ICT stands for Information and Communication Technology, and it refers to the technical tools and resources used to

store, create, share, and transmit information. ICT includes computer hardware, network hardware, and their
software
communication
Computer communication is the process of exchanging digital data between two or more computers, or the use of
computers to create, exchange, and perceive information. It is a broad term that encompasses a variety of
technologies, including: data networks, wired and wireless communication protocols, and data transmission
protocols.
software.What is Computer?
A computer is an electronic device used to store retrieve and manipulate
data.
A computer also defines as a programmable electromechanical device
that accept instruction (program) to direct the operations of the computers. Four
words can be deducted from the above definition for further illustration.
Examples
i. Store: To put data somewhere for safe keeping
ii. Retrieve: To get and bring the data back.
iii. Process: To calculate compare arrange.
What is Computer Science?
Computer Science is the study of processes that interact with data and that can be
represented as data in the form of programs. It enables the use of algorithms to
manipulate, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist
studies the theory of computation and the practice of designing software
systems.
System Unit Devices
The Processor (CPU)
A processor is an integrated circuit (IC) supplied on a single silicon chip. All of the components
and pathways necessary for the movement of data around the processor are etched on this single
chip.
The processor’s function is to control the activities of the computer system. A computer program
is made up of instructions and when the program is run, the processor is responsible for carrying
out these instructions in an orderly fashion. The type of instructions the processor can execute
includes:
* Arithmetic instructions - It carries out all the addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division requested by computer programs.
* Logical instructions - It can make decisions by comparing data and acting in a
particular way depending on the result.
* Move operations - It can move data from place to place within the computer
system. This could be from memory to the processor for
addition or from memory to a printer or disk drive etc.
The speed of a processor is measured in megahertz (MHz) or Gigahertz (GHz). This is the speed
of the system clock (clock speed) within the processor and it controls how fast instructions can be
executed:
* 1 MHz - One million clock ticks every second
* 1 GHz - One billion clock ticks every second
This means that if one instruction was executed every clock tick, a 3GHz processor could execute
three billion instructions every second.
The two main computer processor manufacturers are Intel and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD).
These two companies produce almost all of the processors used in desktop and notebook
computers.
* Intel - Intel makes the Pentium and Centrino ranges of processors.
* AMD - AMD makes the Athlon and Turion ranges of processors.

Memory
Memory is the electronic holding place for the instructions and data a computer needs to reach quickly. It's where
information is stored for immediate use. Memory is one of the basic functions of a computer, because without it, a
computer would not be able to function properly. Memory is also used by a computer's operating system, hardware
and software.

Memory vs. storage

The concept of memory and storage can be easily conflated as the same concept; however, there are some distinct
and important differences. Put succinctly, memory is primary memory, while storage is secondary memory. Memory
refers to the location of short-term data, while storage refers to the location of data stored on a long-term basis.

What is volatile memory?

Volatile memory, also known as dynamic or temporary memory, is a type of memory hardware that fetches and
stores data at a very high speed.
The operating system (OS) loads the volatile memory. The system stores its data and computer programs that the
CPU may need in real-time within the volatile memory, and the data is automatically deleted as soon as the system
shuts down.
Being the primary source of memory, volatile memory has some advantages.
First, it is fast, so data can be quickly accessed. Second, it protects sensitive data because the data becomes
unavailable once the system is turned off. Finally, because of its high speed, volatile memory makes data transfer
much easier.
Some examples of volatile memory include cache memory and random access memory (RAM). (Cache memory is a
computer chip that acts as a buffer/temporary storage between the CPU and the RAM, which stores all data currently
in use to be retrieved by the CPU.)
However, volatile memory has a lower storage capacity, and it tends to be more expensive per unit. A single RAM
chip may be no more than a few GB in capacity, while a high capacity RAM may sell for hundreds of thousands of
dollars.
What is non-volatile memory?
Non-volatile memory, also known as static or permanent memory, is a type of memory hardware that does not lose
the data stored within it when the system shuts down.
In contrast to volatile memory, non-volatile memory takes longer to fetch and store data, but it is still fast, and it has
a higher memory capacity than volatile memory.
As a result, users can store all the information they want on their device for an extended period of time. Additionally,
because of its higher memory capacity, non-volatile memory is more cost-efficient than volatile memory.
Non-volatile memory is often used for secondary storage or long-term storage. However, it takes the operating
system a long time to load this memory, and as a result, it delivers slower performance and lower data transfer rates.
Some examples of non-volatile memory are read only memory (ROM)--memory stored here cannot be electronically
modified--flash drives, and hard drives, all of which permanently store data regardless of whether or not the system
is on.
There are two types of non-volatile memory: mechanically addressed systems and electrically addressed systems.
Mechanically addressed systems, like hard disk drives, read and write on a specific storage
medium/contact structure. Electrically addressed systems, like a solid state drive, use electrical mechanisms to read
and write data.

