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Philip Joyce
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1. Python Programming
Philip Joyce1
(1) Crewe, UK
This is the first of two chapters in which you’ll review both Python and C programming
languages. A basic understanding of computing and what programs are about is assumed
although no prior knowledge of either Python or C is needed.
In this chapter, we will start with the basics of Python. This will include how items used
in a program are stored in the computer, basic arithmetic formats, handling strings of
characters, reading in data that the user can enter on the command line, etc. Then we will
work up to file access on the computer, which will lead us up to industrial/commercial-level
computing by the end of the book.
If you don’t already have a Python development environment on your computer, you can
download it and the Development Kit, free of charge, from
www.python.org/downloads/. Another way you can access Python is by using Visual
Studio. Again, a version of this can be downloaded.
Definition of Variables
This section looks at the different types of store areas that are used in Python. We refer to
these store areas as “variables.” The different types can be numbers (integers or decimals),
characters, and different types of groups of these (strings, arrays, dictionaries, lists, or
tuples).
In these examples, you can go to the command line and enter “Python” which starts up
the Python environment and produces “>>>” as the prompt for you to enter Python code.
In Python, unlike C, you don’t define the variable as a specific type. The different types
are integer, floating point, character, string, etc. The type is assigned when you give the
variable a value. So try the following code:
>>> a1 = 51
>>> print(type(a1))
We get the output
<class 'int'>
>>>
Here we are defining a variable called “a1” and we are assigning the integer value 51 to
it.
We then call the function “print” with the parameter “type” and “a1” and we get the reply
“class ‘int’”. “type” means that we want to display whether the variable is an integer, floating
point, character, string, etc.
We can now exit the Python environment by typing “quit()”.
We will now perform the same function from a program.
Create a file called “typ1a.py”.
Then enter the following two lines of Python code:
a1=51
print(type(a1))
<class 'int'>
a1=51
print(type(a1))
a1=51.6
print(type(a1))
a1='51'
print(type(a1))
<class 'int'>
<class 'float'>
<class 'str'>
The 51 entered is an int. The 51.6 is a float (decimal) type, and ‘51’ is a string.
We can make the results a little clearer if we use print(“a1 is”, type(a1)).
So our program now reads
a1=51
print("a1 is",type(a1))
a1=51.6
print("a1 is",type(a1))
a1='51'
print("a1 is",type(a1))
and the output is
a1 is <class 'int'>
a1 is <class 'float'>
a1 is <class 'str'>
We can put a comment on our line of code by preceding it with the “#” character.
arith1a.py
Initialize the variables v1, v2, v3, and v4 with integer values.
v1= 2
v2 = 4
v3 = 7
v4 = 8
v5 = v1 + v2
print(v5)
The result is
print(v1+v2)
Now a subtraction:
v6 = v4 - v3
print(v6)
giving
1
Now a multiplication:
v7 = v4 * v3
print(v7)
giving
56
Now a division:
v8 = v4 / v1
print(v8)
giving
4.0
v11 = v2 ** 2
print(v11)
gives
16
v11 = v2 ** v1
print(v11)
gives
16
V1 = 2
V2 = 3.5
V3 = 5.1
V4 = 6.75
we get
print(type(V1))
<class 'int'>
print(type(V2))
<class 'float'>
print(type(V3))
<class 'float'>
print(type(V4))
<class 'float'>
Characters
In Python, you can also assign characters to locations, for example:
c1 = 'a'
print(type(c1))
produces
<class 'str'>
Reading in Data
Now that we can display a message to the person running our program, we can ask them to
type in a character, then read the character, and print it to the screen. This section looks at
how the user can enter data to be read by the program.
If we type in the command
vara = input()
print(vara)
which prints
r5
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We can make this more explicit by using
You can also make the entry command clearer to the user by entering
Now that we can enter data manually into the program, we will look at groups of data.
Arrays
An array is an area of store which contains a number of items. So from our previous section
on integers, we can have a number of integers defined together with the same label. Python
does not have a default type of array, although we have different types of array.
So we can have an array of integers called “firstintarr” with the numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11,
and 13 in it. Each of the entries is called an “element,” and the individual elements of the
array can be referenced using its position in the array. The position is called the “index.” The
elements in the array have to be of the same type. The type is shown at the beginning of the
array.
The array mechanism has to be imported into your program, as shown as follows:
The ‘i’ in the definition of firstintarr means that the elements are integers.
And we can reference elements of the array using the index, for example:
v1 = firstintarr[3]
print(v1)
This outputs
We can also define floating point variables in an array by replacing the “i” by “f” in the
definition of the array.
So we can define
varfloat1 = firstfloatarr[1]
print(varfloat1)
Once we have our array, we can insert, delete, search, or update elements into the array.
Array is a container which can hold a fix number of items, and these items should be of
the same type. Most of the data structures make use of arrays to implement their
algorithms. The following are the important terms to understand the concept of array:
Insert
Delete (remove)
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In the Prosobranchiata, symmetrically paired branchiae occur only
in the Fissurellidae, Haliotidae, and Pleurotomariidae, in the former
of which two perfectly equal branchiae are situated on either side of
the back of the neck. These three families taken together form the
group known as Zygobranchiata.[268] In all other families the
asymmetry of the body has probably caused one of the branchiae,
the right (originally left), to become aborted, and consequently there
is only one branchia, the left, in the vast majority of marine
Prosobranchiata, which have been accordingly grouped as
Azygobranchiata. Even in Haliotis the right branchia is rather smaller
than the left, while the great size of the attachment muscle causes
the whole branchial cavity to become pushed over towards the left
side. In those forms which in other respects most nearly approach
the Zygobranchiata, namely, the Trochidae, Neritidae, and
Turbinidae, the branchia has two rows of filaments, one on each side
of the long axis, while in all other Prosobranchiata there is but one
row (see Fig. 79, p. 169).
