PART-3

Lecture-1
by MANIKANT
SINGH
 Medieval India (post-medieval period)
The study of this section of Indian history needs
following strategy to be adopted -
First Phase-
Our emphasis should be on underlining the elements of change.
In highlighting the elements of change, history needs to be
divided into the following subsections.
Political
Political expansion -Important dynasty and ruler as well
as expansion from state to empire.
Administration-Concept of kingship, central
administration, provincial administration, local
administration, land revenue system, land lords (zamindar)
and richer section.
Economy
Changes in agricultural economy
New technology
Craft and industry
Internal and external trade
Currency system and Status of urbanization.
Society
Muslim and Hindu oligarchy and horizontal division of
society
Urban and Rural Population
Caste and slave system and the Women's condition.
Culture
Development of composite culture, devotion and their
influence, language and literature, architecture, painting,
music arts etc.
Political expansion
Major dynasties and rulers and from state to empire
Sultanate Period
The emergence and transmission of Islam in the Arab region
and West Asia, Conquest of Sindh and influence of the Arabs.
The emergence of Turkish power, Mahmud Ghazni and his
invasions, Mohammad Ghori and the establishment of eastern
rule in North India, Qutbuddin Aibak.
Strengthening of Delhi Sultanate-
Evaluation of Iltutmish, Razia, Balban and their
achievements
Towards empire building-
Khilji revolution, Jalaluddin Khilji and Alauddin Khilji
Policy of expansion in the context of North and South India,
administrative policy and market control policy
Tughlaq Dynasty
GhyasuddinTughlaq
Muhammad bin Tughluq –Expansion of empire, its major
projects, its administrative and economic reforms and its role in
the downfall of the empire.
FirozshahTughlaq - His policy and work, economic reforms and
public welfare work and his influence on the empire.

Specialty of Sayyed and Lodi dynasty and Afghan

politics.
Bahamani and Vijayanagar Empire and The ruler of
Kashmir, Zain ul Abidin
 Mughal Empire

Establishment of Babur and Mughal power, assessment

of Babur on the basis of Tuzk-e-Babri, Humayun and the
challenges before him.
Akbar - Empire building, new concept of government, his
policy towards non-Muslims, religious policy and his
contribution in the field of culture.
Mughal Empire and Jahangir, Shah Jahan
Mughal Empire and Aurangzeb-Regional rebellion against
the empire, Aurangzeb's religious policy and Rajput policy and
Aurangzeb's role in the disintegration of the Mughal Empire.
Afghan power and Marathas, Shivaji and Peshwa and the
third Battle of Panipat.
Administration

Sultanate period Mughal period

Relations between Sultan and Relations between Emperor
Caliph and Caliph
Was the States under the Nature of Mughal State,
Sultanate a theocratic state?
Central Administration and
Important departments and Major Departments
their functions in central
administration Mansabdari System, Subah
Iqta system and provincial Administration (Check and
administration, local Balance), Local
administration (shiq and Administration (Sarkar and
pargana), land revenue Pargana)
Administration, the structure of Sher Shah's administration.
the richer section under the
Sultanate.
Economy
Sultanate period Mughal period
Agrarian Economy and Changes in agrarian
Development of economy and arrival of
Irrigation new crops
New technology
Advent of new technology
Craft and industry
Craft and industry Internal and external
Internal and external trade and trade revolution
trade Urbanization
Currency and banking Development of money
banking and insurance
Society

Sultanate period Mughal period

Horizontal division of Caste and slavery system
Indian society Nobles (Elites) and
Caste and slavery system common people
Women's condition Zamindar class and
Mughal Amir
Women's condition
Culture

Sultanate period Mughal period

Development of Bhakti Development of composite
culture - Bhakti and Sufi
and Sufi Movement
Development of Persian
Development of Persian language & literature and
and regional language & regional language & literature
literature Development of Urdu language
Architecture, painting Dara Shukoh and pantheist
and music thinking
Mughal architecture, painting
Regional styles of
& music and regional styles of
architecture art
Second stage
Discussion on certain issues in the context of
historiography, for example-
Was the Iqta system feudal in nature?
Can the change in economy under the Sultanate be termed as
urban revolution?
Was the Mughal Empire a centralized empire?
Was Aurangzeb's policy responsible for the disintegration of
the Mughal Empire?
Was the Revolt of Maharana Pratap and Shivaji nationalistic
in its nature?
Third Stage
History is the name of dialogue between past and present. Therefore,
while studying the medieval period, our focus should be on both the
past and the present, that is, the Mansabdari system of the Mughals can
also be compared to the British civil service system, although both had
different objectives.
Similarly, the present-day communal divide and tension can also be
studied in comparison with the composite culture developed in the
medieval period.
Fourth Stage
When we complete the above three steps, then the standard
writing becomes very easy.
Standard writing is a condition of clarifying your stand on any
question and then choosing the major ideas and examples to
prove it.
 History of Medieval India
Does the history of medieval India reflect a declining
phase in Indian history?
In traditional historiography, it was believed that the history of
medieval India is a regressive phase in Indian history. First, it
was compared to the history of modern India. Then comparison
to the history of medieval India, the history of modern India was
termed as a period of economic progress and intellectual
development.
But it is difficult to accept the above fact, on the other hand the
latest researches have challenged the above concept and now it
is believed that the medieval period of Indian history is also not
devoid of progress and development.
But it needs to be understood. In fact, we can underline the
elements of progress in different areas-
Economic Zone - This period saw technological development in
the field of agriculture.
Many new types of crops introduced during this period.
New technology in the field of crafts was encouraged by Turks.
Then during this period the beginning and progress of the third
urbanization was visible.
Social sector –
During this period a large tribal population was converted into
the category of peasants.
Similarly, Indian and foreign elements were reconciled within
Indian society and the evaluation of a composite culture was
visible in India.
Cultural Area –
We can also call it a period of progress in terms of development
of various forms of literature and art.
Explain the medieval characteristics in Medieval
Indian history of India.
1- The rise of feudalism
2- Evolution of sub castes from castes
3- The invasion of Turks and the horizontal division of Indian
society (Hindu-Muslim)
4- Beginning of third urbanization
5- Important achievements in the field of art
6- Trend of regional languages and the prevalence of Persian
language.
7- Progress of composite culture
Sources and evaluation of the study of the history of Delhi
Sultanate
During pre medieval period we had depended largely on
archaeological source as the source of study because literary texts
of that period throw very little light on contemporary history. But
a large number of Persian compositions were available as a source
of study during Sultanate and Mughal period.
Above all, these texts were identified as texts of history and
Muslim scholars established history writing as a separate subject.
It was known as Tawarikh.
This was a unique thing as during the pre-Turkish rule in fact,
there is no other text that we can formally call a historical text,
except Kalhana's Rajatarangini.
Therefore, the question arises that how did Muslim authors get
the intellectual inspiration for this sort of historiography?
More than one factor was responsible for this-
First, some historians believe that the Quran itself is full of
historical narration.
Secondly, the people of Arabia had shown interest in carrying
various events from the beginning. Describing events related to
the lives of some warriors was also characteristic of the Arab
region.
For example, the Hamzanama was written in the name of the
Arabian warrior Hamza. Similarly, events associated with the
events of Mohammad Prophet and prominent saints have also
been considered an important work. This work encouraged the
writing of history in the Arab region.
Furthermore, Arab intellectuals formed a kind of intellectual
contact with other civilizations as well, such as the Egyptian
civilization and Persian civilization. This also encouraged history
writing.
Apart from this, even the prosperity of khalipha’s empire
enabled him to patronise scholars.
Then paper began to be used in Baghdad from the 8th century.
This also gave a boost to writing activities.
As a result, the importance of Persian language increased.
Because, Persian literature underwent a renaissance in Iran
under the world's first sultan, Mahmud Ghazni, when Firdausi,
the leading Persian author, composed a historical work
Shahnama.
Further Turkish rulers also brought this method to Hindustan.
At the time of Qutubuddin Aibak, an author Hasan Nizami
composed Taj-ul-Maasir. Further, 'Tabaqat-e-Nasiri' of Minhaj-
us-Siraj was associated with this tradition. Its sequel is Tarikh-i
Firoz Shahi' by Barani.
Thus due to the availability of written books, there was a great
convenience in studying the history of Delhi Sultanate. But on
the other hand it also presented a different type of challenge.
For example, a scholar named Peter Hardy has tried to establish
that these historical texts have a lack of objective view so it is
questionable.
Many modern scholars have also taken these historical facts to
the fore. For this reason, his own critical vision is blurred.
E. H. Carr accepted that before reading the work of a scholar it is
necessary to know about that scholar first otherwise we will get
away from the real facts.
Therefore, we need to be careful before using the medieval
Persian compositions as historical texts because the historical
texts have their own dangers.
 Malfuzat
Malfuzat is some type of popular literature. It contains the
teachings of Sufi saints, Pir and Sheikhs. The speech of these
saints was compiled in the 13th century and they were approved
by other saints and their followers.
In northern India, the Malfuzat represented popular literature of
the 13th century and had widespread importance. 'Fawad-ul-
Fuwad' is an important text in Malafuzat. It is written by an
author Hasan Sijadi Dehlvi. He was a disciple of Nizamuddin
Auliya.
A scholar Karl Ernst believes that this text has more importance
as a source of study than a religious text because it presents an
alternative to dynastic history of court scholars.
 In fact, social history, which is absent in the writings of court
authors, can be obtained from Malfuzat. K.A. Nizami believes that
the Malfuzat provides information about the behavior and problems
of medieval society, folk culture and the general public.
This Malfuzat tradition was carried forward by Hameed Qalandar
who has presented a compilation of the conversation of another Sufi
saint Nasiruddin Chirag-e-Dehalvi in a text titled Khair-ul-Majalis.
Thus the protagonist of the Malfuzat is different from the authors of
Tawarikh, the hero of Malfuzat is a great Sufi saint and this text is far
from court culture. Above all, some important researchers of the
modern era, Richard Bullet, Simon Digby, Karl Enrest, etc., have
made Malfuzat as the source of study instead of Tawarikh.
Where as from Tawarikh, information about the political history of
the rulers is obtained, the Malfuzat reflects the social, cultural and
general condition of medieval India. Comment.
 Foundation of Delhi Sultanate
Islam originated in the region of Arabia under Prophet
Mohammad, and then it expanded to non- Arabian region in
West Asia and Central Asia under caliphs.

Conquest of Sind
Although right from the beginning, Islam consistently made
efforts to expand towards India. Finally it was Muhammad-
bin-Qasim who could conquer India in 712 CE while
defeating the ruler of Sind, Dahir.
Source of study-
The text ‘Futuh-ul-Abdan’ by Al-Biladuri and ‘Chachnama’
by an unknown author.
Political Outcome
Sind was conquered but Arabian invaders was not allowed to
expand further by the ruler of Kashmir, Laltaditya, Chalukyas
and Rashtrakutra kings.
Was it a politically insignificant event as Lane Pool, an eminent
western scholar, tried to prove?
No, not at all. Although it's political impact is less visible than its
cultural one but due to following factors it was not politically
significant-
1. It is due to military success against Islamic invaders that
certain Indian dynasty like Gurjar Pratiharas and
Rashtrakutas gained in legitimacy.
2. Arabian invaders could establish a model of Islamic state
which became a template even for Turkish government later.
Cultural impact
Cultural impact was definitely larger than political one.
1. Arabian scholars worked as a bridge between oriental and
western intellectual world.
2. It spread Indian knowledge to western world so became
instrumental even behind European Renaissance.
Who were Turks?
Turks were central Asian warring tribe. Many of them converted
to Islam and got a job at lower post under a Islamic state and
then by dint of their talent they could rise up to higher position.
Among Islamised Turks, there were Alaptgin, and the son-in-law
of Alaptgin was Subuktgin and the son of Subuktgin was
Mahmud of Ghazani (998-1027).
Why did Mahmud Ghazani not establish direct
rule in the region of Northern India?
Mahmud Ghazni carried 17 raids on the region of Northern
India but did not prefer to have the direct control.
In fact his main objective was to expand in the reason of central
Asia as that was lying on the main trade route.
But at the same time he was inclined to mobilize the resources
from India in order to finance his project in Central Asia. That's
why particularly after 1010 CE he carried raids on temple towns
like Mathura, Sthaneshwar, Kanauj and Somnath (1026).
Was he having religious motives first?
In fact his slogan of ‘Jehad’ and his title like ‘Butsikan’
(Idolater) simply having propaganda value.
 What was the impact of Mahmud Ghazni's
invasions?
1. North west region of India became the part of wider trade
network of Central Asia and West Asia.
2. Mahmud Ghazni invasions prepared the base for Ghori's success
in future.
Why did Turkish invaders prove more successful
than Arabian ones?
Due to following factors-
1. An efficient military technology in the form of mounted
archers.
2. Turks were having the zeal of new converts.
 Empire of
Mahmud of
Ghazani
 Empire of
Mahmud of
Ghori
 Empire of
Mahmud of
Ghazani
 Empire of
Mahmud of
Ghori
Decline of Ghazani Empire and the rise of Ghori
state
After the decline of Gazani Empire two empires emerged in
Central Asia to fill up the vacuum- Khwarism state and Ghori
state.
Muhammed-bin-Sam, popularly known as Muhammed Ghori
took the charge from his elder brother in 1173 then he looked
towards India.
His larger objective was to make an extension in Central Asia
while using the resources of India. But unlike Muhammed
Ghazani he did not prefer indirect control rather he preferred
direct control on Hindustani region.

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Earlier he preferred to enter into India through Bolan pass
with an objective to avoid a confrontation with Ghazani’s
successor in Punjab. But he received a setback as he was
defeated at the hand of the ruler of Gujarat, Bhima II in
1178.
Then he moved through Punjab and finally conquered
Punjab up to 1190.
Now he started to look towards south-east for further
expansion. On the other hand, the ruler of Ajmer and Delhi
Prithviraj Chauhan was looking towards North west so in
order to have the control over Bhatinda (Tabarhind) that
the first battle of Tarain occurred in 1191 in which Prithviraj
Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori.

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But after one year, once again Muhammad Ghori invaded the
region and defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the second battle of
Tarain in 1192 and captured Delhi and Ajmer. Thus was
founded a Turkish rule in north India.
In 1194, Ghori defeated the ruler of Kannauj, Jaichand in the
battle of Chandawar.
But most of the time Muhammad Ghori remained outside from
India as his main interest lay in his objective to expand in the
region of Central Asia at the cost of Khwarism state. So he left
the administration of India into the hand of his slave lieutenant
Qutubuddin Aibak.
After receiving a final jolt in the politics of Central Asia, he
moved towards India after 1203 but he died in 1206.