Types of computer memory

Primary Memory and Secondary Memory

Primary Memory(RAM) is a type of memory where the computer stores it’s actively using data, it’s very fast but loses
power while Secondary Memory(eg: SSD, HDD) can hold our files and programs for long term and our data is safe but
less fast than primary.
In general, memory can be divided into primary and secondary memory; moreover, there are numerous types of
memory when discussing just primary memory. Some types of primary memory include the following
 Cache memory This temporary storage area, known as a cache, is more readily available to the processor
than the computer's main memory source. It is also called CPU memory because it is typically integrated
directly into the CPU chip or placed on a separate chip with a bus interconnect with the CPU.
 RAM. The term is based on the fact that any storage location can be accessed directly by the processor.

 Read-only memory. ROM is a type of computer storage containing nonvolatile, permanent data that,
normally, can only be read and not written to.

 Virtual memory. A memory management technique where secondary memory can be used as if it were a
part of the main memory. Virtual memory uses hardware and software to enable a computer to compensate
for physical memory shortages by temporarily transferring data from RAM to disk storage.

Hard disk
Hard disk, magnetic storage medium for a computer. Hard disks are flat circular plates made
of aluminum or glass and coated with a magnetic material. Hard disks for personal computers can store terabytes
(trillions of bytes) of information.
solid-state device, electronic device in which electricity flows through solid semiconductor crystals
(silicon, gallium arsenide, germanium) rather than through vacuum tubes.
Input Device Definition: A piece of equipment/hardware which helps us enter data into a computer is called an
input device. For example keyboard, mouse, etc.

1. Keyboard
 A simple device comprising keys and each key denotes either an alphabet, number or number
commands which can be given to a computer for various actions to be performed
 It has a modified version of typewriter keys
 The keyboard is an essential input device and computer and laptops both use keyboards to give
commands to the computer
2. Mouse
 It is also known as a pointing device
 Using mouse we can directly click on the various icons present on the system and open up various
files and programs
 A mouse comprises 3 buttons on the top and one trackball at the bottom which helps in selecting and
moving the mouse around, respectively
 In case of laptops, the touchpad is given as a replacement of the mouse which helps in the movement
of the mouse pointer
3. Joy Stick
 It is a device which comprises a stick which is attached at an angle to the base so that it can be
moved and controlled
 Mostly used to control the movement in video games
 Apart from a computer system, a joystick is also used in the cockpit of an aeroplane, wheelchairs,
cranes, trucks, etc. to operate them well
4. Light Pen
 It is a wand-like looking device which can directly be moved over the device’s screen
 It is light-sensitive
 Used in conjunction with computer’s cathode ray tube
5. Microphone
 Using a microphone, sound can be stored in a device in its digital form
 It converts sound into an electrical signal
 To record or reproduce a sound created using a microphone, it needs to be connected with an
amplifier
 6. Scanner
 This device can scan images or text and convert it into a digital signal
 When we place any piece of a document on a scanner, it converts it into a digital signal and displays
it on the computer screen
7. Barcode Reader
 It is a kind of an optical scanner
 It can read bar codes
 A source of light is passed through a bar code, and its aspects and details are displayed on the screen

