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FUNDAMENTALS OF
GENERAL LINEAR
ACOUSTICS
FUNDAMENTALS OF
GENERAL LINEAR
ACOUSTICS
Finn Jacobsen
Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Denmark
Jacobsen, Finn.
Fundamentals of general linear acoustics / Finn Jacobsen, Peter Moller Juhl.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-34641-9 (hardback)
1. Sound-waves–Transmission–Textbooks. 2. Wave-motion, Theory of–Textbooks. I. Juhl,
Peter Moller. II. Title.
QC243.J33 2013
620.2–dc23
2013005223
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 9781118346419
Typeset in 10/12pt Times by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India
The cover picture shows the output of a circular delay-and-sum beamformer. The picture is adapted from Stewart
Holmes’ MSc Thesis entitled ‘Spheriodal Beamforming’ (Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical
University of Denmark, 2012), in which beamforming with microphones in circular configurations in different
baffles is analysed in detail.
Contents
Preface xi
1 Introduction 1
7 Duct Acoustics 75
7.1 Introduction 75
7.2 Plane Waves in Ducts with Rigid Walls 75
7.2.1 The Sound Field in a Tube Terminated by an Arbitrary Impedance 75
7.2.2 Radiation of Sound from an Open-ended Tube 82
7.3 Sound Transmission Through Coupled Pipes 86
7.3.1 The Transmission Matrix 87
7.3.2 System Performance 92
7.3.3 Dissipative Silencers 97
7.4 Sound Propagation in Ducts with Mean Flow 99
7.5 Three-dimensional Waves in Ducts with Rigid Walls 101
7.5.1 The Sound Field in a Duct with Rectangular Cross Section 101
7.5.2 The Sound Field in a Duct with Circular Cross Section 107
7.5.3 The Sound Field in a Duct with Arbitrary Cross-sectional Shape 114
7.6 The Green’s Function in a Semi-infinite Duct 116
7.7 Sound Propagation in Ducts with Walls of Finite Impedance 122
7.7.1 Ducts with Nearly Hard Walls 123
7.7.2 Lined Ducts 125
References 125
Bibliography 273
Index 275
About the Authors
Finn Jacobsen received an MSc in Electrical Engineering in 1974 and a PhD in Acoustics
in 1981, both from the Technical University of Denmark (DTU). In 1996 he was awarded
the degree of Doctor Technices by the Technical University of Denmark. In 1985 he
became an Associate Professor in the Department of Acoustic Technology, DTU where
he was Head of Department from 1989 to 1997. He is currently Head of Acoustic Tech-
nology, which is now a group within the Department of Electrical Engineering at DTU.
His research interests include general linear acoustics, acoustic measurement techniques
and signal processing, transducer technology, and statistical methods in acoustics. He
has published approximately 100 papers in refereed journals and a similar amount of
conference papers.
Finn Jacobsen has more than 25 years’ experience with teaching acoustics at MSc level,
and more than 15 years’ experience with teaching fundamentals of acoustics at BSc level.
He has supervised and co-supervised about 100 Masters thesis projects on acoustic topics.
In the early 1990s he produced a set of lecture notes in Danish. From the end of the 1990s
all lectures were given exclusively in English in the Acoustic Technology group at DTU,
and Finn Jacobsen produced a completely new set of lecture notes which form the basis
of this book and have frequently been updated and improved on the basis of comments
from students.
Peter Møller Juhl obtained an MSc in electrical engineering from the Technical Uni-
versity of Denmark (DTU) in 1991 and in 1994 he received a PhD in numerical acoustics.
He is currently an Associate Professor at the University of Southern Denmark, where he
has had a key role in establishing the profile of acoustics in the BSc and MSc programmes
in Physics and Technology. His research areas are general linear acoustics, mathemati-
cal and numerical modeling in acoustics, and source identification techniques such as
beamforming and acoustic holography.
Peter Møller Juhl has 15 years of experience of teaching both basic and advanced
acoustics to engineering students. Additionally he has taught physics at BSc level, and
he has experience with teaching acoustics to students in the field of audiology. He has
supervised approximately 50 BSc and MSc projects in acoustics. In his teaching he makes
use of computer programs to visualise the theory and strengthen the understanding of the
link between model, mathematical description and physical behaviour. Many of the figures
in the present book have been created with these computer programs.