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 Delhi
Sultanate
-1236
Muhammad Ghori and Qutubuddin Aibak established
Turkish rule, but it was Iltutmish who had to work for
consolidation of Turkish state. Comment on this
statement.
Muhammad Ghori's political vision was confined to central Asia
and he used India as a base for his future empire. Therefore, he
did not get an opportunity to concentrate on Indian territory. On
the other hand, Qutubuddin Aibak had less time to work as an
independent ruler.
Naturally, Iltutmish had to fulfill this responsibility. Iltutmish
got the requisite time to organize the administration during the
Sultanate period and above all he had an entrepreneurial as well
as a creative vision. Therefore, to organize the Delhi Sultanate,
he took the following steps:-
1- In fact, during the weak rule of Aram Shah, Rajput states
became independent like Nagaur, Mandawar, Jalore, Gwalior
etc. Iltutmish won these states again.
2- He had to face the challenges of two strong rivals Yalduz and
Qubacha and he presented a very practical solution to this.
3- Similarly, Iltutmish, by pragmatic policy, saved Hindustan from
Genghis Khan's invasion.
4- Then a major challenge before him was the revolt of Bengal, the
rebellion of Ghiyasuddin and his declaration of independence.
Finally, Iltutmish also brutally crushed Ghiyasuddin's rebellion
by 1231.
Iltutmish not only organized the Sultanate politically
and diplomatically, but he also tried to give it the base
of a strong administrative structure.
1. Iltutmish, together with some of his eminent nobles, formed
Turk-e-Chahalgani and gave the key administrative and military
posts to the members of Turk-e-Chahalgani.
2. Iltutmish organized military system, iqta system and currency
system i.e. he divided a large area from Multan to Lakhnauti into
administrative iqta and allocated them to the nobles.
Similarly, he gave small villages in the Ganga Yamuna Doab
area to about 2000 Shamsi chiefs in return of military service
randared to the state. Thus he also organized the military
system.
In addition, he used the standarised currency of silver as
'tanka' and currency of copper as ‘Jital’. This encouraged
business.
3. He also organized the judicial system. He appointed Qazi
(ulemas) and Amir-e-Dad for judicial work in the cities. So much
so that Ibn-e-Battuta has referred to an efficient judicial system.
4. Then Iltutmish gave the Sultanate a new capital as Delhi. Then
he also got the right to rule from the Khalifa. In this form he
became the first practical Sultan of Delhi.
Successors of Iltutmish and the rise of Razia Sultan
1. The capable son of Iltutmis Mohammad had already died during
his life time. Further,rest of the sons of Iltutmish were
incapable. Therefore, as Iltutmish was inclined towards his
daughter Razia as his successor. But Iltutmish himself couldn’t
implement this.
2. After the death of Iltutmish the members of Turk-i-chihalgani
began to discharge the role of a kingmaker. Therefore an
incapable son of Iltutmish, Ruknuddin Firoz, was placed on the
throne. But Shah Turkan, the mother of Feroz, took the real
power in her hand.
3. Corruption was encouraged by him. Due to this anarchy spread
out in the region. Taking the benefit of this anarchy Razia came
to power with the support of the people and the army. In 1236
AD, she declared herself the sultan of Delhi.
 Challenges before Razia Sultan
Contrary to the royal women of Mughal era who worked from
behind the scene, Razia openly took the government in her
hand. But she had to face several challenges.
1. Razia was chosen by the people of Delhi. This fact was
unacceptable to the members of Turk-i-chihalgani, because they
wanted to discharge the role of a kingmaker.
2. Orthodox Muslim and ulemas considered it against to their
dignity to be ruled by a woman.
3. Razia was a competent and efficient ruler, therefore Turkish
nobles had fear that their power will be curtailed.
4. Taking the benefit of the anarchy originated during weak rule of
Ruknuddin Firoz some regional patriarchy had besieged around
the capital.
5. Rajput brigades had also revolted in some region.
 Solutions done by Razia Sultan
1. She put the control on the power of nobles who had besieged the
capital and made some of them defect her side. Then she spread
the rumors that each of them was in secret talks with Raziya.
various nobles are in her favor. Therefore, due to mutual
suspicions the unity of nobles was breached and they left the
capital.
2. By emphasizing on the administrative efficiency the Razia had
proved that being a woman is not her disqualification as a ruler.
Minhaj-us-Siraj writes that all the nobles and Maliks from Deval
to Lucknowti had bowed before Razia.
3. She started to take service of non-Turks for breaking the
monopoly of Turkish nobles in the administrative appointments.
For example: an Abyssinian noble Yakut was given the post of
Amir-e-Akhur. Similarly Hasan Ghori was made chief
commander.
4. Razia had sent Hasan Ghori for suppressing the rebellious
Rajputs. Hasan Gori destroyed the fort of Ranthambore.

The reasons of downfall of Razia

1. Due to jealousy of Turkish nobles and ulemas, the decline of
Razia occurred.
2. Minhaj-us-Siraj writes that Razia had all the qualities of an
efficient ruler. She had only one weakness and that was her
womanhood. Taking benefit of that her rivals became successful
in carrying out propaganda against her.
 Balban (1266-1286)
Challenges and achievements of Balban
Challenges
1. Weakening of the position of Sultan due to over
ambition of ‘Turk- e-Chihalgani’
• Balban has made the monarchy a serious profession by
destroying the power of the Turk-e-Chihalgani.
• To profess a new theory of kingship which was having
following features -
i. Efforts to make the position of the sultan as distinguished.
a. He declared himself to be the descendant of Afrasiab by
adopting the Iarnian model of monarchy and introduced the
system of ‘Sijda’ and ‘Paibos’ in his court whereas this is a
non Islamic system.
 b. Declaring the Kingship to be ‘Niyabat-e-Khudai’ (given by
the god) and conferring himself the title such as ‘ Zil-i-Ilahi’
(shadow of god).
c. To strictly implement the court discipline through the officer
named ‘ Amir-i-Hazib’
d. To maintain court decorum.
ii. To strengthen the position of Sultan on the basis of
power.
a. To Strengthen the military base of the state empire by
constituting the ‘Diwan-e-Arz’ (military department).
b. To display the military power of the state on the pretext of
hunting spree.
c. To adopt strict policy for curbing the ambition of Turk-e-
Chihalgani some members were transferred and some were
brutally assassinated.
iii. Dual policy towards Turk-e-Chihalgani
On the one hand he decided to break the power of Turk-e-
Chihalgani and on the other hand to establish itself as the
protector of Turk-e-Chihalgani, all the important posts were
reserved for the Turks, while emphasizing the policy of racial
discrimination.

iv. Based on justice

He emphasized on an efficient judicial system to gain the
goodwill and respect of its subject people. It is said that he
punished the Muqti of Awadh and Badaun because they
misbehaved with their servants.
2. Problem of Mongol invasion-
Balban is credited with introducing a pragmatic Mongol policy. To
prevent the Mongol invasion, he adopted a dual policy -
a. He exchanged ambassadors, establishing diplomatic relations
with the Mongols' main court.
b. He created two defence line -the first one from Lahore-Multan-
Dipalpur and the second one from Sunam-Samana-Bhatinda.
On the first line of defence he appointed his elder son
Muhammad and on the second line his younger son, Bugra
Khan.
3. Problem of Mayo and Rajput rebels-
a. He repaired old forts and built new forts and appointed Afghan
mercenaries on them for suppressing Mayo rebels around Delhi.
b. Construction of new forts and appointment of troops on these
forts of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab to suppress the Rajput rebels.
 Batinda

Samana

Lahore-Multan-Dipalpur
Defence Line
4. The Revolt of Muqti of Bengal, Tugril Khan -
By campaigning in Bengal himself and brutally suppressing
Tugril Khan, he set the example before his officers.

Other achievements
1. Formation of competent espionage system under an officer
named Barid-e-Mumalik.
2. Appointment of an officer named Khwaja to look into the
expenditure of the Provincial account.
 Limitations

1. Due to the policy of racial discrimination some talented persons

were debarred from the job.
2. Overall the Mongol policy was also not successful because the
state border in the northwest receded from Indus river to Beas
river.
3. Reflecting extremely cruel behaviour in implementing his policy

Conclusion
Although Balban's emphasis was on consolidation of the
conquered territory rather than the conquest of the new
territory, it was only because of this consolidation work that
future expansion of the Sultanate became possible.
 After Balban
Qaiqubad (1286-1290)
Balban's younger son Bughra Khan refused to sit on the throne,
and then his son Qaiqubad got the throne.
But political chaos spread during his period, taking advantage of
this, Subedar of Samana Jalaluddin Khilji captured the throne of
Delhi.
Khilji Dynasty
Jalaluddin Khilji (1290–1296)
He was the first such Sultan to declare that the basis of state’s
power should be the willing participation of the governed.
His liberal policy created disaffection for his rule within the
Khilji officers. Thus they supported Alauddin Khilji and
Alauddin Khilji dethroned him in 1296.
 What was Khilji revolution?
The Khilji revolution was having following aspects-
1. The rejection of the policy of Turkish racism and the declaration
by Alauddin Khilji that kingship knows no kinship.
2. Khiljis came from the lower strata. Therefore, they opened the
door of the aristocratic class to non-Turks and even Indian
Muslims and Hindus as well.
3. Separation of politics from religion.
4. The Khiljis gained power not with the support of the officers
(Amir) and the Ulemas, but on the basis of the military power,
so they could keep themselves away from the influence of the
Ulemas.
5. Khilji revolution was a revolt of Indian Muslims against those
Muslims who used to search their ancestry in Ghazni and Gor
region.
 Effects of Khilji Revolution
1. The social base of the state was shrunken due to the emphasis on
Turkish racism by the Ilbari kings. The Khilji rulers had
expanded the social base of his state power and adopted the
policy according to the need of the empire.

2. The social base of the empire expanded.

Model question
Elucidating the nature of Khilji Revolution underline
its effect.
Alauddin
Khilji
 Alauddin Khilji
Significance of Alauddin Khilji's imperialism
In context of North India-
1. Alauddin Khilji converted a small kingdom under the Sultanate
into an empire.

2. After a long period in North India, he revived the tradition of

empire. He conquered the territories of Gujarat, Ranthambore,
Chittor, Malwa etc. and organized a large territory under the
Sultanate.

3. After the conquest of Gujarat, the Sultanate took control of the

ports of Gujarat. This directly benefited the Sultanate as it
encouraged trade and made the import of horses easier.
Alauddin
Khilji
In context of South India:
In South Alauddin Khilji had sent two military expeditions
under Malik Kafur. The first expedition was organised against
the Kingdom of Devagiri and Warangal in 1306-07 CE. and the
second military expedition was against the kingdom of Hoysala
and Mabar in 1310-11 CE.
Further Alauddin Khilji had adopted a specific policy in context
of South.
Policy in the context of Southern Kingdoms
Instead of bringing the Southern States under direct control
indirect control was established over them.
He claimed his suzerainty over them instead of complete
sovereignty and he obtained regular gift and revenue from
southern states.
Objectives of Deccan Policy:
According to one view the Deccan expedition of Alauddin Khilji
is associated with the objective of propagation of Islam, specially
also because after this conquest Malik Kafur had got constructed
a mosque in South. But the construction of this mosque should
be seen as the symbol of the conquest by Islamic power.
Further we should also keep this in mind that Alauddin Khilji
was never dedicated to religion. Therefore the Deccan Policy of
Alauddin Khilji needs to be viewed in terms of his search of
wealth.
In this form the Deccan expedition of Alauddin Khilji could be
compared with the Northern expedition of Mahmud of Ghazni.
 Comparison of the Deccan Policy of AlauddinKhilji
with his predecessors and successors-
Comparison with Samudra Gupta
It is known from the description of Harisena a court author of
Samudra Gupta that Samudra Gupta had conquered 12
Kingdoms by expedition towards Deccan and obtained gifts from
them. But this fact is not confirmed that the relationship with
these kingdoms had continued further.
Whereas Alauddin Khilji maintained relations with these
Kingdoms and obtained regular gift and revenue from them.
Apart from this he has also claimed suzerainty over these
Kingdoms.
Comparison with the Policy of Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq
and Aruangzeb-
Both the kings had emphasized the Policy of unrestricted
expansion in the context of Deccan and brought the Southern
Kingdom under direct control. As a result they got entangled
into administrative complications. Farther they had to face
continuous regional rebellion.
Earlier both Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq and Aurangzeb failed to
maintain the direct control.
On the other hand the Deccan Policy of Alauddin Khilji is
considered Successful. He took the Southern States under his
direct control, did not got entangled in administrative
complications and obtained regular gifts and revenue from these
states.
 Significance of Alauddin Khilji's Deccan policy
Alauddin Khilji set up a large army with the resources obtained
from south.
He obtained regular gifts and revenue from the Deccan states
without getting tangled in administrative complications.
His Deccan policy became a precursor to Akbar's Rajput policy as
he served his imperialist objective by befriending the Hindu ruler
Ramachandra Deva of Devagiri.
Model Questions
1. Explain the nature of Alauddin Khilji's policy towards Deccan
states and underline its influence.
2. Compare the Deccan policy of Alauddin Khilji and Mohammed-bin-
Tughlaq. Who among them do you consider successful? Present
your argument in favour of your opinion.
3. Deccan policy of Alauddin Khilji was unique and distinct.
Comment.
Is Alauddin Khilji's period known only for its
expansion of empire or empire-building?
Alauddin Khilji's empire-building also has its own importance
but his era is not only known for empire building but also for
administrative and economic reforms.
 Other achievements of Alauddin Khilji

Although Alauddin Khilji was a great empire-builder but his

tenure was not known for empire-building alone. Other
contributory factors are-
1. New theory of Kingship- Alauddin Khilji separates religion
from politics. He rejected the policy of racial discrimination.
2. Administrative Reforms
a. He could establish better control over Iqta administration.
b. He put strict control over behaviour and inter-relationship
between nobles with the support of an officer Amir-i-Hajib.
c. He introduced military reforms. He established a
standing army, started cash-salary and enforced Hulia and
Dagh system (descriptive role and branding of horses).
 Other achievements of Alauddin Khilji

Although Alauddin Khilji was a great empire-builder but his

tenure was not known for empire-building alone. Other
contributory factors are-
1. New theory of Kingship- Alauddin Khilji separates religion
from politics. He rejected the policy of racial discrimination.
2. Administrative Reforms
a. He could establish better control over Iqta administration.
b. He put strict control over behaviour and inter-relationship
between nobles with the support of an officer Amir-i-Hajib.
c. He introduced military reforms. He established a
standing army, started cash-salary and enforced Hulia and
Dagh system (descriptive role and branding of horses).
d. He carried agrarian reforms. He was the first Sultan of Delhi
that extended to administration to rural areas as well.
• Earlier the administration had remained confined to towns and
Qasbas only. He introduced following measures -
I. He converted Milk (pension), Inam (reward given for special
service) and Waqf (religious grant) into Khalisa land (Crown
land).
II. He carried the measurement of land and abolished
intermediaries like Khuat and Muqaddam. He made Wafa-i-
Biswa (1/20th of one Bigha) as a unit of measurement. His
system was known as ‘Masahat’.
III. He raised the rate of land revenue as the 50% of total
production and even imposed Ghari (House Tax) and Charai
(grazing tax).
Did his reforms result into a rural revolution?
Making the basis of the statement of Barani that the burden of
Akawia (powerful) should not be shifted on Juwafa (weaker
section).
Muhammed Habib, a modern historian, coined the term ‘Rural
revolution’. He enthusiastically tried to prove that the
abolition of intermediaries benefited pesants a lot and brought a
major change in agrarian relations in rural areas.
Possibly he was keeping in mind the successful agrarian reforms
under Mao in modern China. But the measures could not benefit
peasants due to following reasons-
I. Whatever was the share of intermediaries earlier came to be
appropriated by state itself.
II. He carried the land measurement but could not make the
classification of land on the basis of production.
 MARKET CONTROL POLICY