Output Device Definition: A piece of equipment/hardware which gives out the result of the entered input, once it is
processed (i.e. converts data from machine language to a human-understandable language), is called an output
device. For example printer, monitor, etc.
1. Monitor
 The device which displays all the icons, text, images, etc. over a screen is called the Monitor
 When we ask the computer to perform an action, the result of that action is displayed on the monitor
 Various types of monitors have also been developed over the years
2. Printer
 A device which makes a copy of the pictorial or textual content, usually over a paper is called a
printer
 For example, an author types the entire book on his/her computer and later gets a print out of it,
which is in the form of paper and is later published
 Multiple types of printers are also available in the market, which can serve different purposes
3. Speakers
 A device through which we can listen to a sound as an outcome of what we command a computer to
do is called a speaker
 Speakers are attached with a computer system and also are a hardware device which can be attached
separately
 With the advancement in technology, speakers are now available which are wireless and can be
connected using BlueTooth or other applications
4. Projector
 An optical device which presents an image or moving images onto a projection screen is called a
projector
 Most commonly these projectors are used in auditoriums and movie theatres for the display of the
videos or lighting
 If a projector is connected to a computer, then the image/video displayed on the screen is the same as
the one displayed on the computer screen
5. Headphones
 They perform the same function as a speaker, the only difference is the frequency of sound
 Using speakers, the sound can be heard over a larger area and using headphones, the sound is only
audible to the person using them
 Also known as earphones or headset

keyboard
A keyboard is one of the primary input devices used with a computer. Like an electric typewriter, a keyboard is
composed of buttons to create letters, numbers, and symbols, and perform additional functions.

Typing Keys/ Alphabetic keys

These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad
It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same
configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.

Function Keys
 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function
unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

Control keys
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as
Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

What is a Mouse in a Computer?

A mouse is an input device that is moved across the desk surface by the user so as to interact with the computer. It
basically interacts with the Graphical User Interface of the computer. A mouse is used to perform actions such as
selection, double-clicking, dragging, scrolling etc. Many kinds of mouses have been introduced and each of them has
its ow purpose. In cases of laptop, the mouse is an external touchpad that has been embedded in front of the
keyboard. Howe,er users can use an external mouse for interaction with the computer.

What is power Supply? Basic introduction of power supply:

A power supply is an electrical device that offers electric power to an electrical load such as laptop computer, server,
or other electronic devices. The main function of a power supply is to convert electric current from a source to the
correct voltage, current, and frequency to power the load. It could be AC to DC or DC to DC. Consequently, power
supplies are sometimes regarded as electric power converters. Some power supplies are standalone and separated
from equipment to be external power supplies and others inside the device to be the internal power supplies.

Every power supply has a power input connection, which gets energy from a source, and single or multiple power
output connections that transmit current to the electrical load.

Motherboard
A motherboard is the main circuit board in a computer that connects all of its internal components and provides
power to them.

Sound card color code

 Pink. Microphone input.
 Light blue. Line level input.
  Lime green. Left and right stereo output or headphones.
 Orange. Center and subwoofer output.
 Black. Surround sound left and right output.
 Grey. Surround sound rear left and right output.
 Yellow. Digital output.
The color code for keyboard and mouse ports on most PCs is purple for keyboards and green for mice.

First Generation of Computer (1937 – 1946):

In 1937 the first electronic digital computer was built by Dr. John V.
Atanasoff and Clifford Berry. It was called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer
(ABC). In 1943 an electronic computer name the Colossus was built for the
military. Other developments continued until in 1946 the first general– purpose
digital computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC)
was built. It is said that this computer weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000 vacuum
tubes which was used for processing. When this computer was turned on for the
first time lights dim in sections of Philadelphia. Computers of this generation
could only perform single task, and they had no operating system.
Characteristics:
i. Sizes of these computers were as large as the size of a room.
ii. Possession of Vacuum Tubes to perform calculation.
iii. They used an internally stored instruction called program.
iv. Use capacitors to store binary data and information.
v. They use punched card for communication of input and output data and
information
vi. They generated a lot of heat.
vii. They have about One Thousand 1000 circuits per cubic foot.
Examples:
i. Mark I developed by Aiken in 1944.
ii. Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) built at the
Moore School for Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania in 1946
by J. Presper Eckert and William Mauchley.
iii. Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) also
developed in 1947 by Eckert and Mauchley.

