into the pharynx
Location of the tonsils
• Lingual tonsilsꟷare located on the posterior © McGraw-Hill Companies.

surface of the tongue

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 SPLEEN
 The spleen is the largest lymphatic organ in the body
 It is located in the upper left abdominal cavity, just
beneath the diaphragm, and posterior to the stomach
 It is similar to a lymph node in shape and structure but
it is much larger
 Contains red and white pulp
• Red pulp consists of sinuses gorged with concentrated
erythrocytes (filters blood of antigens and defective RBCs)
• White pulp consists of lymphocytes and macrophages
(help fight and destroy pathogens)

© MSDmanuals

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 OUTLINE
1) OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
2) INNATE IMMUNITY
3) ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
4) CELLULAR IMMUNITY
5) HUMORAL IMMUNITY
6) IMMUNE SYSTEM DISORDERS

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 INNATE IMMUNITY
 One of the greatest survival challenges is coping with pathogens, including
viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that cause diseases
 Our mechanisms of defense are divided into two broad forms called innate (first
and second line of defense) and adaptive (third line of defense) immunity
• Such defenses collectively compose the immune system
 Innate immunity consists of defenses we are born with
• First line of defense consists of external barriers
• Second line of defense consists of leukocytes, macrophages, antimicrobial
proteins, natural killer cells, fever and inflammation

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 EXTERNAL BARRIERS
 The skin and mucous membrane constitute the physical barriers to microbial
invasion

 The skin is coated with diverse antimicrobial chemicals

• Sweat and sebum coat it with a protective film of lactic and fatty acids that
inhibit bacterial growth
 The mucous membrane that lines various cavities in the body and covers the
surface of internal organs is another added layer of protection
• Mucus traps microbes and foreign substances
• Mucus contains lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys bacteria by dissolving their
cell walls

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 LEUKOCYTES AND MACROPHAGES
 Leukocytes and macrophages constitute the second line of defense of the innate
immunity
 They also play important roles in adaptive immunity, and therefore in the third
line of defense against invading pathogens
 There are 5 types of leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes
and lymphocytes)
 Macrophages are monocytes that have migrated from the blood into the
connective tissues
• Are widely distributed in the loose connective tissues
• Employs phagocytosis to internalize foreign matter

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 ANTIMICROBIAL PROTEINS
 Interferons
• Produced by lymphocytes, macrophages, and fibroblasts infected by viruses
• Alert neighboring cells and protect them from becoming infected

 The complement system

• A group of proteins in blood plasma and plasma membranes
• It “complements” or enhances certain immune reactions (e.g. action of
antibodies)
• Contributes to pathogen destruction through inflammation, immune clearance,
phagocytosis, and cytolysis

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 NATURAL KILLER CELLS
 Natural killer (NK) cells continually patrol the body
 They attack and destroy bacteria, cells of transplanted
organs and tissues, cells infected with viruses, and
cancer cells
 NK cell binds to enemy cell and releases proteins called
perforins, which polymerize in a ring and create a hole
in its plasma membrane
 NK cell also secretes a group of protein-degrading
enzymes called granzymes. These enter the pore made
by the perforins, destroy the target cell’s enzymes, and
induce apoptosis
Action of a natural killer cell
© McGraw-Hill Companies. 23
 FEVER
 Fever is an abnormal elevation of body temperature. Although commonly
regarded as an undesirable side effect of illness, it is usually a beneficial defense
mechanism:
It promotes interferon activity
It elevates metabolic rate and accelerates tissue repair
It inhibits reproduction of bacteria and viruses

 Fever is typically initiated by exogenous pyrogens (fever-producing agents outside

of the body)
 It can also be initiated by endogenous pyrogens (secreted by neutrophils and
macrophages)

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 INFLAMMATION
 Inflammation is a local defensive response to tissue injury including trauma and
infection
 Its general purpose are: (1) to limit the spread of pathogens and destroy them, (2)
to remove the debris of damaged tissues, and (3) to initiate tissue repair
 It is characterized by four cardinal signs:
• Redness: caused by increased hyperemia (i.e. blood flow)
• Swelling (edema): caused by increased capillary permeability and filtration
• Heat: caused by hyperemia
• Pain: caused by inflammatory chemicals