Through this policy direct intervention into the market forces.

market run on the formula of production cost…..
Objective
Military objective.
According to Barani creation of a big army at relatively cheaper
cost. K.S. Lal supported this view.
Types of market
1. A market for grains
Different grains were placed in different Mandis and their price
was fixed. Every mandi was placed under Shahana and above
all Shahanas there was an officer Shahana-i-Mandi
Earlier 8 ordinances were associated with grain market.
• In order to maintain supply in the grain market
following measures were provised-
a. The state deputed Karvan merchants to purchase the grains
from countryside and to supply the grains in the market.
b. The state used to collect at least half of revenue in Gangetic
Doab in kind and to store grains to meet the condition of
exigency.
c. At the time of scarcity, to provide the facility of rationing.
2. A market for clothes and other products
There were two types of clothes- Coarse clothes and Fancy
clothes. Coarse cloth was locally produced. So its price was fixed.
but a major part of fancy clothes were imported from West Asia.
Therefore, to maintain its supply Alauddin Khilji made some
arrangement with Multani merchants. This arrangement was
akin to present day’s subsidy system.
3. A market for slaves, animals and horses
Here a major reason for price-rise was the role of brokers who used
to take commission from both seller and purchaser. He expelled
brokers from the market and fixed the price for all commodities.
Institutional change
The creation of a separate department Diwan-a-Riyasat.
Was this market confined to Delhi and nearby region only
or was it extended to whole of his empire?
As we know that it was guided by a military objective and as
military barracks were established in different parts of the empire.
So, there might have been two possibilities. Either it was
established in all such areas where military barracks happened to
be or all military purchases were done in Delhi and nearby region
and then supply could have been maintained to all military
barracks.
 Impact of Market control policy
Positive impact
1. It encouraged guided trade.
2. Through making cheaper products available at town it
encouraged the process of urbanization.
3. Alauddin Khilji could create a powerful army and he could
successfully combat Mongol invasions and simultaneously
expand his authority to South India.
Negative impact
1. As it snatched the motive of profit so it discouraged the
trade.
2. Promoted the interest of towns man at the cost of the
common people as the state compelled the peasants to sell
their product at relatively cheaper cost.
3. It encouraged the tendency of over-bureaucratisation and red
tapism.
4. Alauddin Khilji’s market control policy adversely affected
smaller merchants and artisans but bigger merchants could reap
their profit due to subsidy system.
How far was his policy measure successful?
During his life time, it worked efficiently. Even Barni informs us
that hardly was there a fluctuation in price more than half a Jital
during his lifetime.
But as his system was based on a coercive measure and his
personal talent, so just after his death it broke down.
Mubarak Shah Khilji (1316-20)
During his time two events were memorable. Firstly, while
reversing the policy of Alauddin Khilji he annexed Devgiri.
Secondly, he declared himself to be the caliph with the title ‘Al-
Basiq- Billah’ .
Khusro (1320)
His Naib Khusro usurped the power after his death and ruled for
some month but he was dethroned by Ghazi Malik, the Muqti of
Dipalpur.
Muhammad-bin-
Tughla
 Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1412)

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-25)

Ghazi Malik declared himself to be the next sultan in the name of
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. He was a competent ruler but while
returning from Bengal expedition he met his sudden death.
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-51)
In evaluation of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq following aspects
should be kept in view-
1. What role was played by historiography in creating
misconception about him?
2. Why should he be viewed as a great talent and unparalleled
genius among sultans of Delhi?
3. Why should he be treated as a great failure?
1. The contemporary scholars like Barni, Isami and Ibnbatuta
presented a very prejudiced picture about his personality as well
as they were having a personal grudge against him.
2. Undoubtedly Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq was a versatile genius-
a. Personal Talent- A great scholar of Mathematics and
Philosophy. He got very efficient military training from his
father Ghazi Malik.
b. Political Outlook- He was having an all-India outlook. He
extended his empire up to the remote south. Even his
project, the search of new capital in Deogiri reflects his all
India outlook.
c. Administrative Centralisation-
I. He tried to tighten his grip over the Iqta administration.
II. He inducted even lower- caste Hindus as well as
foreigners in aristocratic class.
d. Economic Vision-
I. He was the first sultan of Delhi who tried to increase state
revenue not simply through enhancement of tax but also
through encouraging agrarian production. His progressive
agriculture in Gangetic Doab should be viewed in this context.
II. In order to encourage foreign trade, he made a curtailment in
import tax.
III. He introduced token currency much ahead of his time.
e. Cultural Outlook- He was very liberal and non-electic in the
matter of religion.
I. He was the first sultan who visited the tomb of Shaikh
Muinuddin Chisti at Ajmer. He visited Dilwara Jain Temple as
well.
II. He used to participate in a Hindu festival, Holi as well
III. In the judicial trial, he brought ulema on par with common
people.
3. But he remained to be a big failure in history due to the
following reasons-
I. He was hot and hasty in temperament. He quickly conceived
and formulated a project but he did not equally bother about
its efficient implementation.
II. He was not having the knowledge either about the
psychology of his officers or his people.
III. His projects produced a detrimental impact on the state and
the people.
 Impact of his rule
• A series of revolts occurred
against him. Some of the regional
patriarchs got success in carving
out a separate state-
• 1335 the state of Madurai or
Mabar got free under Ahsan
Shah
• In 1336 Harihar and Bukka
carved out a separate Vijaynagar
state.
• In 1338 Bengal became free
under the ambitious governor,
Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah
• In 1347 Bahman Shah created an
independent state of Bahmani.
 His coronation took place at Thatta near Sind just after the
death of Muhammed-Bin-Tughlaq.

Challenges before him-

1. Revolts and Disintegration of empire.

2. Disgruntled aristocratic class and army.
3. Rebel peasants.
4. Offended ulema class.
5. Royal treasury remained deflated due to extravagant and failed
projects of Muhammed-Bin-Tughlaq.
 His coronation took place at Thatta near Sind just after the
death of Muhammed-Bin-Tughlaq.

Challenges before him-

1. Revolts and Disintegration of empire.

2. Disgruntled aristocratic class and army.
3. Rebel peasants.
4. Offended ulema class.
5. Royal treasury remained deflated due to extravagant and failed
projects of Muhammed-Bin-Tughlaq.
 Measures adopted by Firuj Shah Tughlaq-
1. He was ready to accept the truncated empire left by his predecessor.
He did not try to re-conquer the territory of peninsular India. He was
not himself a competent military general.
2. The Policy of appeasement- In order to appease aristocratic class
and soldiers, he made their post hereditary.
3. He tried to bring ulema class into good humour. For that, he
introduced the following rules-
a. While reversing the policy of rulers like Alauddin Khilji and
Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq, he invited ulemas to give their advice
on political matters as well.
b. He separated ‘Jaziya’ tax from ‘Kharaj’.
c. He imposed Jaziya even on Brahmans.
d. He prohibited women to visit the tombs of saints.
e. He used coercive power and state agencies for promoting Islam
and encouraging conversion.
 In fact, his religious policy was guided by two factors-
a. He had to appease the ulema class.
b. He was born of a Rajput mother, so he was much conscious to
prove him a devout Muslim.
Where did he depart from orthodox religious policy?
a. He patronised music.
b. He imposed even an irrigration tax ‘Haq-i-Sharb’ that was not
sanctioned by Muslim Shariat.
c. Due to the failed project of progressive agriculture by
Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq, peasants were heavily indebted and
they turned to organise a rebellion. So, in order to provide them
relief, FST waived off the amount of loan.
 Emphasis on the welfare nature of the state

FST gave a new direction to state policy through promoting

welfare measures-
a. He established a ‘Diwan-i-e Khairat’ (Charity department) to
give economic support to poor Muslims at the time of the
marriage of their daughter.
b. He founded ‘Dwan-i-Ishtihaq’ (Pension department) to provide
old-age pension to poor Muslims.
c. He introduced an employment bureau to provide employment to
unemployed Muslim youths.
d. In Order to provide medical facility, he established 'Dar-ul-Safa'
(Royal Hospital). Even Provisional officers were given
instructions to extend such facility to the people.
 In order to strengthen the economic base of the state,
some economic measures were introduced-
a. He made an assessment of the revenue of his whole empire with
the support of a group of experts under officer, Hesamuddin. He
fixed the total amount of six crore seventy-five lakh.
b. At that time, nearly twenty-two types of taxes and cess were
prevailing. He abolished all taxes and introduced four taxes
according to Muslim Shariyat i.e. Kharaj, Khams, Zaziya
and Zakat. Apart from that, he introduced an extra tax ‘Haq-a-
Sarb’.
c. He built several canals i.e. two canals from the river Yamuna
(Rajwah and Ulugkhani), one canal from the river Satluj (Firuz
Shahi), one from Ghaggar and one from Kali Sind. Apart from that,
he built some smaller canals as well. Furthermore, he provided
irrigation facility even through digging a large number of wells.
 Due to his measures, in the Delhi-Haryana region apart from
Kharif, even the production of Rabi crops started.
d. He is given the credit to develop 1200 orchards from which the
state was receiving extra income.
e. He established 36 Royal Karkhanas where he appointed 12000
slaves for carrying production.
f. He built several towns like Firuzabad, Fatehabad, Firuz Shah
Kotla, Jaunpur, Hisar Firuza, etc.
 Cultural Contribution

His period was rich even from the viewpoint Of cultural

production-
a. He himself a scholar. He composed his autobiography ‘Fatuhate
Firuzsahi’. His court scholars Barani and Shams-i-Siraj Afif
composed a separate ‘Tarikh-i-Firujshahi’ each.
He patronised music and preferred to get a number of Sanskrit
texts on music to be translated in Persian.
He is given the credit to have established several Maktabs
(schools), Madarsa (college), Mosques, etc.
He did repairing work to Hauz-i-Shamshi (built by Iltutmish)
and Hauz-i-Khas (built by Alauddin Khilji).
How far should he be taken responsible for the decline of
Empire?
He could not give birth to the problems originally. Right from very
beginning, the following challenges had been on the head of the
state. These were such as-
1. How to deal with aristocracy?
2. How to deal with Ulema?
3. How to maintain efficiency in military structure?
Almost all sultans came to face these challenges in their own
respective way. In this context, Muhammed-Bin-Tughlaq took
some radical measures and left his bitter legacy behind him in the
form of disgruntled nobles and soldiers; and offended ulema class.
So, Firuz Shah Tughlaq introduced the policy of appeasement
towards them but it proved a short-sighted policy and intensified
the process of the decline of empire.
 Decline of the Tughlaq Dynasty
The last king of Tughlaq dynasty was Nasruddin Muhammed.
Although he ruled up to 1412 but after Taimur’s invasion, the
power and position of the king were undermined.

Foundation of Syed Dynasty (1414 - 1451)

The founder of the dynasty was Khizr Khan, the Taimur’s
governor of Punjab. His successor was Mubarak Shah whose
court was decorated by Yahia-bin-Ahmed Sirhindi. He
composed the famous text ‘Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi’.
The last king of this dynasty was Alam Shah who discarded his
throne in favour of Bahlol Lodi in 1451.
 Foundation of Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)
Bahlol Lodi
It was the first Afghan dynasty. Afghan structure was based on a
tribal structure; therefore the position of the Sultan was weak.
Bahlol Lodi even not established a throne in his court rather
preferred to sit with his nobles on a carpet and his nobles were
known as Masnad-i-Ali.
Bahlol Lodi defeated Hussain Shah Surqi of Jaunpur and
captured Jaunpur. He appointed his son Barbak Shah as an
independent ruler of Jaunpur.
Sikander Lodi (1489-1517)
He was an ambitious ruler. He established the throne in his
court and tried to discipline nobles.
He preferred to annex Jaunpur to Delhi sultanate. Thus
extended the boundary of his state.
It was Sikander Lodi who transferred his capital from Delhi to
Agra.
Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526)
He also tried to discipline his nobles but Afghan nobles started
to make a revolt against him.
For example, Dariya Khan Lohani became the independent ruler
of Bihar and Daulat Khan Lodi, the muqti of Punjab, invited
Babur against him.
 Mongolan Policy under Sultans of Delhi
The policy can be divided into three phases-
1. The policy of aloofness under Iltutmish
2. The policy of appeasement under Razia to Nasiruddin
3. The policy of resistance from Balban to Alauddin Khilji
Iltutmish-
He dissociated himself from the politics of central and West Asia
by refusing the asylum to Prince Jalaluddin Mangbarni from
Khawrizm. In this way he maintained aloofness.
Raziya to Nasiruddin Muhammad-
The first Mongolan invasion took place in Hindustan under Tair
Bahadur in 1241. During the period of Iltutmish, Mongolan
invasion didn't take place. It was due to the fact that Mongols
were busy in the region of Central and West Asia.
But after Iltutmish they moved towards India as well. As the Sultan
of Delhi at that time couldn’t counter balance the Mongolan force
so from Razia to Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq, all followed the policy
of appeasement to Mongol invaders.
But this policy didn't get success as Mongol invaders were divided
into different groups and authority and worked under different
rulers.
So even after engaging diplomatically one group there was no safety
guarantee from other group of invaders. That's why at that time
Sultanate needed some strong defence strategy.
Balban to Alauddin Khilji-
It was Balban who led the foundation of Mongolan policy of
Delhi Sultanate. He built a strong defence mechanism in north-
west. In fact, he built two defence lines. One line went through
Lahore, Multan and Dipalpur and another through Sunam,
Samana and Batinda.
Then he built the large number of forts and deployed there a
large number of soldiers.
Further Alauddin Khilji also continued the policy of defence
mechanism of Balban. Once Alauddin Khilji realised the
weakness of Delhi Sultanate caused by the absence of a standing
army, he developed a standing army and started to pay cash
salary to the soldiers.
Furthermore, he also repaired the forts of Balban at north-west
and built some new forts and appointed Ghazi Malik as warden
of marches.
Apart from that, Alauddin Khilji followed the dictum ‘offence is
the best defence’.
So now the Mongols were forced to be defensive. In this way,
Alauddin Khilji almost eliminated Mongol menace.
So up to the period of Tughlaq, Mongol menace was over. Only a
single invasion took place under Tashma Shirnin, a Mongol ruler
at the time of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq but Tashma Shirin was
defeated.
The period of Firuz Shah Tughlaq was free from Mongol
invasions, as Mongol power already declined and Mongolan
leaders were involved into internal conflicts but certainly the
continuous Mongolan invasions produced a wider impact on
political, administrative, economic as well as cultural structure
of Delhi Sultanate.
Impact of Mongol invasion on Delhi Sultanate
Mongolan invasions produced larger impact on political,
economic and cultural structure of Delhi Sultanate. According to
scholar Pater Hardy, Mongolan invasion left a deep Impact on
polity under Delhi Sultanate.
In fact, earlier sultans were so much engrossed in Mongolan
question that they didn't take any initiative to make
geographical extension to remote area. Their presence in Delhi
was essential. So in whole of his carrier Balban never left his
capital except on Bengal expedition.
Furthermore, in order to consolidate their power against Mongol
invasion, initially sultan of Delhi couldn't take any specific
measure against the provincial officer like Muqti. So Muqti
started to enjoy the larger authority.
The need for countering Mongolan invasion intensified the demand
for resources for the state in large quantity. So that a strong and
standing army could have been established.
Having being inspired by this objective, Alauddin Khilji took steps for
land revenue reforms. On the one hand he increased land revenue at
50% of total production, on the other he abolished intermediaries and
tried to develop a direct relation between the state and the peasantry.
Not simply that, Alauddin Khilji also introduced the market control
policy so that all essential goods could have been available to soldiers
at cheaper rate.
Mongolan invasions could produce cultural impact as well. As
Mongolan invasions created a big havoc in Islamic world, so scholars
from different region of Islamic world just rushed towards Delhi to
take the refuse.
So Delhi became a nerve center for cultural activities. Apart from
scholar even Sufi saints could move towards India as a safe heaven.
 Nature of State under Delhi Sultanate