Second Generation of Computer (1947 – 1962):

Second generation of computers used transistors instead of vacuum tubes
which were more reliable. In 1951 the first computer for commercial use was
introduced to the public; the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC 1). In
1953 the International Business Machine (IBM) 650 and 700 series computers
made their mark in the computer world. During this generation of computers
over 100 computer programming languages were developed, computers had
memory and operating systems. Storage media such as tape and disk were in use
also were printers for output.
Characteristics:
i. The computers were still large, but smaller than the first generation of
computers.
ii. They use transistor in place of Vacuum Tubes to perform calculation.
iii. They were produced at a reduced cost compared to the first generation
of computers.
iv. Possession of magnetic tapes as for data storage.
v. They were using punch cards as input and output of data and
information. The use of keyboard as an input device was also
introduced.
vi. These computers were still generating a lot of heat in which an air
conditioner is needed to maintain a cold temperature.
vii. They have about one thousand circuits per cubic foot.
Example:
i. Leprechaun, IBM built by Bell Laboratories in 1947
ii. Transis produced by philco, GE and RCA.
iii. UNIVAC 1107, UNIVAC III.
iv. RCA 501.

v. IBM 7030 stretch.

Third Generation of Computer (1963 – 1975):

The invention of integrated circuit brought us the third generation of
computers. With this invention computers became smaller, more powerful more
reliable and they are able to run many different programs at the same time.
Characteristics:
i. They used large-scale integrated circuits, which were used for both
data processing and storage.
ii. Computers were miniaturized, that is, they were reduced in size
compared to previous generation.
iii. Keyboard and mouse were used for input while the monitor was used
as output device.
iv. Use of programming language like COBOL and FORTRAN were
developed.
v. They have hundred thousand circuits per cubic foot.
Examples:
i. Burroughs 6700, Mini computers
ii. Honeywell 200
iii. IBM system 360
iv. UNIVAC 9000 series.
Fourth Generation of Computer (PC 1975 – Current)
At this time of technological development, the size of computer was re-
divided to what we called Personal Computers, PC. This was the time the first
Microprocessor was created by Intel. The microprocessor was a very large-
scale, that is, VLS integrated circuit which contained thousands of transistors.

Transistors on one chip were capable performing all the functions of a

computer’s central processing unit.
Characteristics:
i. Possession of microprocessor which performs all the task of a
computer system use today.
ii. The size of computers and cost was reduced.
iii. Increase in speed of computers.
iv. Very large scale (VLS) integrated circuits were used.
v. They have millions of circuits per cubic foot.
Examples:
i. IBM system 3090, IBM RISC6000, IBM RT.
ii. ILLIAC IV.
iii. Cray 2 XMP.
iv. HP 9000.
v. Apple Computers.
Fifth Generation of Computers (Present and Beyond)
Fifth generations computing devices, based on artificial intelligence (AI)
are still in development, although there are some application such as voice
recognition, facial face detector and thumb print that are used today.
Characteristics:
i. Consist of extremely large scale integration.
ii. Parallel processing
iii. Possession of high speed logic and memory chip.
iv. High performance, micro-miniaturization.

v. Ability of computers to mimic human intelligence, e.g. voice

recognition, facial face detector, thumb print.
vi. Satellite links, virtual reality.
vii. They have billions of circuits per cubic.
Examples:
i. Super computers
ii. Robots
iii. Facial face detector
iv. Thumb print

What is the internet?

The internet, sometimes simply called the net, is a worldwide system of interconnected computer networks and
electronic devices that communicate with each other using an established set of protocols.
How the internet works
The process of transferring information over the internet from one device to another relies on packet switching. The
internet is a packet-routing network that uses IP and TCP protocols for communication. When a person visits a
website, their computer or mobile device sends a request to the server over one of these protocols.