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 OUTLINE
1) OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
2) INNATE IMMUNITY
3) ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
4) CELLULAR IMMUNITY
5) HUMORAL IMMUNITY
6) IMMUNE SYSTEM DISORDERS

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 ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
 Adaptive immunity is the third line of defense against microbial invasion
 Immune response that occurs after exposure to an antigen either from a
pathogen or a vaccination
 It has three characteristics that distinguish it from innate immunity
• It has a systemic effect (acts throughout the body)
• It exhibits specificity (directed against a specific antigen)
• It has a memory (body reacts quickly when reexposed to the same antigen)

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 FORMS OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
 There are two types of immunity that work together and interact extensively
• Cellular (cell-mediated) immunity
• Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity
 Cellular immunity employs lymphocytes that directly attack and destroy foreign
cells or diseased host cells
• Particularly effective against intracellular pathogens, some cancer cells and foreign
tissue transplants
 Humoral immunity employs antibodies which don’t directly destroy pathogens
but tag them for later destruction
• Works mainly against extracellular pathogens in fluids outside cells

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 ANTIGENS
 An antigen is any molecule that triggers an immune response
 Can be free molecules such as venoms, toxins, and food-borne substances, or
components of plasma membranes and bacterial cell walls
 Antigens have 2 characteristics
• Immunogenicity–ability to provoke an immune response
• Reactivity–ability to react specifically with antibodies it
provoked
 Entire microbes may act as antigen
 Typically, just certain small parts of an antigen molecule Copyright © John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

triggers response (epitope or antigenic determinant)

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 ANTIBODIES
 Antibodies, also called immunoglobulins, are proteins
in the gamma globulin class
 They are composed of four polypeptides linked by
disulfide bonds
• They include 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains
• Each heavy chain has a hinge, giving the antibody a T
or Y shape
• All 4 chains have a variable (V) region that gives the
antibody its uniqueness
• V regions of light and heavy chain combine to form Antibody structure
an antigen-binding site © McGraw-Hill Companies.

• The rest of each chain is a constant (C) region

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 LYMPHOCYTES
 Lymphocytes fall into three classes:
Natural killer (NK) cells, T lymphocytes, and B lymphocytes.

 T lymphocytes are produced in the red bone marrow and mature in the thymus
 T cells first go to the thymic cortex where they are tested for their ability to
recognize antigens
 Only T cells that are capable of recognizing foreign antigens and antigen
presenting cells survive, the remaining ones die within 3-4 days (positive
selection)
 These T cells then go to the medulla, where they are presented with self-
antigens; T cells that react too strongly to these are eliminated (negative
selection)

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 LYMPHOCYTES
 B lymphocytesꟷB cell maturation occurs entirely within the red bone marrow
• Immunocompetent B cells disperse throughout the body and colonize
lymphatic organs
• They are particularly abundant in the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow and
mucous membranes

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 LYMPHOCYTES

© McGraw-Hill Companies.

B cells achieve immunocompetence in the red bone marrow, and many migrate to lymphatic tissues
and organs, including the lymph nodes, tonsils, and spleen. On the other hand, T stem cells
emigrate from the bone marrow and attain immunocompetence in the thymus. They then emigrate
from the thymus and recolonize the bone marrow or colonize various lymphatic organs. 33
 ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS
 T cells cannot recognize and attack foreign antigens on
their own, they need the help of antigen-presenting cells
(APCs)
 Dendritic cells, macrophages, reticular cells, and B cells
function as APCs
 APCs contain major histocompatibility complex
(MHC)ꟷproteins on the APC surface that is structurally
Macrophage presenting processed antigen to helper T cell
unique to every person (except for identical twins) © McGraw-Hill Companies.