What is ‘Theocracy’?
The term ‘Theos’ means ‘God’ and ‘Cracy’ means ‘Rule’.
Therefore, Theocracy means the rule under god.
Was the State under Delhi Sultanate a theocracy?
Theocracy needs the following criterion to be fulfilled-
A hereditary ulema class
Divine laws
Under Delhi Sultanate, hereditary ulema class was absent.
Furthermore, the status of ulema varies from the period of
sultan to sultan.
As divine or religious laws were laws of Muslim Shariyat. But
laws of Muslim Shariyat do not appear to fulfil the ideals of
Islam due to the following reasons-
Firstly, in civil laws, they denied the succession of the
property rights to women.
In criminal laws, there were laws for regulating dancing
houses and prostitution, while such social vices were
prohibited under Islam.
Apart from that, according to the local requirements Sultan
was compelled to formulate supplementary laws that were
called ‘Jawabit’ or ‘Urfi’.
Was state an example of a secular state then?
We cannot say so. It is due to the fact that the declared objective
of the state was to convert ‘Dar-ul-Harb’ into ‘Dar-ul-Islam’.
Then what was the nature of the state?
It was based on the ‘Power’. The term ‘Sultan’ was originated
from the term ‘Sult’. ‘Sult’ means ‘power; or ‘authority’.
Therefore we can say that the state under Delhi Sultanate was
based on the power. Even the acceptance by Caliph was just
nominal, the actual arbiter was military power in the matter of
succession. It is on the basis of a strong military machinery the
sultan used to maintain his authority and tried to ensure the
surplus production from remote areas to the treasury of the
government.
How far was Caliphate the source of power and the
sanction of the legal authority of the Sultan under Delhi
Sultanate? (UPSC, 2017)
Under Delhi Sultanate, the relations between Caliph and Sultan
was vague and complex. The formal and actual nature of
relations remained to be quite different.
One interesting fact is that almost all sultans of Delhi used to
look towards the Caliph for formal sanctions but never allowed
him to interfere into political and administrative matters.
In order to perceive their relations in totality, we need to explore
different events systematically.
Islamic world was marked by a major change in 10th century
when there was the decline of Abbasid Caliphate and the rise of
the institution of Sultan.
Under Islam there was the concept of a single king who was
Caliph but making benefit from the weak position of Caliph,
ambitious governors tried to assert their independent position.
So, for maintaining the at least formal unity of Islamic Empire,
Caliph started to give investiture to such governors. Thus
emerged the institution of Sultan. In formal sense Caliph was
both political and religious head and the Sultan was his
subordinate, but in reality, Sultan was independent.
As a sultan could legitimize his authority easily among the
Muslim masses, so usually Sultan prefers to accept the authority
of the Caliph.
Different Sultans of Delhi:
Iltutmish:- In Order to ensure the legitimate position of Delhi
Sultanate, Iltutmish sought investiture from the Caliph of
Baghdad. But it was merely a matter of formality. It can be
ascertained even from the fact that when the governor of Bengal
also received the same investiture from the Caliph, Iltutmish did
not respect him rather eliminated him.
Balban:- Balban gave due respect to the institution of Caliph
even after the fact that Halaku Khan, the grandson of Changiz
Khan, assassinated the Caliph and the institution of Caliph was
shifted to Kahira.
Alauddin Khilji:- He could maintain his autocratic power by
dint of his military authority but still he could prefer to
characterize himself as the right hand of the Caliph.
Mubarak Shah Khilji:- On the other hand his successor
Mubarak Shah Khilji declared himself to be the Caliph of the
age.
Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq:- Initially MBT tried to neglect the
Caliph and even struck out his name from the coin, but later
when the series of revolts started against him, he sought an
investiture from the Caliph.
Firuz Shah Tughlaq:- FST always tried to project himself an
orthodox Sunni Muslim so he maintained his relations with
Caliph.
 Central Administration

Sultan:- In practical sense, Sultan was source of all the powers.

Although theoretically he was subordinate to Caliph but in
practice he was independent from caliph and enjoying political
and spiritual power both.
Majlish-i-Khelwat:- It was an assembly comprising of a group
of advisor to Sultan.
Barr-i-Khas- It was an assembly where Sultan could talk to
Muslim nobles, Malik, Nayak etc.
Barr-i-Aam:- This was an institution while sitting within it
Sultan could dispense justice.
According to Barani FOUR Important Departments:
Diwan-i-Wizarat:– The head of this was Wazir and this
department was associated with the assessment and the
collection of revenue as well as maintaining the account of
income and expenditure. In this department two subordinate
officers like Musharif and Mustaufi were there to assist Wazir.
The first was the Accountant General and the second one was
Editor General.
Diwan-i-Aariz/Arz:- It was military department and created
by Balban. Head of this department was Aariz-i-Mumalik.
Diwan-i-Risalat:- Although there was some controversy about
this department as some scholar had tried to characterised it as a
department of external affairs but the widely accepted view is
that this was a religious department under the officer Sadra-us-
Sudra.
Diwan-i-Insa:- It was associated with royal correspondence
and placed under an officer the Dabir-i-Mumalik.

Apart from the four important departments, there were certain

departments which were created by sultans from time to time,
e.g. Diwan-i-Wakuf was created by Jalaluddin Khilji and its duty
was to make an assessment of expenditure.
Likewise, Alauddin Khilji created Diwan-i-Mustakharaj whose
function was to collect arrears in land revenue. Furthermore, for
boosting the agrarian reforms, Diwan-i-Kohi was constituted by
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. In the same manner FST also
introduced Diwan-i-Ishtihaq (pension department), Diwan-i-
Khairat ( Royal charity), Diwan-i-Bandgan associated with slave.
Apart from that, under Delhi Sultanate, there were certain
officers who weren't associated with a department e.g.
• Barid-i-Mumalik ( Head of Royal espionage system)

• Amir-i-Hazib (Court discipline)

• Amir-i-Majalish (Royal ceremony)

• Amir-i-Atish (Fire weapons)

• Sar-i-Jandar (Royal security)

• Naib-i-Mumlikat (Naib Sultan)

 Iqta System
Under Delhi Sultanate, the region was divided between Khalisa
and Iqta land. Khalisa was the Crown land. The income from this
land directly went into royal treasury.
On the other hand, Iqta developed as a substitute for provincial
administration of that time. The literal meaning of Iqta was a
tract of land and the holder of Iqta was called Muqti.
Khalisa
Land
 Objectives behind Iqta system
1. To ensure surplus production from far off regions.
2. To synthesise between objective/interest of the state and the
personal ambition of nobles.

Functioning of Iqta system

An officer was appointed in an Iqta. He was called Muqti and was
supposed to collect revenue from the region and to spend the part
of the revenue in the maintenance of administration as well as
military structure. But the remaining amount was transferred to
royal treasury known as ‘Fawazil’.
 Contributions:-
1. To ensure the revenue to royal treasury from remote areas
2. To maintain administrative centralization
3. It is said that through Iqta system, the prevailing feudal structure
had to be demolished.
4. Through Iqta system a strong army could be maintained. As apart
from central level a substantial number of military forces could be
maintained at the level of Iqta as well.
5. Iqta system worked behind the expansion of empire of Delhi
Sultanate. Through Iqta system even remote areas could be linked
to the centre through the Iqtas. Not simply that, sometime even
Muqtis used to take some steps for the expansion of the empire.
6. In spread of Islamic culture as well Iqta system played some role.
Even provincial Muqtis could give patronage to scholars, poets and
artists.
 Limitations:-
1. There was always a question before central government to
ensure Fawazil amount from Iqta to royal treasury as ambitious
Muktis were inclined to appropriate the amount in their own
favour.
2. Sometime the Muqtis were going to be over ambitious and they
tried to assert their independence. There was centrifugal
tendency within the system.
Was the Iqta system feudal in structure?
Some scholars try to characterized Iqta system as feudal in nature
and he compared it with European Fief, Jagir that was given on
hereditary basis.
He also tried to prove that under Delhi Sultanate there was some
short of hierarchy in the administrative structure e.g. under
Sultan, Muslim nobles, then Hindu nobles, Soldiers etc.
But when we observe minutely we find that in the Iqta system
some important features of feudalism are missing, i.e.-
1. Normally under feudalism, King's position was weak but
under Delhi Sultanate many sultans enjoyed too much
power.
2. Under feudalism Jagir was hereditary but Iqta was
transferable.
3. Sultan used to appoint loyal slave officers who could put a
check over the ambitious nobles.
4. Under feudalism the nobles are hereditary but under Delhi
Sultanate there was always an influx of new elements from
Central and West Asia. So, old elements were replaced by
new ones, so there wasn't scope for hereditary nobles.
 Iqta System
Under Delhi Sultanate, the region was divided between Khalisa
and Iqta land. Khalisa was the Crown land. The income from this
land directly went into royal treasury.
On the other hand, Iqta developed as a substitute for provincial
administration of that time. The literal meaning of Iqta was a
tract of land and the holder of Iqta was called Muqti.
Khalisa
Land
 Objectives behind Iqta system
1. To ensure surplus production from far off regions.
2. To synthesise between objective/interest of the state and the
personal ambition of nobles.

Functioning of Iqta system

An officer was appointed in an Iqta. He was called Muqti and was
supposed to collect revenue from the region and to spend the part
of the revenue in the maintenance of administration as well as
military structure. But the remaining amount was transferred to
royal treasury known as ‘Fawazil’.
 Contributions:-
1. To ensure the revenue to royal treasury from remote areas
2. To maintain administrative centralization
3. It is said that through Iqta system, the prevailing feudal structure
had to be demolished.
4. Through Iqta system a strong army could be maintained. As apart
from central level a substantial number of military forces could be
maintained at the level of Iqta as well.
5. Iqta system worked behind the expansion of empire of Delhi
Sultanate. Through Iqta system even remote areas could be linked
to the centre through the Iqtas. Not simply that, sometime even
Muqtis used to take some steps for the expansion of the empire.
6. In spread of Islamic culture as well Iqta system played some role.
Even provincial Muqtis could give patronage to scholars, poets and
artists.
 Limitations:-
1. There was always a question before central government to
ensure Fawazil amount from Iqta to royal treasury as ambitious
Muktis were inclined to appropriate the amount in their own
favour.
2. Sometime the Muqtis were going to be over ambitious and they
tried to assert their independence. There was centrifugal
tendency within the system.
Was the Iqta system feudal in structure?
Some scholars try to characterized Iqta system as feudal in nature
and he compared it with European Fief, Jagir that was given on
hereditary basis.
He also tried to prove that under Delhi Sultanate there was some
short of hierarchy in the administrative structure e.g. under
Sultan, Muslim nobles, then Hindu nobles, Soldiers etc.
But when we observe minutely we find that in the Iqta system
some important features of feudalism are missing, i.e.-
1. Normally under feudalism, King's position was weak but
under Delhi Sultanate many sultans enjoyed too much
power.
2. Under feudalism Jagir was hereditary but Iqta was
transferable.
3. Sultan used to appoint loyal slave officers who could put a
check over the ambitious nobles.
4. Under feudalism the nobles are hereditary but under Delhi
Sultanate there was always an influx of new elements from
Central and West Asia. So, old elements were replaced by
new ones, so there wasn't scope for hereditary nobles.
Working of Iqta system under different sultans
It was Iltutmish who systemize the Iqta system in India. He was
supposed to have divided a vast region between Multan and
Lakhnauti and distributed it among different nobles. These nobles
where called Muqtis.
But there was a big challenge before Sultan that how to ensure
Fawazil from Iqta to central treasury. So different Sultan solved it in
their own respective way.
So firstly Balban appointed an officer Khawaza to supervise income
and expenditure from Iqta. Then later Alauddin Khilji increased the
intervention of the central administration into the matter of Iqta.
After that a Tughlaq ruler Gyasuddin took further step in this
direction and separated the salary of soldiers from the personal
salary of Muqti, so that Muqti shouldn't have appropriated a part of
the salary of soldiers in his own interest.
After that MBT who took many stern steps to put a check over the
misappropriation of the fund.
Firstly, he started to appoint two officers of equivalent status
in Iqta. They were known as Muqti and Bali-ul-Kharaj. The
first was accountable for maintaining the general
administration while the second one started to collect revenue
in cash and introduced a provision of appropriating the entire
collected Iqta in favour of central treasury.
Then it is from central treasury that the salary of Muqti and
that of other officers had to be ensured.
It was due to this fact that there were so many revolts against
MBT.
Model Questions:
Underline the role of Iqta system in establishing the Islamic
power in India.
Explain different features of Iqta system. Was it feudal in nature?
Underline the political, economic and cultural impact of Iqta
system.
 Local Administration
As the state under Delhi Sultanate advanced further and gained
in confidence, so it could replace Hindu nobles like Roy, Ranka,
Rawat and Thakur at local level. Then these nobles were partially
converted into local bureaucracy as well.
As the result of the gradual advancement of the state at local
level, there was evolution of local administration and partial
conversion of local Hindu Nobles into local bureaucracy.
Local Structure
Siq- It was placed under an officer, Saqdar.
Pargana- It had to function under an officer, Chaudhary.
Village- It was placed under village head, Muqaddam.
 Land Revenue System