The main components of the internet

The internet is comprised of hardware, software and various protocols. The following are the primary components of
the internet:
 Client or endpoint devices. These are the multitude of interconnected components or clients that access and
contribute to the internet. These can include computers, smartphones, tablets, routers, web servers and IoT
devices.
 Servers. Servers are the computers that provide services or share stored resources with the client devices.
Their main job is to comply with client requests by providing the requested information or performing the
requested tasks.
 Internet protocols. To retrieve the required data on the internet, a set of guidelines and procedures known
as protocols must be adhered to as they guarantee accurate and effective data transmission. Common
internet protocols include IP, TCP/IP, HTTP, HTTP Secure (HTTPS) and file transfer protocol. Other protocols,
such as Session Initiation Protocol for voice-over IP, Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) and Internet Message
Access Protocol for email are also used.
 IP addresses. IP addresses are used to identify devices on the internet. These can include IPv4 addresses
such as 192.168.1.1, which is the default IP address many router manufacturers use to access a router's
interface. IPv4 addresses are shorter than IPv6 addresses, which are designed to handle the increasing
number of connected devices.
 Routers. Routers forward data packets between computer networks. By using routing tables, routers
determine the best routes or paths for data transfer between devices.
 Domain name system. DNS converts human-readable domain names, such as www.example.com, into
machine-readable IP addresses. It also acts as a decentralized directory that helps users navigate the
internet.
 Web browsers. Web browsers or search engines -- including Apple Safari, Google Chrome, Microsoft
Edge and Mozilla Firefox -- let users access and engage with material on the internet and also decipher and
present web pages to them.
 ISPs. ISPs are companies that provide users with internet connectivity. They operate the infrastructure,
including the cables and routers needed to connect users to the global network.
 Social media platforms. Social media platforms, such as Facebook, X (formerly known as Twitter)
and Instagram, let users connect, share content and communicate with people all over the world.
  Firewalls and security measures. Incoming and outgoing network traffic on the internet is monitored and
controlled by different types of security firewalls and security measures. Firewalls safeguard networks and
devices against unauthorized internet access, cyber threats and malicious activities.
Difference between the World Wide Web and the internet
The key difference between the internet and the World Wide Web (WWW or web) is that the internet is a global
connection of networks, while the web is a collection of information or websites that can be accessed using the
internet. In other words, the internet is the infrastructure and the web is a service on top of it.
The web is the most widely used part of the internet. Its outstanding feature is hypertext, a method of instantly
cross-referencing text. Used in blog posts, Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) web pages, social media posts and
online shopping websites, hypertext appears in a different color than the rest of the text and is often also underlined.
When a user clicks on one of these words or phrases, they're transferred to the related site or webpage. Buttons,
images or portions of images are also used as hyperlinks.
The web provides access to billions of pages of information. Web browsing is done through a web browser, such as
Chrome, Edge or Firefox. The appearance of a particular website can vary slightly, depending on the browser used.
Newer versions of a particular browser can render more complex features, such as animation, virtual reality, sound
and music files.
What are the key features of the internet?
The internet has certain features that make it a powerful and versatile tool for communication, information sharing
and diverse online activities. Some key features of the internet include the following:
 Worldwide availability. The internet is a global resource that's accessible to everyone. Today, most people
can use the internet even if they live in the most remote and deserted parts of the world.
 Compatibility with other media types. Due to the standardized protocols and formats that it offers, the
internet facilitates compatibility with various media types. This enables seamless integration and interaction
across diverse multimedia such as photos, videos and audio files.
 Easy accessibility. Web browsers such as Chrome or Firefox are used to access the internet. For end users
and developers, these programs are simple to use, comprehend and easy to develop.
 Affordability. The expenses associated with developing and maintaining internet services are low. However,
the costs vary depending on the type of services and providers being used.
Uses of the internet
In general, the internet can be used to communicate across large or small distances, share information from any
place in the world, and access information or answers to almost any question in moments.
Some specific examples of how the internet is used include the following:
 Social media and content sharing.
 Email and other forms of communication, such as Internet Relay Chat, internet telephony, instant