• MHC proteins act as an “identification tags” that label

every cell of your body as belonging to you

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 ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS
 APCs internalize, digest, and display fragments
(epitopes) of antigens on MHC proteins
 Wandering T cells regularly inspect APCs for
displayed antigens
• If an APC displays a self antigen, the T cells disregard it
• If it displays a non-self antigen, however, they initiate
an attack

Stages in the processing and presentation of an antigen by

an APC such as a macrophage
© McGraw-Hill Companies.

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 OUTLINE
1) OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
2) INNATE IMMUNITY
3) ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
4) CELLULAR IMMUNITY
5) HUMORAL IMMUNITY
6) IMMUNE SYSTEM DISORDERS

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 CELLULAR IMMUNITY
 Cellular immunity (cell-mediated) is a form of adaptive immunity in which T lymphocytes
directly attack and destroy diseased or foreign cells
• It occurs in 3 phases: recognition, attack, and memory (or “the three Rs”: recognize,
react, and remember)
 There are numerous kinds of T cells, the 4 principal ones are:
• Cytotoxic T (Tc) cells are the effectors of cellular immunity that carry out the attack on
foreign cells
• Helper T (TH) cells promote the action of Tc cells and play key roles in humoral and
innate immunity. All other T cells are involved in cellular immunity only.
• Regulatory T (TR) cells, or T-regs regulate the immune response by inhibiting
multiplication and cytokine secretion by other T cells, thus preventing the risk of
developing autoimmune diseases
• Memory T (TM) cells are descended from Tc cells and are responsible for memory in
cellular immunity

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 RECOGNITION
 The recognition phase has two aspects: antigen presentation and T cell activation
 Antigen presentation:
• APC encounters and processes an antigen, displays it on an MHC protein, and
presents it to the T cells
• T cells respond to two classes of MHC proteins
• MHC-I proteins occur on every nucleated cell of the body. They can display
normal self-antigens (which don’t elicit a T cell response) or viral proteins and
abnormal antigens (which elicit a T cell response)
• MHC-II proteins occur only on APCs and display only foreign antigens

Recognition https://www.viddler.com/embed/6ea5a3f5/?f=1&autoplay=0&player=arpeggio
&secret=90576092&loop=0&nologo=0&hd=0
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 RECOGNITION
 T cell activation:
• Begins when a Tc or TH cell binds to an MHC protein
displaying an epitope
• The T cell must bind to another protein, related to
interleukins, found on the surface of the APC (costimulation)
• This costimulation ensures that the immune system doesn’t
launch an attack in the absence of foreign matter
• Successful costimulation activates the process of clonal
selection, during which the T cell undergoes repeated
mitosis
• Some cells in the clone become effectors cells that carry out
an immune attack, and some become memory TM cells

© McGraw-Hill Companies.

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 ATTACK
 Mediated by helper and cytotoxic T cells
 Helper T (TH) cells are necessary for most immune
responses
 When a TH cell recognizes an antigen-MHC protein
complex, it secretes interleukins that exert three
effects:
(1) To attract neutrophils and natural killer cells
(2) To attract macrophages, stimulate their
phagocytic activity
(3) To stimulate T and B cell mitosis and maturation

© McGraw-Hill Companies.

* T4 cell: T lymphocytes with CD4 surface glycoproteins

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 ATTACK
 Cytotoxic T (Tc) cells are the only T lymphocytes that
directly attack and kill other cells
 When a Tc cell recognizes a complex of antigen and MHC
protein, it “docks” on that cell, delivers a lethal hit of
chemicals that will destroy it, and then goes off in search of
other enemy cells
 Among these chemicals are:
• perforin and granzymes, which kill the target cell in a
manner similar to that of NK cells
• interferons, which inhibit viral replication and recruit and
activate macrophages https://www.viddler.com/embed/5a537682/?f=1&auto
play=0&player=arpeggio&secret=90576092&l
• tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which aids in macrophage oop=0&nologo=0&hd=0

activation and kills cancer cells

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 MEMORY
 The primary response is followed by immune memory
 Following clonal selection, some T cells become memory cells
 Memory cells are:
• long-lived and much numerous than naïve T cells
• Require fewer steps to be activated
• Respond to antigens more rapidly
• Mount a quick attack called the T cell recall response