Fig. 62.—Bullia laevissima
Gmel., showing
branchial siphon S; F,
F, F, foot; OP,
operculum; P, penis;
Pr, proboscis; T, T,
tentacles. (After Quoy
and Gaimard.)
In the great majority of marine Prosobranchiata the branchia is
securely concealed within a chamber or pouch (the respiratory
cavity), which is placed on the left dorsal side of the animal,
generally near the back of the neck. For breathing purposes, water
has to be conveyed into this chamber, and again expelled after it has
passed over the branchia. In the majority of the vegetable-feeding
molluscs (e.g. Littorina, Cerithium, Trochus) water is carried into the
chamber by a simple prolongation of one of the lobes or lappets of
the mantle, and makes its exit by the same way, the incoming and
outgoing currents being separated by a valve-like fringe depending
from the lobe. In the carnivorous molluscs, on the other hand, a
regular tube, the branchial siphon, which is more or less closed, has
been developed from a fold of the mantle surface, for the special
purpose of conducting water to the branchia. After performing its
purpose there, the spent water does not return through the siphon,
but is conducted towards the anus by vibratile cilia situated on the
branchiae themselves. In a large number of cases, this siphon is
protected throughout its entire length by a special prolongation of the
shell called the canal. Sometimes, as in Buccinum and Purpura, this
canal is little more than a mere notch in the ‘mouth’ of the shell, but
in many of the Muricidae (e.g. M. haustellum, tenuispina, tribulus)
the canal becomes several inches long, and is set with formidable
spines (see Fig. 164, p. 256). In Dolium and Cassis the canal is very
short, but the siphon is very long, and is reflected back over the
shell.
The presence or absence of this siphonal notch or canal forms a
fairly accurate indication of the carnivorous or vegetarian tendencies
of most marine Prosobranchiata, which have been, on this basis,
subdivided into Siphonostomata and Holostomata. But this
classification is of no particular value, and is seriously weakened by
the fact that Natica, which is markedly ‘holostomatous,’ is very
carnivorous, while Cerithium, which has a distinct siphonal notch, is
of vegetarian tendencies.
In the Zygobranchiata the water, after having aerated the blood in
the branchiae, usually escapes by a special hole or holes in the
shell, situated either at the apex (Fissurella) or along the side of the
last whorl (Haliotis). In Pleurotomaria the slit answers a similar
purpose, serving as a sluice for the ejection of the spent water, and
thus preventing the inward current from becoming polluted before it
reaches the branchiae (see Fig. 179, p. 266).
In Patella the breathing arrangements are very remarkable. In
spite of their apparent external similarity, this genus possesses no
such symmetrically paired plume-shaped branchiae as Fissurella,
but we notice a circlet of gill-lamellae, which extends completely
round the edge of the mantle. It has been shown by various
authorities that these lamellae are in no sense morphologically
related to the paired branchiae in other Mollusca, but only
correspond to them functionally. The typical paired branchiae, as has
been shown by Spengel, exist in Patella in a most rudimentary form,
being reduced to a pair of minute yellow bodies on the right and left
sides of the back of the ‘neck.’ A precisely similar abortion of the true
branchiae, and special development of a new organ to perform their
work, is shown in Phyllidia and Pleurophyllidia (see below under
Opisthobranchiata). This circlet of functional gills in Patella has
therefore little systematic value, being only developed in an unusual
position, like the eyes on the mantle in certain Pelecypoda, to supply
the place of the true organs which have fallen into disuse.
Accordingly Cuvier’s class of Cyclobranchiata, which included
Patella and Chiton, has no value, and has indeed long been
discarded. In Chiton the gills never extend completely round the
animal, but are always more or less interrupted at the head and
anus. They are the true gills, the plumes being serially repeated in
the same way as the shell plates.
Fig. 66.—Valvata
piscinalis Müll.: br,
branchia; fi, filament;
f.l, foot lobes. (After
Boutan.)
Fig. 67.—Doris
(Archidoris)
tuberculata L., Britain:
a, anus; br, branchiae,
surrounding the anus;
m, male organ; rh, rh,
rhinophores. × ⅔.
Fig. 68.—Pleurophyllidia
lineata Otto,
Mediterranean: a,
anus; br, secondary
branchiae; m, mouth;
s.o, sexual orifice.
Certain of the Nudibranchiata possess no special breathing
organs, and probably respire through the skin (Elysia, Limapontia,
Cenia, Phyllirrhoë). The majority, however, have developed
secondary branchiae, in the form of prominent lobes or leaf-like
processes (the cerata), which are carried upon the back, without any
means of protection. These cerata are, as a rule, of extreme beauty
and variety of form, consisting sometimes of long whip-like
tentaculae, in other cases of arborescent plumes of fern-like leafage,
in others of curious bead-like appendages of every imaginable shape
and colour. In Doris they lie at the posterior end of the body, in a sort
of rosette, which is generally capable of retraction into a chamber. In
Phyllidia and Pleurophyllidia these secondary branchiae lie, as in
Patella, on the lateral portions of the mantle.
The Scaphopoda in all probability possess neither true nor
secondary branchiae.
Pulmonata.—When we use the term ‘lung,’ it must be
remembered that this organ in the Mollusca does not correspond,
morphologically, with the spongy, cellular lung of vertebrates; it
simply performs the same functions. The ‘lung,’ in the Mollusca, is a
pouch or cavity, lined with blood-vessels which are disposed over its
vaulted surface in various patterns of network. The pulmonary sac or
cavity is therefore a better name by which to denote this organ.