Under Delhi Sultanate on theoretical basis land revenue system

was based on a text ‘Kitab-ul-Kharaj’ which was composed by a
Qazi from Baghdad, Abu Yakub, but simultaneously its practice
part was influenced through Indian elements as well.
Earlier Sultans:
Due to practical compulsions, earlier sultans avoided to make a
direct intervention into the land revenue system rather they
preferred to take the lump-sum amount from Hindu nobles per
annum.
Alauddin Khilji: But he was inclined to maintain a powerful
army and this project needed larger resources so, Alauddin Khilji
became the first Sultan who could make a direct intervention in
rural administration.
 Measures taken by Alauddin Khilji-
1. He converted Milk, Waqf and Inam land into Khalisa land in
order to boost up the royal income. He abolished intermediaries
like Mukuddam and Chaudhary. He carried land measurement
and his system was known as Mashahat system.
2. He increased the rates of land revenue to 50% of the total
production. Also, Ghari (house tax) and Charai (grazing tax)
taxes were imposed.
After Alauddin Khilji: The system of Alauddin Khilji was left
by Gyasuddin Tughlaq who gave the emphasis on the crop
sharing or batai system.
But later Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq tried to revive the old system of
land measurement and he extended it to the whole of the empire but
he got only partial success. In spite of that MBT became the first
Sultan who tried to introduce a new theory in land revenue system.
 In other words, he propagated the theory that royal income has
been increased not simply through increasing the rate of land
revenue but also through increasing the production. This
measure later inspired the ruler like Sher Shah and Akbar as
well.
In this way, under Delhi Sultanate land revenue system
underwent a phase of gradual evolution or development. The
state inclined to promote the system of land measurement which
was known as mashahat under Alauddin Khilji but due to certain
compulsion, this system remained confined to some specific
regions while in other regions the old system continued i.e. the
system of batai or Galla Baksi, the system of nasaq and the
system of Kankut. In fact, batai system was based on crop sharing
pattern while nashaq and Kankut were based on some sort of
estimation.
 Aristocracy under Delhi Sultanate
In the medieval system of government, the aristocratic class was
both; a big asset as well as a burden on the government. In the
absence of professional bureaucracy, it was the nobles who filled
the official post and carried the government. But simultaneously
in absence of a powerful monarch they turn to be ambitious and
created hurdles for the government. So the relationship between
Sultan and nobility became a contentious issue and all Sultans
tried to solve it in their own mama manner.
Mohd. Ghori inherited an aristocracy that was having the central
Asian origin but simultaneously he appointed a large number of
talented slaves of Turkish origin. Among them Qutubuddin
Aibak,Yaldoz and Qubacha played a very significant role in
history.
Later Iltutmish tried to develop its own bureaucracy from among
talented Turkish slaves. His nobles were known as Samshi
nobles. Iltutmish created Turk-i-Chalagani out of them. So,
during this phase, Turkish nobles were enjoying the privileged
position under the state. As the Turkish nobles were coming from
Central Asia and Tajiks from West Asia. Under Iltutmish’s
successor, the conflict between Turkish and Tajiks nobles
continued.
Then later under Balban privileges of Turkish nobles were
protected. Balban followed the policy of racial discrimination in
favour of Turkish nobles. So in sum total, under the Ilbari
dynasty, the aristocracy was having a very parochial base.
It was Khiljis who rejected the racialist policy of kingship and
broadened the base of the aristocracy through including the
Indian Muslims and Hindus into aristocratic class.
Later, Tughlaq assimilated the people from foreign origin and
those from lower origin as well into their nobility class. It is sad
that MBT induced some Pera Mali (a gardener) in his bureocracy.
After Tughlaq, new elements entered into nobility class e.g. Lodhi
dynasty was an Afghan dynasty so Bahlol Lodhi invited a large
number of Afghans people to India and provided them official
posts.
In this way, in Delhi Sultanate, the composition of the aristocracy
class always changed with changing time and situation.
 The Economy under Delhi Sultanate
Earlier some scholars proved that the foundation of Turkish rule
in India resulted into wide economic devastation and decline. On
the other hand, scholars like Habib emphasized the radical
positive impact of Turkish rule and prefer to call it urban
revolution but the truth lay in the middle of two extremes.
As the process of urbanisation wasn't unifiform and so radical as
we can call it a revolution. But it is equally true that in place of
causing economic decline rather the foundation of Turkish rule
promoted economy through encouraging new technologies,
external and internal trade as well as money economy.
A. Technical Up-gradation:
Persian wheel based on a gear system for irrigation that was
known as Sakiya.
The introduction of Carder’s bow for cleaning cotton, possibly
started from the time of Mohd. Ghori in India.
The use of a spinning wheel or Charkha for spinning thread. This
was possibly introduced in the mid of the 14th century as it has
been mentioned by Ishami in his text ‘Futuh-us-Salatin’.
Weaver’s loom was introduced by Turks. It has been mentioned
in the text ‘Miftah-ul-Fuzala’.
To introduce distillation system for making wine.
The technique of coating Tin or Copper for making kitchen
utensils.
Paper was, for the first time, introduced by Turks and it was
during this period the technique of bookbinding developed.
 In the construction, Turks started to use Lime and Gypsum as
mortar and it was Turks who introduced the system for Arch and
Dome.
From 15th century onwards, silk making was encouraged in
Bengal.
B. Agrarian economy
Agriculture was in a flourishing condition. Ibn Batuta had
informed that in India soil quality was better as the peasants
used to maintain a large number of animals whose dung worked
as manure.
Alauddin Khilji introduced a grazing tax which indicates the
presence of a substantial number of livestock. Furthermore,
irrigation was encouraged during this period. A new technique of
irrigating land through well, Persian wheel and Sakiya came into
existence.
Apart from that, Tughlaq encouraged canal irrigation in India.
Obviously better soil quality and irrigation encouraged agrarian
production.
An officer under Alauddin Khilji has mentioned about different
varieties of crops in India particularly during this period two new
varieties of crops like Opium and Mehandi were introduced.
C. Trade and Commerce
The following factors encouraged the internal and external trade
during this period-
1. Better law and order condition.
2. The region of North India and North West developed a link
between the region of West Asia and that of Central Asia.
3. Sultans like Alauddin Khalji and MBT encouraged the process of
road-building activities.
4. Iltutmish introduced standard silver and copper coins, Tanka &
Jital.
5. During this period, new urban centers emerged and they
required grain production. So the export of grains and essential
goods from rural to urban areas became a common features.
6. The new ruling class was in need of certain luxury goods which
could be procured through trade.
Internal trade
Some regions emerged as an important production centers. For
example Aligarh and Merrut known for the production of good
quality of wine, Bengal was famous for the production of silk,
cotton goods and sugar. Devgiri was also famous for silk
production.
So in internal trade, there was exchange of goods and grains
between rural and urban areas. Likewise, there was exchange of
goods between two production centers.
In internal trade, the Carvan merchants who worked under a
head, Nayak, played a significant role.
External trade
In external trade, India developed a relation with West and
Central Asia, North-East Africa in West, China as well as the
region of South-East Asia in the East.
India used to import horses in a larger number from West Asia
and Central Asia, and fancy type of silk clothes from West Asia.
Likewise, important exportable items were Slaves, Indigo, cotton
goods, etc. Khurashani merchants were active in trade with
Central Asia and Multani merchants with West Asia.
Money economy
The important coins which were in circulation under Delhi
Sultanate were silver Tanka and copper Jital. It was Iltutmish
who introduced the standard coins like Tanka and Jital.
Apart from Tanka and Jitala other coins like Dam and Dirham
were also in circulation. These coins were made of copper. Apart
from these coins, Billan was another coin. Billan was a silver-
copper mixed coin.
Urbanisation
Some scholar has tried to characterise development under Delhi
Sultanate as urban revolution. But the term ‘revolution’ wasn’t
justified in the sense that the process of urbanization was not
monolithic
But simultaneously, we can't deny the fact that due to certain
reasons the process of urbanization encouraged under Delhi
Sultanate. Even Ibn Batutta who came to Delhi mentioned that
Delhi was the largest centre in the Eastern Islamic world and
even Devgiri was having such a large size which could be a rival
to Delhi. Hamida Khatun Naqbi has highlighted the factor of
political stability to the process of urbanization.
But on the other hand, Satish Chandra doesn't agree with this
view, rather he tried to link this process of urbanization with
agrarian expansion. According to him, if political stability was
such a decisive factor that then why was under FST there was an
emergence of new towns in spite of the fact that declining trend
was clearly visible in the field of empire-building. When we
observe minutely, we find that a number of factors led the
contribution to the process of urbanization-
Central headquarter or Iqta headquarters emerged to be a town.
Muslim populations prefer to be settled in some specified
regions. Later these regions emerged as local towns and Kasbas
based on the Muslim population.
With the introduction of new technologies, some towns
developed as production centre i.e. Aligarh and Meerut for wine.
Some Sufi saints were settled in the forest and some specific
regions. They built there Khanqah and later it developed into
Dargah after their death. So they automatically converted into
pilgrimage centre and later as towns.
Some Sultans initiated building of towns. As Alauddin Khilji
developed Jhain in Rajasthan which later known as Shahar-i-
Nau. Later FST developed Jaunpur, Fatehpur, Hisar Firoza, etc.
Delhi became an important cultural centre in the Islamic world,
particularly due to Mongolan invasion. Scholars from different
regions in the Islamic world prefer to immigrate to India. This
certainly encouraged cultural activity there. So the towns also
emerged on the basis of cultural activities.
One important factor behind the rise of the town was the market
control policy of Alauddin Khilji. He made grains available to
urban centers at a relatively cheaper cost. So, this factor also
encouraged urbanization.
But while making the study of town under Delhi Sultanate we
should be conscious about the fact that these towns emerged
more as the centre of political, administrative and cultural
activities but less as commercial and industrial centers.
Actually, it was either during ancient period or during the
Mughal period, some towns emerged as commercial or industrial
centers independently but during this period the countryside was
being exploited from fulfilling the need of new ruling class and
the towns work more as the centre of consumption but less as the
centre of production.
 Society
Before the advent of Turks, Indian society was vertically divided
into higher and lower castes. But after the foundation of Turkish
rule in India, the Indian society came to be divided horizontally
as well into Hindus and Muslims.
Earlier Muslims were disapproved as Malechchha or invaders but
after living together for centuries both continued to influence the
social structure of each other. In this way, there developed a
composite culture as well.
Hindu society old cast division existed but the concept of Muslim
brotherhood or Muslim millet challenged the caste system under
Hinduism. So Hindu society responded to it in two different
manners.
Firstly, it tried to make its social structure more rigid so that it
could accept the challenge of Islam. So it was in this context that
new commentaries were composed on Smriti text in order to
bring new rules and regulations within the Indian caste system.
Secondly, social leadership within the Hindu society made a very
flexible response to the new challenge so it tried to make its
system more accommodative and a bit more inclusive. With this
purpose, cast rules were a bit more relaxed. For example, we can
take Nirguna Bhakti as a flexible response to this new social
challenge.
So far as the condition of women is concern, we can underline
some decline as Parda and Johar system were encouraged
further. But simultaneously, there was some extension in their
property right based on ‘Mitakshra’ composed by Vigyneshwara.
When we observe Muslim society, we can very well underline
some influence of Hindu elements over it. Although in theory, it
was egalitarian but in practice, it developed some sort of caste
system.
Furthermore, we can see some impact of technology on the
society as well. Turks introduced some new technology and they
expected lower cast Hindus to join them but initially even the
lower cast Hindu didn't enthusiastically adopt new technologies.
So, slaves were inducted in a larger number to run or function
new technology. So this factor definitely encouraged the slavery
system under Delhi Sultanate.
 Bhaktism