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 OUTLINE
1) OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
2) INNATE IMMUNITY
3) ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
4) CELLULAR IMMUNITY
5) HUMORAL IMMUNITY
6) IMMUNE SYSTEM DISORDERS

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 HUMORAL IMMUNITY
 Humoral immunity is a more indirect method of defense than cellular immunity
 Instead of directly attacking enemy cells, the B lymphocytes of humoral
immunity produce antibodies that bind to antigens and tag them for destruction
by other means
 Like cellular immunity, humoral immunity works in three stages:
• Recognition
• Attack
• Memory

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 RECOGNITION
 B cell activation begins when an
antigen binds to complementary
receptors on their surface (antigen
recognition)

 B cells then internalizes the antigen,

links processed epitopes to its MHC-II
proteins, and displays these on the
cell surface (antigen presentation)
© McGraw-Hill Companies

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 RECOGNITION
© McGraw-Hill Companies

 When a TH cell binds to the complex, it

secretes interleukins that stimulate B
cells to divide through mitosis, giving rise
to a battalion of identical B cells
programmed against the antigen (clonal
selection)
 Some cells of the clone become memory
B cells, while most of them differentiate
into plasma cells (differentiation)
 Plasma cells synthesize and secrete
antibody (attack)
clonal selection https://www.viddler.com/embed/f207cd15/?f=1&am
p;autoplay=0&player=arpeggio&secret=905
76092&loop=0&nologo=0&hd=0 46
 RECOGNITION
 Plasma cells are larger than B cells
and contain an abundance of rough
endoplasmic reticulum
 Plasma cells produce antibodies at a
rate of 2000 molecules/second over a
lifespan of 4 to 5 days
 The first time someone is exposed to
a particular antigen, plasma cells
produce mainly an antibody class
called IgM
© McGraw-Hill Companies

 In later exposures to the same B cell and plasma cell. (Left) B cells have little cytoplasm and
antigen, plasma cells produce mainly scanty organelle. (Right) A plasma cell, which differentiates from
IgG a B cell, has an abundance of rough endoplasmic reticulum.

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 ATTACK
 Once released by a plasma cell, antibodies use four mechanisms to render
antigens harmless: Neutralization; Complement fixation; Agglutination;
Precipitation
 Neutralization: Only certain regions of an antigen are pathogenic. Antibodies can
neutralize an antigen by masking these active regions
 Complement fixation: Antibodies bind to enemy cells and change shape,
exposing their complement binding sites. This initiates the binding of
complement to the enemy cell surface and leads to inflammation, phagocytosis,
immune clearance, and cytolysis

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 ATTACK © McGraw-Hill Companies

 Agglutination: Is the clumping of enemy cells by

antibodies. It is effective not only in mismatched blood
transfusions, but more importantly as a defense
against bacteria. This immobilizes microbes and
prevents them from spreading through tissues. Agglutination of foreign
erythrocytes by antibodies

 Precipitation: Is a process similar to agglutination in

which antigen molecules (not whole cell) are clumped
by adhesion to antibodies. This creates large Ag-Ab
complexes that can be removed by immune clearance
or phagocytized by eosinophils
A precipitated antigen-antibody complex
involving a free molecular antigen and an
antibody monomer

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 MEMORY
© McGraw-Hill Companies

 When a person is exposed to a particular antigen

for the first time, the humoral immune reaction is
called the primary response
 The appearance of protective antibodies is
delayed for 3 to 6 days while naïve B cells
multiply and differentiate into plasma cells
 IgM appears first, peaks in about 10 days, and
soon declines
 IgG levels rise as IgM declines, but then drops to
a low level within a month

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 MEMORY
© McGraw-Hill Companies

 During clonal selection, some members of the

clone become memory B cells rather than plasma
cells
 Memory B cells can mount a quick response if
reexposed to the same antigen (secondary
response)
 Plasma cells form within hours, and the IgG level
rises sharply and peaks within a few days; the
antigen doesn’t have time to exert a noticeable
effect on the body, and no illness occurs
 A low level of IgM is also secreted