messaging and video conferencing.
 Education and self-improvement through access to online degree programs, courses and workshops.
 Searching for jobs -- both employers and applicants use the internet to post open positions, apply for jobs
and recruit individuals found on social networking sites such as LinkedIn.
 Entertainment such as streaming TV shows, movies, videos and music.
 Remote working using online collaboration platforms and messaging apps.
Security and the internet
Large amounts of information, both public and private, are collected across the internet, opening users up to the risk
of data breaches and other security threats such as malware infections, ransomware attacks
and phishing attempts. Hackers and crackers can break into networks and systems and steal login information or
bank and credit card account records.
Internet security refers to a set of techniques and methods targeted at safeguarding online activities and
transactions. Users can take the following steps to protect their online privacy:
 Install antivirus and antimalware software on devices and endpoints.
 Create difficult, varied passwords that are impossible to guess.
 Use a virtual private network or, at least, a private browsing mode, such as Google Chrome's Incognito
window.
 Use secure protocols, such as HTTPS, instead of HTTP for online transactions.
 Make all social media accounts private.
 Deactivate autofill.
 Turn off the device's Global Positioning System (GPS).
 Update cookies so an alert is sent anytime a cookie is installed.
 Log out of accounts instead of just closing the tab or window.
  Use caution with spam emails and never open or download content from unknown sources.
 Use caution when accessing public Wi-Fi or hotspots.
 Regularly back up important data both offsite and on the cloud.
Additionally, there's an element of the internet called the dark web. The dark web is hidden and inaccessible through
standard browsers. Instead, it uses the Tor and I2P browsers which let users remain completely anonymous. While
this anonymity can be a great way to protect an online user's security and free speech, or for the government to keep
classified data hidden, the dark web also creates an environment that facilitates cybercrime, the transfer of illegal
goods and terrorism.
Social impact of the internet
The internet has both positive and negative social effects. On one side, people argue that the internet has increased
the risk of isolation, alienation and withdrawal from society, pointing to increases in an emotional response
called FOMO, or the fear of missing out. Also, there are major differences in terms of access to the internet,
bandwidth, efficiency and cost. This digital divide results in unequal access to information and opportunities among
individuals based on their backgrounds and other socio-economic factors.
On the other side, people believe the internet increases civic engagement, sociability and the intensity of
relationships.
Whether the effects are good or bad, the internet has changed the way society interacts and connects. People are
constructing social relationships based on individual interests, projects and values. Communities are being formed by
like-minded individuals not only offline and in person, but through the internet and the multitude of online
environments it creates and offers. Social networking sites -- like Facebook and LinkedIn -- have become the
preferred platforms for both businesses and individuals looking to perform all kinds of tasks and communicate with
others.
Benefits of the internet
The internet offers numerous advantages that have transformed people's lives in the following ways:
 Provides access to endless information, knowledge and education.
 Increases users' ability to communicate, connect and share.
 Allows users to work remotely, collaborate and access a global workforce.
 Gives businesses or individuals an avenue to sell and make money.
 Provides access to an unlimited supply of entertainment sources, such as movies, music, videos and games.
 Amplifies the influence of a message, enabling charities and other organizations to reach a wider audience
and increase the amount of donations.
 Provides access to the IoT, which enables home appliances and devices to connect to and be controlled from
a computer or smartphone.
 Provides access to health-related information and resources, letting people make informed decisions
regarding their well-being.
 Allows users to save data and easily share files with cloud storage on cloud computing platforms.
 Enables users to monitor and control personal accounts instantly, such as bank accounts or credit card bills.
What is a computer network?
A computer network is a group of interconnected nodes or computing devices that exchange data and resources with
each other. A network connection between these devices can be established using cable or wireless media. Once a
connection is established, communication protocols -- such as TCP/IP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and Hypertext
Transfer Protocol -- are used to exchange data between the networked devices.
How does a computer network work?
Devices attached to a computer network use IP addresses that are resolved into hostnames through a domain name
system server to communicate with each other over the internet and on other computer networks. A variety of
protocols and algorithms are also used to specify the transmission of data among endpoints.