1. Rise of Bhaktism in south India

2. Spread of Bhaktism in North India
3. Nirguna Bhakti and its social impact
4. Vaishnava Bhakti or Saguna Bhakti; its manifestation in
different parts of India
5. Historiography of Bhaktism
6. The role of women Bhaktas and evolution of Bhaktism as a social
liberator
7. Cultural contribution of Bhaktism
Origin and the rise of Bhaktism
Bhaktism is inherent in Indian culture. At a particular turn of
history, Bhaktism took the form of a movement then it became
the largest cultural movement in India. From the viewpoint of
the time period, it covered more than 1000 years.
Likewise, as about its nature, we can say it was an inclusive
cultural phenomenon. For example, it assimilated within itself
both high Brahmanic culture and lower tribal culture, popular
elements as well as feudal elements, with Brahmanic orthodoxy
as well as religious liberalism, elitist as well as popular. So, it
was heterogenous in character.
Some elements of Bhaktism can be manifested even in ancient
texts like Vedas and Upanishads. But still, as a social-religious
ideology, we find the full extent exposition of Bhaktism in the
text, Bhagwat Gita, first.
In fact upto the Gupta period Bhaktism emerged as a result of
assimilation between higher Brahmanic culture and lower tribal
culture. Then idol worship and temple cult started during Gupta
period as a result of the influence of non-Aryan elements.
It was the time when there was the expansion of Aryan culture
due to the phenomenon of land grants and through the process
of cultural integration, a large number of non-Aryan gods were
assimilated within Aryan pantheon preparing the way for future
Hinduism.
After the Gupta period, Tantricism became a dominant sect in
North India and it overpowered Bhaktism for some time.
Furthermore, we should keep one thing in our mind that during
Gupta period in North India, Bhaktism got associated with a
socio-political phenomenon that emerged at that time and which
was known as feudalism.
Then in 6th and 7th centuries, Bhaktism appeared in South India
as a popular movement. Here the initiative was taken by Alwar
and Nayanar saints. According to the tradition, there were 12
Alwar saints and 63 Nayanar saints.
Although these saints came from different social background,
definitely most of the saints came from lower castes. So they
opposed to varna division.
That's why initially Bhakti movement in south India did not
work simply as a religious movement but also a social
movement. Alwar and Nayanar saints made a demand not
simply of religious equality but also of social equality.
But after 10th century CE, Brahmanic elements started to penetrate
Bhakti movement. They were known as Acharya for example, Nath
muni, Yamunacharya, Ramanujacharya etc.
Then in 12th century CE under Ramanuja, a compromise formula was
reached. According to this although in a religious field equality for all
was accepted but in social field Varna division had to continue. As a
result of this change, Bhakti movement was converted from a popular
movement into an elitist movement.
Then ironically Bhaktism became a strong weapon into the hand of
Brahmins with the support of which they could eliminate Buddhist
and Jaina adversaries.
Simultaneously, this period was marked by the rise of new dynasty in
South India i.e. Cholas. This dynasty was in search of legitimacy so
they could gain support to Brahmanas and temple cult. Thus emerged
a religious structure based on an alliance between monarchy and
Brahmans who were being supported by idol worship and temple cult.
 North India
After the 13th century Bhaktism travelled to North India. It is said that
it was a famous saint Ramananda who carried the message of
Bhaktism from South to North India.
Ramananda appeared in the end of the 15th century and early 16th
century. Ramananda spent his early life in South India then rest of the
life he spent at Banaras.
Although he was the follower of Ramanuja tradition but he brought
certain innovation in that tradition. For example, he relaxed the caste
barrier and he created his disciples even among lower caste Hindus.
That's why he is supposed to be a spiritual inspiration behind the
lower caste saints like Kabir, Ravidas, Sain and Dhanna.
Nirguna Bhakti
Up to the 15th century in North India, there was a manifestation of
Nirguna Bhakti. The background for Nirguna Bhakti was prepared by
the Nathpanthi sect.
As you come to know that during the early medieval period Nathpanth
was a dominant sect in North India. It was having two specialities.
Firstly, although Nathpanthi saints were the worshipper of Lord Shiva
but they worshipped Lord Shiva in a shapeless form. Secondly, they
were vehemently opposed to the caste system.
Later Nirguna Bhakti appropriated such legacies from Nathpanth. In
fact, it is through a proper mix between Nathpanth and Bhaktism that
Nirguna Bhakti came into existence in North India. The tradition of
Bhakti was borrowed from a Vaishnava saint Ramandana. He is
supposed to be the spiritual teacher of Kabir Das. Although historically
the relation is not clear.
Apart from Nathpanth and Bhaktism, we can underline the influence
of Sufism on Nirguna Bhakti as well. Possibly the intensity of love for
God was inspired by Sufism.
Kabirdas became a great exponent of Nirguna Bhakti in North India.
His Bhaktism was having following features-
1. Worship of a shapeless God:-
Kabir's Ram was quite different from Tulsi’s Ram. As Kabir’s
Ram has not represented in anthromorphical form. It was this
factor in Kabir which made him opposed to Idol worship. So
unconsciously he fell into the category of a religious reformer.
2. Opposed to the caste system:-
Kabir inherited a sense of bitterness against the caste division
from Nathpanth. Simultaneously there might have been some
influence of monotheism of Islam as well.
Kabirdas asserted if Allah and Ishwar (God) are one and the
same then how can the followers of Allah and Ishwar be
separated from each other as Muslims and Hindus. In this way
through propagating religions unity Kabirdas emphasised over
social unity as well.
 In fact Kabirdas was having a bitter experience against the caste
system. He belonged to weaver caste. This cast was at the lowest
ladder of Hindu society.
So in the hope of improvement in their social condition weaver
(Julaha) caste joined Islam but it bitterly realised that even within
Muslim society it was relegated. So practically Kabir Das developed
a sense of disillusionment in Hinduism and Islam both.
It was one of the reasons why did Kabir make an attack over
Hindu and Islamic ritualism simultaneously.
3. Kabir Das was deprived from education. As he was illiterate so he
did not get support from scripture or Shastra. But it became a
blessing in disguise for Kabir as Kabir made his personal
experience as his guide. It was a very important reason that why
did Kabir express such original ideas in socio- religious fields at
that time.
4. Kabir as a mystical thinker:-
When there is intensity of love but the object of love is not clear
thus originates mysticism. In case of Kabir we find that he
worshipped God in shapeless form. But he expressed a deep love
for God in the manner of a Sufi Saint. Kabir gave the symbol of a
beloved to Soul and the symbol of lover to Brahma. Then he tried
to express the relationship between Brahma and Soul through the
symbol of human relations. It is here mysticism in Kabir
originates and bring him near to Sufi Saint as well.
Apart from Kabir, some others were associated with the saint
tradition. For example, Ravidas, who was leatherworker from
Banaras; Dhanna, who was Jat peasant from Rajasthan; Sen, a
barber and Pipa; all of them belong to lower caste and shared
the same world view with Kabirdas.
Guru Nanak and Sikhism
Nanak was associated with Bhakti saint. On his Bhaktism, we
can also underline the influence of Nath Panth. In Nanak’s
speech, there is the use of terms like ‘Shabad’ (sound) and
‘Sunniya’ (emptiness). These terms have been taken from Nath
Panthi. So Nanak was having the ideological proximity to Kabir.
Apart from that, on Sikhism, we can underline the impact of
monotheism of Islam as well. Nanak used to sing devotional
songs and his assistant used to play on Rabab (musical
instrument).
Nanak’s Bhaktism produced a tangible result in the formation of
the Sikh state. It became possible due to certain reasons-
Sikhism was deeply associated with a collective spiritual
experience, than simply an individual experience as you find in
the case of other forms of Nirguna Bhakti. For example, Nanak
created a large group of followers who were known as Sikhs.
Likewise, he started a community kitchen in the form of
‘Langar’.
Later, Arjandeva, the fifth guru, gave a textual flavour to
Sikhism in form of Guru Granth Saheb.
Then later an equalitarian Sikh society came in collision with the
coercive feudal system under Mughal. It developed a sense of
mission.
Certainly, such development paved the way for the rise of an
independent Sikh state in the 18th century.
 Contributions of Nirguna Bhakti
1. It promoted social radicalism through attack over the caste system. It
rejected the existing pattern of society. Although Kabirdas, Nanak,
etc. were basically spiritual leaders, so they didn't come to bring any
social reforms into their agenda. But unconsciously they brought
certain reforms within society itself. It was due to the reason that for
many social taboos, it was religious ritualism itself which was largely
accountable, for example, caste division, idol worship, pilgrimage,
etc. So once these saints made an attack over religious ritualism,
social taboos automatically came into its ambit. It is due to this fact,
Kabir is characterised as the Martin Luther of 15th century.
2. Nirguna Bhakt avoided ascetic life and preferred to remain
associated with productive activities. These saints didn't go to
temples rather they preffered to go their working place. Kabir even
after being a saint continued his weaving activity. So in one sense,
Nirguna Bhakti encouraged production.
3. Apart from that, Nirguna Bhakti promoted production even
through breaking the relationship between craft and cast which
was a prevailing norm in India at that time. In other words, the
change of craft created the situation of Varna Sankara that was
decried in society at that time. But Nirguna saints encouraged
the people to adopt new crafts through weakening the caste
system.
4. Nirguna Bhakti made a major contribution to the cultural field
as well.
a. These saints, not simply reflected the feelings of the common
people but also the language of the common people. For
example, Kabir used the language of the common people,
Hindvi while Punjabi was adopted by Nanak. So local dialects
were promoted. Kabir has declared that Sanskrit was just a
well’s water while Hindvi (perverted form of Hindi) was a
stream.
b. Furthermore, Nirguna Bhakti gave support to local literature
as well. Nanak established Punjabi literature. Likewise,
Kabir’s Sakhi, Ramnia and other sorts of poems contributed
to Hindi literature. Bijak and Granthawali of Kabir are
supposed to be based on his sermon.
c. Even in the development of music, Nirguna Bhakti made its
contribution. Guru Nanak introduced devotional songs in
Sikhism and also the instruments like Rabab. Even today
devotional songs are part of Gurudwara's life.
Limitations:
But in spite of the positive contribution of Nirguna Saints, we
shouldn't overestimate it. Although it is true that Nirguna Bhakti
made an attack over religious rituals and social tradition but
they couldn't bring any radical change in existing religious or
social structure in true sense.
Basically, they were the spiritual leaders so, even their reform
program was mainly guided by their personal spiritual
realisation, not by any rational ideology. That's why they failed
to give any alternative system and their protest remained to be a
timely reaction.
It is sometimes, compared with the Protestant movement of
Europe but in Europe, Protest movement could break the pillar
of feudalism and paved the way for the rise of capitalism but
Nirguna Bhakti could not overpower prevailing feudalism of
time.
Vaishnava Bhaktism
It was different from Nirguna Bhakti. Nirguna Bhakti believed
that God didn't take incarnation nor did he come on the earth to
play his Lila. On the other hand, Saguna Bhakti believed in the
concept of incarnation and re-incarnation and also in the
concept of Lila.
In North India, Saguna Bhakti emphasized over the cult of Rama
and that of Krishna in place of Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva, as
we find in the case of South India earlier.
Two important exponents of Vaishnava Bhakti in North India
were Ramananda and Vallabhacharya. Ramananda appeared at
the end of 15th century and early 16th century. He spent his
earlier life in South India then he moved to North India and
spent the rest of his life at Banaras. He became an inspiration
for both the Nirguna and Saguna Bhakti in North India.
It is said that Ramananda brought two important points of
difference with Bhaktism of South India. In place of Lord Vishnu
and Shiva, he introduced Rama cult in North India. So later
there was the formation of Ramanandi sect in his name.
Secondly, in place of Sanskrit he introduced local dialects in
order to spread his message to the common people. Above all, he
created a band of followers from the lower caste people. In this
way, the difference is clearly visible with prevailing Brahmanic
orthodoxy.
Some of his important disciples were Kabir, Ravidas, Dhanna
and Sen. Although there is some dispute about contemporarity
between Ramananda and Kabir as this phenomenon hasn't
between approved through any clear evidence. But it is true that
Ramananda became an important figure of Nirguna and Rama
Bhakti both.
Similarly, Vallabhacharya became an ideological inspiration
behind Krishna Bhakti in North India. Vallabhacharya was a
Telugu Brahmin. He also appeared at the end of 15th and early
16th century. He was born in Banaras and remained active in
North India.
He led the foundation of Aastachhap which comprises of 8
important Krishna Bhakta and which was an ardent fellow of
Vallabhacharya.
Vallabhacharya influenced mainly Gujarat and later after the
appearance of Surdas, this movement would be an influential
movement in North India in 17th century.
 The difference in the perception of Nirguna and Saguna
Bhakti
1. Nirguna Bhakti emphasised over the worship of God in a
shapeless form while Suguna Bhakti believed in individual God
and promoted worship.
2. Nirguna Bhakti was having a radical social outlook as it rejected
caste division while Saguna Bhakti made a compromise with the
varna system and accepted caste division.
The manifestation of Vaishnava Bhakti in different
religions of India
Vaishnava Bhakti shouldn't be taken as a monolithic movement
rather it was heterogeneous in nature. In different regions it's
manifestation was slightly different and there it reflected the
influence of some local elements as well.
North India
In North India as well as in Western India, Vaishnava Bhakti
manifested itself in two different branches, i.e. Rama Bhakti and
Krishna bhakti. Both became a popular movement in these
regions.
Rama Bhakti
Tulsidas appeared to be a great exponent of Rama bhakti. It was
he who carried Ram Katha to every Hindu household. He
composed the famous text ‘Ramcharitmanas’ in Awadhi
language which was associated with the birthplace of Ram in
Ram Katha. If today the story of Rama is survived it isn't in the
Valmiki language but it is in the language of Tulsidas.
Another important Ram Bhakta was Nabhadas. He composed a
famous text i.e. ‘Bhaktamal’ in which 200 Bhaktas are
mentioned.
Krishna Bhakti
Surdas emerged to be a great exponent of Krishna bhakti and he
popularised his Bhakti among common messes. He used Braj
Bhasha, a local dialect, and composed his famous text ‘Sur
Sagar’ in this language.
The popular story of Lord Vishnu, Radha, Gopi, etc. possibly
caught popular imagination much deeper even Rama Bhakti.
Krishna Bhakti was promoted by Narsi Mehta in Gujarat and
Mira Bai in Rajasthan.
Maharashtra Dharma
Maharashtra Dharma reflected assimilation between
Vaishnavism and Nathpanthi ideology. One important exponent
of Maharashtra Dharma was Gyandeva. He composed a
commentary on Bhagvat Gita in the Marathi language known as
‘Gyaneshwari Gita’.
Some other important saints associated with this were
Namdeva, Eknath, Tukaram. Namdeva was supposed to be a
bridge between Maharashtra Dharma and Bhakti movement in
North India.
The centre of Maharashtra Dharma was Pandharpur and the God around
whose Maharashtra Dharma revolves was Vithoba, a local God. The
followers of Vithoba formed a new sect that was the Varkari sect.
Maharashtra Dharma was different from other Vaishnava sect as it
advocated for the eradication of social differences between high and low
born in society. In this way, common Maratha identity to the peoples were
given.
So unconsciously Maratha saints led the foundation of future Maratha
state as they encouraged the process of human capital formation for the
promotion of a common political cause.
In the 17th century, a saint Ramdas Samartha emerged. He was Shivaji’s
teacher as well. He led the foundation of the Dharkari sect. The
emphasis of this sect was the assimilation between spiritual and mundane
life.
So gradually Maharashtra Dharma evolved from a Shahishnu Dharma (a
tolerant religion) to a Jayishnu Dharma (A sect for conquest). Thus was
prepared a basis for future Maratha state.
 Bhaktism in Eastern India
In Eastern India Bhaktism was influenced by Siddha and Nath
saints. Early exponents of Bhakti ideas in Bengal were Jayadeva
and Vidyapati. Jayadeva composed a famous text ‘Geet Govinda’
in Sanskrit. This text focused on the relationship between Radha
and Krishna and presented this relationship in a very erotic
manner. Vidyapati carried Bhakti tradition and composed his
text in the Maithili language. Likewise, one of the earliest Bhakti
saints was Chandidas in Bengal.
But the most important was Chaitanya. He popularised Krishna
Bhakti in Bengal and created such a deep impact on the mind of
the people that he was presented as the reincarnation of Lord
Krishna. It was Chaitanya who introduced Sankritana
(devotional song) (Kritan) in temples. So he brought Bhaktism
to the moment of emotional ecstasy.
 In Assam, Sankardeva was also a Bhakti saint. In Assam
Bhaktism, Radha didn't play a significant role. Likewise, in place
of young Krishna, it was Bal Krishna (Childhood) became a major
theme of Bhaktism.
Contribution of Saguna Bhakti :-
1. Although it is true, Saguna Bhakti made a compromise with the
Varna system but at least they tried to soften the rigour of Varna
system.
2. Even in Saguna Bhakti, we can underline the element of protest
against Brahmanic orthodoxy and elite norms. For example,
Maharashtra Dharma reflected popular consciousness. Likewise,
in Krishna Bhakti, the existing social norms have been challenged.
3. In cultural fields, Vaishnava Bhakti made a larger contribution. In
one sense, Bhaktism became a major theme in contemporary
literature, architecture, music, dance, painting, etc.
a. Support to local dialects like Hindi, Awadhi, Braj Bhasha,
Bengali, Marathi, etc.
b. Saguna Bhakti encouraged temple cult so the rare example of
temple architecture is associated with Saguna Bhakti.
c. Sankritana system introduced by Chaitanya, devotional songs of
Meera, Dhupada singing of Swami Haridas, made a rare
contribution to Indian music. In other sense, it was Bhaktism
which prepared the way for the development of Hindustani
music in India.
Limitations of Saguna Bhakti -
Through accepting caste division and temple cult, Saguna Bhakti
accepted the Brahmanic world view and it strengthened the position
of Brahmanism in socio-religious life of India. In one sense, the
resurgence of Saguna Bhakti overpowered Nirguna Bhakti in North
India where Nirguna Bhakti had so far continued to promote some
sort of social radicalisation.
Women Bhakta and a note of protest -
Bhaktism is supposed to be a movement that advocated for the
creation of an egalitarian society but on observing sincerely we
find that some saints raised the cast issue and opposed the caste
system but simultaneously they neglected the issue of women’s
exploitation.
But in course of the Bhakti movement, some women Bhakta moved
on at their own initiative. In fact, David Kingsley tried to prove that
for them it became difficult to reconcile their love for the lord and
performing their wordly duties. So in one sense, the rise of women
Bhakta symbolises a protest against the drudgery of domestic life.
We came to know about some important women Bhakta as
Lalded/Laleshwari of Kashmir. She was a dedicated Shaivite.
She opposed all sorts of social taboos and religious ritualism.
Ideologically she came near to rishi sect (a Sufi sect) in Kashmir.
Even an important saint from this sect was Nuruddin. Nuruddin
has heard a lot of things about the spiritual perfection of Lalded.
On the one hand, Lalded became a symbol of protest against the
male dominance of society; on the other in association with the
Rishi sect and its exponent Nuruddin, she also became a symbol
of Hindu-Muslim amity.
As in Rajasthan, Mirabai was associated with the same symbol
of social protest. She lost her husband at a young age then also
lost her father-in-law, Maharana Sanga, as well after the battle
of Khanwa. So, along with a sense of loneliness, she also felt a
sense of being victimised as a result of domestic violence. It was
from the earlier phase she was indulging in Krishna Bhakti but
later she became a complete Bhakti saint. She was a symbol of
social rebellion. This phenomenon can be ascertained even on the
basis that even in earlier phases she didn't enjoy respect among
Rajasthani women who took her as the breaker of social norms.
Apart from Mira, even Mahadevi Akka was a Bhakti saint from
the Karnataka region. She also became a symbol of women's
protest against male dominance in society. In this way, women
Bhakta gave a new dimension to the Bhakti movement.
Historiography of Bhaktism or Bhakti Movement
As we know, Bhaktism proved the largest cultural movement in
India. Almost every part of India was engulfed through it and it
made its presence felt for a long span of time i.e. 1000 years. So it is
very natural that there should be some controversy among scholars
in specifying its nature.
Earlier R.G. Bhandarkar, while making a study of Bhaktism tried to
find out its indigenous routes. In other words, he linked Bhaktism
to the earlier tradition of India.
R.C. Zaehner tried to link it to the influence of Islam, on the other
hand, some scholars tried to prove that lower castes in India were
caught up between Devil and Deep blue sea. On the one hand, they
were exploited by higher-caste Hindus and on the other, they were
unable to link themselves to the cruel world view given by the
Turkish ruling class. So they moved towards Bhaktism for
emotional support.
Likewise, some other scholars, Yusuf Hussain, divided Bhaktism
into two phases –
1. Starting from the 4th - 5th century to the 12th century, when
Bhaktism was an individual perception.
2. Then, from the 13th century to the 16th century, when
Bhaktism became a religious creed after an interaction with
Islam.
Apart from that, some other scholars tried to link Bhaktism with a
protest movement and they also tried to prove that during those
days religion worked as a tool of social protest. While other
scholars like Irfan Habib preferred to link Bhaktism or interpret
Bhakti movement in relation to craft and caste. In fact, he
emphasised the point that Nirguna saints promoted new crafts
through delinking relations between craft and castes. Some other
interpretation about this movement is that it was a reaction of
caste-ridden Hindu society against the challenge of Islam.
Conclusion
Considering different views about the nature of the Bhakti
movement we come to the point that it wasn't uniform in nature
rather it was polyphonic in nature.
In fact, it encompassed within itself varied and sometimes even
mutually contradictory elements. We can very well underline its
multi-facet nature when we come to know that on the one hand,
it represented elite elements on the other popular elements.
Likewise, it also symbolises the assimilation between Brahmanic
orthodoxy and popular revolt.
Apart from that, at someplace it appeared to be a bit insensitive
to women but at other place, it represented women’s protest also
in the form of devotion of Lalded and Mirabai.
Furthermore, Bhaktism on the one hand strengthened the
position and power of ruling class, on the other hand, it
represented the revolt of regional elements against the
centralised power in the form of Maratha and Sikh movement.
So, while making the study of Bhaktism we need to be
cautious about generalisation.
 Sufism