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 OUTLINE
1) OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
2) INNATE IMMUNITY
3) ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
4) CELLULAR IMMUNITY
5) HUMORAL IMMUNITY
6) IMMUNE SYSTEM DISORDERS

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 IMMUNE SYSTEM DISORDERS
 Because the immune system involves complex cellular interactions
controlled by numerous chemical messengers, there are many points at
which things can go wrong
Hypersensitivity
Autoimmune diseases
Immunodeficiency diseases

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 HYPERSENSITIVITY
 Hypersensitivity is an excessive, harmful immune reaction to antigens
 There are four kinds of hypersensitivity
 Type I (acute) hypersensitivity
• Includes most common allergies (e.g. food allergy)
• Includes asthma, a local inflammatory reaction to inhaled allergens
• Anaphylactic shockꟷa severe, widespread acute hypersensitivity that occurs
when an allergen is introduced into the bloodstream of an allergic individual
 Type II (antibody-dependent cytotoxic) hypersensitivity
• Occurs when IgG or IgM attacks antigens bound to cell surfaces
• Reaction leads to complement activation and lysis or phagocytosis
• Examples include reactions during blood transfusions

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 HYPERSENSITIVITY
 Type III (immune complex) hypersensitivity
• Occurs when IgG or IgM forms antigen-antibody complexes that precipitate
underneath the endothelium of blood vessels
• This triggers intense inflammation causing tissue destruction

 Type IV (delayed) hypersensitivity

• Cell-mediated reaction in which the signs appear 12 to 72 hours after exposure
• Delay commonly associated with travel time to lymph nodes
• Examples include reactions caused by allergies to cosmetics and poison ivy,
graft rejection, and tuberculosis skin test

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 AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
 Autoimmune diseases are failures of self-tolerance
• The immune system fails to distinguish self-antigens from foreign ones and
produces autoantibodies that attack the body’s own tissues
 May be caused by:
• Cross-reactivity: some antibodies against foreign antigens react to similar self-
antigens
• Abnormal exposure of self-antigens to the blood: some of our native antigens
that are normally not exposed to the blood may trigger a reaction if released
accidentally
• Change in the structure of self-antigens: viruses and drugs may change the
structure of self-antigens and cause the immune system to perceive them as
foreign

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 IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISEASES
 In immunodeficiency diseases, the immune system fails to
respond vigorously enough (e.g. SCID and AIDS)

 Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID)

• It is a group of disorders caused by recessive alleles that result in
a scarcity or absence of both T and B cells
• Children with SCID are highly vulnerable to opportunistic
infections and must live in protective enclosures
• They are sometimes helped by transplants of bone marrow or
David Vetter lived with SCID from birth
fetal thymus, but in some cases the transplanted cells fail to (1971) to age 12 and has to spend his
survive and multiply, or transplanted T cells attack the patient’s entire life in sterile enclosures.
Source: Texas Children’s Hospital
tissues

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 IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISEASES
 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
• It is a group of conditions in which infections with the
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) severely depresses
the immune response
• It is nonhereditary and contracted after birth
• Like other viruses, HIV can be replicated only by a living
host cell. It invades helper T cells, dendritic cells, and
macrophages
• Within the host cell, reverse transcriptase uses viral RNA The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
as a template to synthesize viral DNA
• Viruses that carry out this RNADNA reverse
transcription are called retroviruses

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 IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISEASES
• Early symptoms of HIV infection include flulike chills and
fever
• As the virus destroys more and more cells, symptoms
become more pronounced; they include night sweats,
fatigue, headache, extreme weight loss, and
lymphadenitis (enlargement of lymph nodes)
• Normal TH count is 600 to 1,200 cells/µL of blood but in
AIDS it is < 200 cells/µL
Viruses emerging from a dying helper T cell.
• Most common means of HIV transmission are sexual Each virus now invades a new helper T cell and
intercourse, contaminated blood products, and drug produces a similar number of descendants.
injections with contaminated needles

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The End

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