Preface
This book is a textbook on fundamentals of acoustic wave motion, and the topics covered
by the book include duct acoustics, sound in enclosures, and sound radiation and scatter-
ing. Non-linear effects are only mentioned, and the effects of viscosity, heat conduction
and mean flow are only touched upon. On the other hand, we have included classi-
cal expansions, because in our opinion there is an obvious link between technological
possibilities and the relevance of theory. For more than ten years microphone array-
based measurement techniques such as beamforming and holography, and loudspeaker
array-based sound recording and reproduction techniques such as ambisonics, have made
extensive use of results from classical analysis of sound fields (e.g., decompositions into
spherical and cylindrical harmonics), which therefore have become more relevant than
they seemed to be 30 years ago. Finally, measurements are important in acoustics, and
therefore we have not only included a chapter on fundamentals of acoustic measurement
techniques but also an appendix on applied signal analysis.
Acoustics is an interdisciplinary field, and throughout the world acoustic research at
university level is carried out in relatively small groups, typically placed in departments
focused on electrical engineering, applied physics, mechanical engineering, audiovisual
engineering, or civil and environmental engineering. It has been our intention that the
book should be equally accessible to readers with a background in electrical engineering,
signal processing, physics and mechanical engineering.
The book is based on a number of lecture notes developed over many years and tested
by numerous students. The notes have frequently been updated and improved on the
basis of questions and critical comments from the students. We are grateful for the many
generations of students whose comments have certainly improved the book.
We would also like to thank Jonas Brunskog for critical comments on the first draft of
the book.
The book is intended to be self-contained and thus includes elementary material, but
most of it is at graduate (Masters) level. It puts the emphasis on fairly detailed derivations
based on the fundamental laws of physics and interpretations of the resulting formulas.
In so far as possible it avoids electrical and mechanical equivalent circuits, so as to make
it accessible to readers with different backgrounds. It certainly cannot replace or compete
xii Preface
Finn Jacobsen
Peter Møller Juhl
List of Symbols
k wavenumber [m−1 ]
ki random wavenumber vector [m−1 ]
K stiffness constant [N/m]
Ks adiabatic bulk modulus [N/m2 ]
l length [m]
lx , ly , lz dimensions of rectangular room [m]
LA A-weighted sound pressure level [dB re pref ]
LAeq equivalent A-weighted sound pressure level [dB re pref ]
LAE sound exposure level [dB re pref ]
LC C-weighted sound pressure level [dB re pref ]
Leq equivalent sound pressure level [dB re pref ]
Ld dynamic capability
LI sound intensity level [dB re Iref ]
Lp sound pressure level [dB re pref ]
LW sound power level [dB re Pref ]
LZ sound pressure level measured without frequency weighting [dB re pref ]
M mass [kg]; Mach number [dimensionless]; modal overlap [dimensionless]
m, n integers [dimensionless]
n(f ) modal density [s]
nm spherical Neumann function of m’th order
N(f ) number of modes below f [dimensionless]
Nm cylindrical Neumann function of m’th order
p sound pressure [Pa]
p+ complex amplitude of incident wave in duct
p− complex amplitude of reflected wave in duct
pi complex amplitude of incident wave in half space
pr complex amplitude of reflected wave in half space
pA (t) instantaneous A-weighted sound pressure [Pa]
pref reference sound pressure [Pa]
prms root mean square value of sound pressure [Pa]
p0 static pressure [Pa]
Pa sound power [W]
Pa,abs absorbed sound power [W]
Pref reference sound power [W]
P {} probability
q volume velocity associated with a fictive surface [m3 /s]
Q volume velocity of source [m3 /s]
r radial distance in cylindrical and spherical coordinate system [m]
r position [m]
R gas constant [m2 s−2 K−1 ]; reflection factor [dimensionless]; distance [m]
Rxy cross-correlation
s standing wave ratio [dimensionless]
S surface area [m2 ]
Sxy cross-spectrum
t time [s]
T absolute temperature [K]; averaging time [s]
List of Symbols xv
Acoustics is the science of sound, that is, wave motion in gases, liquids and solids, and the
effects of such wave motion. Thus the scope of acoustics ranges from fundamental physical
acoustics to, say, bioacoustics, psychoacoustics and music, and includes technical fields
such as transducer technology, sound recording and reproduction, design of theatres and
concert halls, and noise control. In this textbook we focus on fundamentals of wave motion
in air at audible frequencies, technical fields are only touched upon, and perceptional
aspects of sound are not dealt with.