The term ‘Sufism’ originated or came into use for the first time in
the 19th century. Earlier, the term Sufism known as ‘Tassawuf’.
Sufism originated from the term Safa or Suffa. Safa literally
means sacred. Safa also means a coarse cloth made up of blanket.
It just symbolises a reaction against luxurious life.
So far as the term ‘suffa’ is concerned it symbolized a platform
outside of the mosque built by the prophet at Mecca. On this
suffa a group of saints was seating and performing meditation.
They were known as Sufi.
Sufism emerged in the Islamic world in the 10th century, when on
the one hand there was the decline of Islamic empire on the other
hand there was the rise of the Turkish monarchy (sultan).
In fact this period was marked by a transition in the Islamic
world and it was the time when the new generation of Muslim
youths was diverting from its course and getting attracted to a
luxurious life. So in one sense, Sufism was spiritual reaction
against this social decadence.
In one sense it is the Quran itself which provides the basis to Sufi
ideas. In fact, Quran was having two different sorts of
interpretations. First was the Muslim Shariyat, presented as
orthodox interpretation; at the same time another interpretation
Muslim Tariqat. It gives a literal interpretation of the Holy
Quran. So, it was Tariqat which prepared the basis for mystical
ideas of Sufism.
Initially, Sufism was not accepted in the Islamic world and there
were two important points of difference between orthodox Islam
and Sufism.
Firstly, according to orthodox Islam, the relationship between
Allah and the common man is just like a master and slave, while
Sufism believed in monistic ideas and talked about unity and
equality of god and soul.
Likewise, orthodox Sufism Muslims and ulemas gave primacy to
faith while Sufism believed in the tradition of reasoning mutazil.
It is on the issues mentioned above, tension continued between
the two. So, in 10th century CE, a Sufi saint Mansur-bin-Hallaz
declared himself to be Anhalq (unity of god and soul). He was
awarded death sentence.
Then later in 12th century a saint Al-Gazzali made Sufism
acceptable in Islamic world through bringing certain changes in
its ideas. He declared Allah and his merits can’t be realized only
through reasoning but also through faith.
Although it proved an attack over the tradition of mutazil under
Islam and finally the Islamic world had to pay a lot for it in future
but during this period, the conflict between orthodox Islam and
Sufism ceased for time being.
Sufism is supposed to have originated in Iran then it spread to
other parts of the world. Right from the time of Turkish conquest
of Punjab under Mohd. Ghazani that Sufi saints started travel
towards India.
Then after Mongolan menace of north India, a number of scholars and
Pirs rushed towards India. The first Sufi saint who came to India was
Saikh Al-Huzuwiri or Data Ganz Baksha. he came to India during the
period of Mahmud Gazani. He composed ‘Kashb-ul-Mahzub’, a famous
text.
Then at the time of Md. Ghori invasion, Saikh Moinuddin Chisti
moved to India and he built his Khanqah at Ajmer. After his death his
Kanqah became a Dargah and just became a pilgrimage centre.
 One of his disciples was Fariduddin-Ganj-e-Sakar. He established
his Khanqah at Ajodhan at Punjab. He became a famous saint
and up to his period Chisti sect became fully established in India.
Later there appeared two important Chisti saints that is Seikh
Nizamuddin Auliya and Nasiruddin Chirag-e-Dehlavi.
Nizamuddin created a wide band of followers. He came in touch
even with Hindu Yogi and appropriated the Yoga method. So
even a Yogi preferred to call him a Siddha (a prefect Yoga man).
Why did Chisti sect gain in popularity in comparison to
others?
1. Chistis prefer to maintain relation with the common people but
avoided contacts with ruling class. In other word, it maintained
distance from the state.
2. Chisti saints adopted local language like Awadhi and Punjabi and
expressed their spiritual experience through popular stories from
Hindu houses.
3. Sufi saints came in touch with lower strata of the society e.g.
Nizamddin Auliya contacted with Nathpanti Yogi.
Other Sufi Sects-
Anothor Important Sufi sect was Suhrawardi sect. Its founder was
Bahauddin Zakariya. Apart from Suhrawardi sect there were some
other sub-sects as well e.g. Sattari, Firdausi, Naqsbandi, Quadiri
e.t.c. According to Abul Fazal, there were total 14 Sufi sub-sects
which worked in India.
Sufi Ideology:
The objective of Sufism was to make Ruh (Soul) free from earthly
bond while professing Kalb (heart). Under Sufism there was a
concept of Pir (teacher), Murid (disciple), Kahnqah and Bali
(successor of Pir).
In course of its travel to God, Ruh have to go across 7 valleys or in
spiritual term seven valleys. Then soul would come to manifest god.
This situation is known as fana.
 Contribution of Sufism:-
1. It was Sufism which provided a social basis to Islam in India. The
people in India were having bad memory for invasions from Muslim
army. So, it was Sufism that gave an ointment to the wound of
Indians. So in one sense it was Sufism due to which Muslim rule in
India became acceptable.
2. Sufi saints even worked as a critic of government policy. In this way
they worked as a presser-group.
3. The Muslim youths were much attracted to the luxury of life. So Sufi
saints through critising luxurious life infused same moral values in
them.
4. Sufism also contributed to the economic field. As Sufi saints settled
in an interior region or in forest region and built a Khanqah. So very
soon devotees were just started going there, the forest was cleared
and agriculture developed there. Moreover, these places developed
as the Kasba or town in course of time.
 Likewise, Sufism encouraged trade and commerce as well. Infact, Sufi
Khanqah became a muting place for merchants. Furthermore,
through selling amulets, a vast wealth was accumulated in a Sufi
khanqah and khanqah started to invest capital in merchants business.
4. In cultural field, Sufism made a great contribution. It promoted
Indian langauges like Awadhi and Panjabi. Then through stating
the story from houses of Hindus, it promoted the composite culture
of India. It made a greater contribution to music i.e. Gazal and
Kawwali are most important forms of music developed by Sufism.
Md. Gauss was the teacher of Tansena. Above all, Sufi saints tried
to mitigate the cruel behaviors of orthodox Islam on Hindus. E.g.
Gazal was the song of defeat. So, through promoting Gazal, they
mourned on a sense of defeat of Hindus at the hand of invading
army. Likewise, for orthodox Muslims, the term ‘Kafir’ meant non-
believer but Sufi saint changed its meaning. For them it means
beloved.
 Art and Architecture under Delhi Sultanate

The period of Delhi Sultanate is not simply marked by the

development of new polity and the changing nature of the
government but also the development of art and architecture
with new characteristics.
Earlier British scholars like Ferguson and Percy Brown
appended architectural style to character traits predilections of
either ‘Hindu’ or ‘Muslim’ personalities or communities.
Later, Aligarh historiography developed new parameters of the
evolution of architecture, and then the architecture was given a
new identity as Indo-Islamic architecture. According to them,
this Indo-Islamic architecture also represented the composite
culture of India.
In India, the prevailing style of architecture was Trabeate style
which was based on the use of pillars and lintels. Apart from
that, sometimes it gives support even to Shikar. On the other
hand, Turks brought in India a new style of architecture known
as Arcuate style.
It was not originally developed in the Islamic world rather it was
borrowed from the Roman and Byzantine Empire. The basis of
this style of architecture was the use of arch and dome. As the
buildings and monuments had to develop without the support of
pillars so they needed the support of some strong binding
material or mortar. That’s why under Turks, lime mortar came
into use as a binding material in the construction of buildings.
The interesting aspect of the architecture under Delhi Sultanate
is in its gradual evolution as well as the assimilation between
two different styles i.e. Arcuate and Trabeate.
During this period, we can underline the change of building
materials, for example, in Islamic architecture earlier bricks
were larger in use but in India stone was available in abundance.
So gradually it replaced the bricks.
Furthermore, in the course of time, this style of architecture
assimilated local elements as well which were largely visible in
provincial styles.
When Turks came to India they were not having sufficient time
to build new monuments. So, earlier Turkish invaders preferred
to convert existing monuments into Islamic monuments. For
example, Qutubuddin Aibak laid the foundation of the
Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi after converting a Vishnu
Temple into a mosque. Simultaneously, he built a minaret
known as Qutub Minar whose name was based on a Sufi saint
Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
In fact, at that time the construction of a mosque or a minaret
considered as a symbol of victory. So, it reflected the grandeur of
political power. In the same manner, Qutubuddin Aibak
converted an existing Indian monument into an Islamic one at
Ajmer known as ‘Adhai din ka Jhopra’.
Under Ilbari rulers, the construction of monuments continued.
For example, Iltutmish, apart from building some monuments
within the first medieval capital city of Delhi, he built Sultan-i-
Garhi as a memorial to his son Prince Muhammed, who faced an
untimely demise. Later, Balban’s tomb is an example of Ilbari
architecture. Some scholars give it the credit of constituting of
the first scientific arch but most of the scholars rejected it and
rather they give this credit to the other monument, ‘Alai
Darwaza’ which was built by Alauddin Khilji.
Under Khalji's, we can underline the assimilation between
Indian and Seljuk tradition of architecture. Alauddin Khalji
built Alai Darwaza which is supposed to have represented the
first arch and dome which were built on specific lines.
Furthermore, Alai Darwaza is the first Islamic architecture in
India where we can find the use of mortar as well. Apart from
these monuments, Alauddin Khalji started to build a minaret
which had to be double in height than that of Qutub Minar. But
due to his death, his project remained to be unfinished.
Later under Tughlaq, we find some change in the style as well
as in building materials both in construction work. Apart from
that, there was better assimilation between Indo-Islamic
features in architecture.
Earlier, in the Islamic world, the construction of the pointed
arch was in fashion. Even in India, this style has earlier been
appropriated but later under Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq, the
construction of four centered arches started. It partially
assimilated the technique of arch and lintel both.
This style continued throughout the Sultanate period and finally,
under Akbar it was visible in the construction at Fatehpur Sikri.
So, Tughlaq became the precursor of a new style. But on the
front of building materials, they did not appear much
sophisticated; rather they preferred to use cheap stone
materials. Another important feature of the Tughlaq style of
construction was the use of Batter or slopping wall which gave a
new look to the architecture but the batter is not visible in the
monuments of Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
Under Lodhis, there developed some new features in
architecture which better represented the assimilation between
Indian and Islamic elements. For example, now a tomb was
placed in a garden and it was built on a higher platform.
Furthermore, there was the use of kiosk on the monuments for
decorative purposes. All these features reflect Indian elements.
Some other features were the construction of a double dome
in order to reflect the skyline height of the dome.
 Music
Even music was discouraged by orthodox Islam but it could not
put a check over the basic human aestheticism and in spite of
the prohibition by Muslim Shariyat, music flourished under
Delhi Sultanate and there was continuous assimilation between
Persian and Indian elements.
Gopal Nayak was a great musician at that time. He came from
Devgiri to Delhi court under Alauddin Khalji. At that time,
Gopal Nayak and Amir Khusro were the two important singers
and musicians.
Amir Khusro made some original contributions to the field of
music. He assimilated Persian and Indian elements of music. He
is given the credit for the invention of some new ragas like Zilap,
Sazgiri, Sarpada, etc. Furthermore, he is supposed to be a great
exponent of some specific type of music such as Khayal.
Apart from that, he is supposed to have developed a new musical
instrument like Sitar after making an amalgamation of two different
musical instruments, i.e. Veena and Tanpura.
Music flourished even in Sufi Khanqah. Here some specific types of
music, Qawwali, developed. Apart from that, Sufi saints are given
credit for the development of a specific type of musical style known as
Ghazal. In this way, music expanded even outside of royal patronage.
It was during the period of Delhi Sultanate that the first Persian text
on Indian music was composed which was known as ‘Gunyat-ul-
Munya’.
Up to the 14th century, music struck its root in Indian soil so deeply
that even an orthodox Muslim ruler Firuz Shah Tughlaq fell under the
charm of music. It is said that after the Nagarkot expedition he got
nearly 300 Sanskrit texts translated into Persian.
In this way, under Delhi Sultanate, music flourished in spite of the
opposite injunction from Islam.
 Paintings
Earlier it was believed that paintings were not visible under
Delhi Sultanate as paintings were not permissible under Islam.
To carve out the image of a living creature was supposed to be an
un-Islamic practice.
But on the basis of new research which has been done specially
for the last 25 years, we come to know that paintings were in
practice even during Delhi Sultanate.
We find certain evidence in this context. For example, on the
basis of Tabqat-i-Nasiri of Minhaj-us-Siraj that when the
caliph’s ambassador came to the court of Iltutmish to greet him,
Iltutmish has already built a gateway to perform a welcome
ceremony for him. Here we are informed that on the getaway,
for the decorative purpose, there was the reflection of paintings.
Later we come to know that paintings were visible even on the
tents of Mubarak Shah Khilji. It has been approved by some
contemporary sources.
Furthermore, Firuz Shah Tughlaq was given the credit for
erasing some paintings on the wall; even this information is
going to prove that paintings were in practice at that time.
Apart from fresco or mural paintings, we can find some evidence
of miniature paintings as well. For example, the books were
decorated with some paintings or the use of Arabic script.
 Education
Education provides an intellectual backbone to any society. So,
whatever be the nature of education, it has to exist in any form.
So, even under Delhi Sultanate, education flourished both under
the patronage of the state and outside the preview of the state.
But simultaneously, education was having an elite base.
As you know the Islamic world view was guided by the holy text,
Quran and Hadish. So, education hovered around these texts.
Quran represented a revelation i.e. God's words to Prophet
Muhammad while Hadish represented the prophet's percepts.
So, naturally, scholars were attracted to them and they became
the core of the educational curriculum.
Intellectual activities were encouraged further by the continuous
migration of intellectuals from other parts of the Islamic world
to India due to Mongol invasion.
As a result of such intellectual activities, there was the flourishing
of higher educational institutions like Madarsa. A contemporary
text in the 14th century, Malik-ul-Absar, has mentioned that
nearly 1000 Madarsas were in function near Delhi.
Madrasa was associated with higher education while Maqtab
represented the basic school of curriculum. Persian was the
official language of that time. So, the language was definitely
encouraged in the school’s curriculum but simultaneously Arabic
was the religious language and formed a part in the educational
curriculum.
Educational curriculum got the impetus from the state patronage
as well because at that time due to the difference in the religious
vision based on Shia and Sunni. Sometimes, even educational
institutions fell prey to sectarian division as they were deeply
associated with Muslim ideas.
In Madrasa and Maqtab, Muslim got the education but Hindus
were also enrolled. As far as the Hindu education system is
concerned, we can say that the Hindu pilgrimage centre like
Banaras worked as an educational centre and worked for the
development of science and philosophy. Such centres got
patronage from the common pilgrims and followers.
In this way, during the medieval period which was marked by
socio-economic division, even such an educational system was
having an elite base.
Write a note over the development of vernacular
languages under Delhi Sultanate.
Factors contributed to the flourishing of vernacular languages
such as Bengali, Punjabi, Hindi, Marathi, Braj, Awadhi, and
Hindvi etc.
Hindvi- Written in Devnagari script and known as Hindi. It
expressed itself in a number of local dialects.
Awadhi- It flourished due to the role of ‘Ramcharitmanas’
composed by Tulsidas and ‘Padmawat’ written by a Sufi
saint Malik Muhammad Jayasi.
Braj bhasha- It flourished due to the role of Krishna Bhakt
Vallabhacharya, Viththalnath, Aashtachhap.
Hindi- Contribution of Kabir Das.
Maithili- Contribution of Vidyapati.
Urdu- Written in Persian script known as Urdu or Rekhta
flourished either in a military camp or in Sufi khanqah as a
common dialect of Hindu and Muslim.
Punjabi- Contribution of Guru Nanak and some other Sufi
saints like Bulle Shah, Dariya Shah etc.
Marathi- Maharashtra saints like, Namdeva, Tukkaram etc.
perceiving the local importance of the language, even the
Bahmani state gave patronage to Marathi.
Gujrati- Narsi Mehta
Bengali – Chandidas, Vidyapati, Chaitanya etc.
Assamese- Shankar Deva
 Write a short note on the development of composite
culture in India.