Types of computer networks

There are several types of computer networks. Which network an organization uses depends on factors such as the
number of devices, types of operating systems, transmission medium used, network topology, the distance between
each device and their geographic scale.
Some examples of computer networks are the following:
 LANs. LANs interconnect endpoints in a single domain. Examples of LANs include schools, hospitals and office
buildings.
 WANs. WANs interconnect multiple LANs and span larger geographical areas, such as big cities, states and
countries.
 WLANs. This is a group of colocated devices that use radio transmission instead of wired connections.
  Metropolitan area networks (MANs). A MAN connects computer resources in a large geographic area, such
as a city.
 Personal area networks (PANs). A PAN is used by one person to connect multiple devices, such as printers
and scanners.
 Storage area networks (SANs). SANs are specialized and dedicated networks that connect multiple high-
performance data storage devices and resources. They provide built-in security and block-level access. A SAN
provides disaster recovery because it includes different storage devices, such as disk drives, magnetic
tapes and optical storage.
 Campus area networks (CANs). A CAN is a collection of interconnected LANs that are commonly used by
larger organizations, such as governments and universities.
 Virtual private networks (VPNs). A VPN extends a private network over a public network to improve the
privacy and security of a network connection.
 Passive optical networks (PONs). A PON is a fiber optic network that delivers broadband access to end users.
 Service provider networks. These are network providers that lease network capacity and functionality to
customers. Providers typically consist of telecommunication companies, data carriers, internet service
providers and cable television providers.
 Cloud networks. This is a type of WAN, but its infrastructure is delivered by a cloud-based service, such
as Amazon Web Services. Cloud networks are a standard approach for modern networks.

A computer network must be physically and logically designed in such a way that makes it possible for the underlying
network elements to communicate with each other. This layout of a computer network is known as the computer
network architecture.
The following are the two most common computer network architectures:
1. Client-server. This model consists of many clients -- or nodes -- where at least one network node acts as the
central server. The clients in this model don't share resources, but request the central server, as all the

resources are installed on it.

2. Peer-to-peer (P2P). Each connected device on this network behaves as the client, as well as the server, and
enjoys similar privileges. The resources of each peer are shared among the entire network, including
memory, processing power and printing. Many companies use the P2P architecture to host memory-
intensive applications

Core components of a computer network

The following building blocks -- network devices, links and communication protocols -- make computer network
operations possible:
 Network devices. These physical devices or nodes are the data communication equipment that is connected
inside a computer network. Examples of network devices include modems, routers, PCs, servers, firewalls,
switches and gateways. Each device in a computer network is identified by a network address and often has
easily identifiable hostnames.
 Links. A link is the transmission medium used for connecting the nodes and enabling them to transmit to
each other. The links can be either wired, wireless or optical, such as an Ethernet cable or a Wi-Fi signal. The
links can be configured in different ways, both physically and logically, and the network topology dictates the
manner in which links and nodes relate to each other.
  Communication protocols. These are the rules or protocols that all nodes on a network must follow for
information transfer. Common protocols include the TCP/IP suite, IEEE 802, Ethernet, WLAN and cellular
standards.
TCP/IP is a conceptual model that suggests the following four functional layers for these communication links:
1. Network access layer. This layer defines how the data is physically transferred through the network, as well
as how hardware devices send bits through a network medium, such as coaxial, optical, fiber or twisted-
pair cables.
2. Internet layer. This is the layer where routing takes place. It packages data into packets and enables them to
be sent and received over the network. The internet layer includes IP, Address Resolution
Protocol and Internet Control Message Protocol.
3. Transport layer. This layer ensures the stable, sequenced and error-free delivery of data packets. It achieves
this by swapping acknowledgment of data reception and retransmitting lost or dropped packets. Typical
protocols used at the transport layer include TCP and User Datagram Protocol.
4. Application layer. Security protocols, such as Transport Layer Security, operate at this layer and play an
integral part in ensuring network security. This is the abstraction layer that communicates directly with
applications and defines how high-level apps should access the network to start a data transfer. For example,
the application layer is used to define where, when and how much data should be sent at a specific rate.