Fundamentals of General Linear Acoustics, First Edition. Finn Jacobsen and Peter Møller Juhl.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
2
Fundamentals of Acoustic Wave
Motion
Fundamentals of General Linear Acoustics, First Edition. Finn Jacobsen and Peter Møller Juhl.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
4 Fundamentals of General Linear Acoustics
Pressure [Pa]
ps
Position
Figure 2.1 Over- and underpressure corresponding to compression and rarefaction in a sound
wave
Figure 2.2 Fluid particles and compression and rarefaction in a propagating spherical sound field
generated by a pulsating sphere
Fundamentals of Acoustic Wave Motion 5
Diffraction
Shadow
Source
Reflection
In fact at 1000 Hz the particle displacement at the threshold of hearing is less than the
diameter of a hydrogen atom!3
Sound waves exhibit a number of phenomena that are characteristic of waves; see
Figure 2.3. Waves propagating in different directions interfere; waves will be reflected by
a rigid surface and more or less absorbed by a soft one; they will be scattered by small
obstacles; if sources are moving a Doppler shift can occur; because of diffraction there
will only partly be shadow behind a screen; and if the medium is inhomogeneous for
instance because of temperature gradients the waves will be refracted, which means that
they change direction as they propagate. The speed with which sound waves propagate in
fluids is independent of the frequency, but other waves of interest in acoustics, bending
waves on plates and beams, for example, are dispersive, which means that the speed of
such waves depends on the frequency content of the waveform.
where
ρtot = ρ0 + ρ (2.2)
is the total density of the medium, which is the sum of the equilibrium value ρ0 and the
small, time-varying perturbation ρ , and u is the particle velocity, which is a vector.
Another fundamental equation expresses conservation of momentum. A fluid particle
will move because of a gradient in the pressure,5
du
∇ptot + ρtot = 0, (2.3)
dt
where
ptot = p0 + p (2.4)
is the total pressure, which is the sum of the static pressure p0 and the small, time-varying
sound pressure p , and
du ∂u ∂u dξx ∂u dξy ∂u dξz ∂u
= + + + = + (u · ∇)u, (2.5)
dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt ∂t
in which ξ = (ξx , ξy , ξz ) is the position of ‘the particle’, and
dξ d(ξx , ξy , ξz )
= = u(ξx , ξy , ξz , t). (2.6)
dt dt
The difference between du/dt and ∂u/∂t is due to the fact that the particle is moving.
The third fundamental relation is due to the fact that sound in air is an adiabatic
phenomenon, which means that there is no local heat exchange.6 Under such conditions
the relation between the total pressure and the total density is a power law,
γ
ptot = Ks ρtot , (2.7)
where cp
γ = (2.8)
cV
is the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to that at constant volume ( 1.401 for
air). Differentiating Equation (2.7) with respect to time gives
∂ptot ∂ptot ∂ρtot
2 ∂ρtot
= =c , (2.9)
∂t p0 ∂ρtot p0 ∂t p0 ∂t p0
where we have introduced the quantity
∂ptot γ −1 γ ptot γ p0
c =
2
= Ks γρtot = = , (2.10)
∂ρtot p0 p0 ρtot p0 ρ0
which as we shall see later is the square of the speed of sound ( 343 ms−1 for air at
20◦ C).
∂χ ∂χ ∂χ
5 Expressed in Cartesian coordinates the gradient of the scalar field χ is ∇χ = ∂x , ∂y , ∂z .
6 Very near solid walls heat conduction cannot be ignored and process tends to be isothermal, which means that
the temperature is constant.
Fundamentals of Acoustic Wave Motion 7
Adiabatic compression
The absence of local exchange of heat implies that the entropy of the medium is
constant [1, 2], and that pressure fluctuations are accompanied by density variations
and temperature fluctuations. From Equation (2.7) it follows that
p0 + p = Ks (ρ0 + ρ )γ ,
where R is the gas constant ( 287 Jkg−1 K−1 ) and T is the ambient absolute
temperature, we conclude that
p ρ T
= + ,
p0 ρ0 T
where T is the change in temperature, or
p ρ γ − 1 p
T = T − =T .
p0 ρ0 γ p0
The observation that most acoustic phenomena involve perturbations that are several
orders of magnitude smaller than the equilibrium values of the medium makes it possible
to simplify the mathematical description by neglecting higher-order terms. Equation (2.1)
now becomes
∂ρ
ρ0 ∇ · u + = 0, (2.11)
∂t
which with Equation (2.9) becomes
1 ∂p
ρ0 ∇ · u + 2 = 0. (2.12)
c ∂t
In the same way Equation (2.3) becomes
∂u
∇p + ρ0 = 0. (2.13)
∂t
Equations (2.12) and (2.13) are the linear acoustic equations; and Equation (2.13) is
also known as Euler’s equation of motion. Taking the divergence of Equation (2.13) and
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