1. Nirguna Bhakti and Sufi saints

2. Architecture- Trabeate and Arcuate style

3. Music

4. Language and Literature- Even some Hindus adopted the

Persian language some Muslims too adopted vernacular
language. Even Amir Khusro credited to develop the Hindi
language.
DELHI SULTANATE
Architecture
 Foundation of Vijaynagar
There is a pertinent question about the foundation of
Vijayanagar that was it a product of reaction against the
Muslim rule?
In fact, this statement is just an exaggerated picture of reality. In
fact, the conflict between Vijayanagar and Delhi Sultan or
conflict between Vijayanagar and Bahmani state shouldn't be
viewed through the prism of Hindu-Muslim relations rather the
foundation of Vijayanagar state should be taken as a regional
revolt against centralised power. Not simply that, both, the
foundation of Bahmani and Vijaynagar state, represented the
same phenomenon of regional revolt.
 Administration
What extent the segmentary state model relevant for
defining Vijayanagar state? Critically examine. (2014)
For the first time, a British scholar Sewell brought Vijaynagar to
limelight in his famous text ‘A forgotten Empire’. Definitely, the
Vijayanagar Empire drew the attention of several scholars.
Earlier scholars like Krishna Swami Aayangar, Neelkanth
Shastri came to write over Vijayanagar Empire.
Neelkanth Shastri presented the Vijaynagar state with a
centralized administrative structure at least before the battle of
Talikota (1565). Shahtri’s view prevailed till 1980 when a
scholar, Burton Stein came to adopt a new paradigm known as
the Segmentary state model.
Actually he borrowed this model from a scholar Southall who
had used this model for the study of Aluri society in South
Africa. Burton Stein first applied this model for the study of
Chola polity then for that of Vijaynagar.
In this model, differentiation is made between the ritual head
and the real head. According to him, the Vijaynagar King worked
as a ritual head but he wasn't a real head. It is in the sense that
he wasn't having the control over the lower administration on
the basis of the bureaucracy but rather he made the claim for the
ritual headship simply on the basis of the method of religion and
ritualism.
Burton Stein has tried to prove that between 15th September to
15th October Dussera celebration went on in Vijaynagar for 10
days and in such celebration, it was the king himself who used to
take the role of a priest.
But many scholars sharply disagreed with this view. Nobru Karashima
and Subbarayalu rejected this view and instead they worked on the
feudal model. Then they tried to compare the polity under Vijayanagar
with that of Tokugawa of Japan.
Likewise, Herman Kulke differed sharply with the view of Stein and
while taking the model of Suryavanshi king of Orrisa he declared that
in different parts of India, the King enjoyed the actual power, they
were not simply the ritual head.
Above all, in his next text ‘Vijaynagar 1989’ even Stein has modified
his view and he has tried to interpret Vijaynagar polity in the light of a
new theory which has been developed by Maxweber, ‘Patrimonial
bureaucratic empire model’.
But even the above-mentioned paradigm isn't convincing. In fact, on
observing minutely we find that Vijaynagar polity can be discussed in
a better way in the context of the paradigm of feudalism as it appears
very near to European feudalism. This point would be clear if someone
is going to explore the Nayakar system under Vijaynagar.
Putting aside this debate we can concentrate on the structure of
the government under Vijaynagar state. In the central
government, the King occupied the supreme position. He was
assisted by the council of ministers which worked as an advisor
to the king.
The Empire was divided into provinces. The province was
known as Rajya but their actual number isn't clear. At the head
of the Rajya, an officer Pradhan was appointed from the royal
family.
Earlier provisional administration maintained its entity but after
Nayakar system its entity was blurred and lost. Provinces were
divided into Asthalas and Asthalas into Nadu. There existed
another unit as a group of villages, known as Melagram.
One unique feature of the Vijaynagar administration was
Nayakar/Paliagar and Aaygar system.
Nayakas were just military feudatories. Apart from the
contemporary inscription, foreign scholars like Domingo Paes
and Nuniz, the two Portuguese travellers made a study of the
Naykara system. It is believed that up to the period of
Krishnadev Ray, the system was crystallised.
The state used to give a part of the land to a Nayaka as Jagir
which was known as ‘Amram land’ and in return, he had to
perform two functions-
1. Transmit a part of the money to the central treasury
2. To provide military service to the state.
In fact, at that time state was badly involved in wars with the
Muslim state of Deccan. So even the state promoted military
aristocracy but the personal ambition of a Nayaka proved a
challenge to the unity of the Empire.
 So, the state adopted two different methods to check the subversive
activities of Nayakas-
1. The central government used to procure horses from the
Portuguese merchants and the state maintained the monopoly of
distribution of horses among the Nayakas.
2. During the period of Achyutdev Raya, some specific officers like
Mahamandaleshwara came to be appointed and he was supposed
to supervise the Nayakas’ activities.
But in spite of the steps taken by the state, subversive forces
couldn't be checked and this phenomenon led to the disintegration
of Vijaynagar Empire finally.
Just like the Nayakar system even the Aaygar system is the
unique feature of Vijaynagar administration. In fact, at a lower level
of administration whatever power was earlier enjoyed by village
like Sabha was now usurped by 12 hereditary village officers. These
officers were appointed by the government.
Above all, the posts of these officers were hereditary and they
are being paid through land grants. Not simply that, their post
could have been mortgaged as well as sold and purchased
openly. So, naturally, the autonomy which had earlier been
enjoyed by the local administration during Chola period was lost
now.
 Economy under Vijayanagar

Agriculture was an important source of income under

Vijaynagar. Agriculture land was divided into three categories
i.e. Amram land, Manya land and Bhandarwada land.
The Amram land was given to Amar Nayakas who had to provide
service to the state. From Manya land, grants were given to
Brahmanas, temples and Mathas. Likewise, through Bhandar
wada land, the income accrued to the state.
Under Vijaynagar, the normal rate of taxation was 1/6th of total
production. But differential taxation was also imposed at that
time. So, in some conditions, the rate of the tax was 50%. On the
other hand, Brahmans had to give tax in very low proportion i.e.
1/20th of the total production.
Flourishing trade and commerce was an important feature of
economic activities under Vijayanagar. From the viewpoint of
trade & commerce and money economy, it was definitely in
advanced condition as compared with the earlier phase under
Cholas.
A foreign traveller Barbossa had informed that external trade
was almost monopolised by Muslim merchants. But we also
came to know that trade was earlier monopolised by Arabian
merchants but later by Portuguese.
The horse was definitely a major importable item under
Vijaynagar. Usually, they were imported from Arabia, Syria, and
Turkey as better quality of horses weren’t breeded in India.
Apart from horses, silk from Mecca, velvet from China, precious
metal from Burma, pearls from Persian Gulf, etc. were also
imported to Vijaynagar.
In return, Vijayanagar maintained larger quantity of exportable
items like iron, rice, sugar, saltpeter (soda), etc.
Apart from that, this region was known mainly for better
diamond production. The Krishna Valley was known for
diamond production. Due to world-class of production of
manufacturing items as well as flourishing trade, Vijayanagar
came to be known as a ‘Golden bird’ at that time.

The Development of Irrigation is a major priority under

Vijayanagar. It used to be developed through the state initiative
and also through the personal/private endeavours. But at the
time of Krishnadev Ray, some irrigation projects were
promoted. Likewise, the temple, which at that time worked
under state patronage, did a lot for the promotion of irrigation
as it was going to augment the temple’s income.
Furthermore, even some individuals took an interest in
promoting irrigation due to the fact that it was going to
supplement his income.
In fact, to develop irrigation in a semi-arid region was a major
source of income for an individual at that time. Irrigation
emerged to be a flourishing area for individual investment. It
was known as ‘Dashavanda’ in the Tamilnadu region and
Kottukodgai in the Karnataka region.
From an inscription at Mysore we came to know that the
Dashavanda was a source of individual income.
 Society under Vijayanagar
Society under Vijaynagar reflected the unique features of society in
South India e.g. Varna system could never strike its deep root in
South Indian society.
in fact society in South India was basically divided between two
groups- Brahmans and non-Brahmans. And non-Brahmans were
divided further on the basis of their professions/occupations.
About Brahmans, we can say, unlike in North India where the
religious role of Brahmanas was more prominent, in south India
the secular role of Brahmanas emerged to be much significant
phenomenon. For example, Brahmanas occupied important
administrative and military posts.
One interesting feature of South Indian society was the division of
different castes between right-handers (Valangai) and left-handers
(Ilangai).
In each group, there was 98 casts. Valangai group was associated
with either agrarian production or with the trade in agricultural
products, while Ilangai was associated with the craft production
or with the trade with non-agricultural products.
Likewise, Valangai belonged to a privileged section in society as
it enjoyed the support of Brahmanas and Vellars (higher nobles)
whereas Ilangai belong to be the non-privileged section.
Furthermore, Valangai belonged Vishnu cult and Ilangai
belonged to Shiva cult.
Some unique feature of South Indian society under Vijaynagar
was the division of society based on region rather on blood
relations. It was due to this fact, even if the people from the
same blood relations if they were coming from a different region
could develop matrimonial relations with each other.
If we compare Vijaynagar society with that of North India, we
also find a similarity between the two on the basis of the
prevailing social taboos. In fact, Brahmanic privileges
encouraged social orthodoxy in Vijaynagar society.
So, social evils like child marriage and Sati system existed. As
Nicolo Conti had mentioned about child marriage. Similarly,
Nuniz, Paes, Barbosa had talked about Sati system.
Furthermore, such literary description has been corroborated
even through some epigraphical evidence in which a woman
Malgaura is supposed to have taken self-immolation.
But for one important social feature of Vijaynagar state has been
praised even by foreign travellers. The policy of religious tolerance
and non-discriminatory policy between Hindus and Muslims were
really commendable. It equally patronised Muslim merchants as
well.
 Culture under Vijaynagar
Vijaynagar state, right from its very inception, has continuously
been involved in a war but still, it could make a major
contribution in the cultural field.
Vijaynagar rulers were a great patron to art and literature.
Vijaynagar court was decorated by a number of scholars. This
period was marked by Telugu Renaissance.
It is said that the court of Krishna Dev Ray was decorated by
‘Ashtadigajja’ (8 important scholars of Telugu). The greatest of
them was Peddanna. He composed his famous text ‘Swarochis
Sambhava’. The second text by him was ‘Manu Charita’.
Similarly, another important member of Ashtadigajja, was
Nanditimban, who composed ‘Parijatapaharan’.
It is said that Krishna Dev Roy was himself a great scholar. He
composed a famous text in Telugu ‘Amuktamalyada’. Then we
came to know about another composition by him i.e. 5 texts in
Sanskrit. One of them was ‘Jamwati Kalyanam’.
Furthermore, he was a great patron to scholars too. So, his court
was decorated by famous Tenalirama. He composed a text
‘Panduranga Mahatamya’.
It is under Vijayanagar that Dravida style of architecture
flourished further. It is said that after his coronation, Bukka I
made an appeal to scholars and architects from all over India to
give a boost to the so-called Hindu state. Thus scholars and
architects rushed from several parts of India to the palace of
Vijayanagar. So, under Sayana, a saint and the younger brother
of Madhav Vidyranya, scholars wrote commentaries on Vedas.
Apart from that, one can underline further evolution in Dravida
architecture. So, Larger Gopuram was attached to the temples. Apart
from that, two important features of Vijayanagar architecture were
the construction of Kalyan Mandapa along with Mandapa, as well as
the construction of decorated pillars whose uniqueness lay in the
representation of some animal along with the pillar.
Normally, in Kalyana Mandapa, matrimonial ceremony between God
and Goddess was celebrated. Some important temples were Hazara
Temple, Vitthal Swami Temple etc.
Apart from architecture, we can underline the development in other
forms of art as well. For example, under Vijaynagar some specific
form of painting known as ‘Leepakshi paintings’ evolved. In such
paintings, the subjects were taken from Ramayana and
Mahabharata.
Likewise, a combined style of art and music developed under
Vijayanagar. This was known as the ‘Yakshini style’.
Economy and Society under the Bahmani State
Flourishing trade and commerce was an important feature of the
economy under Bahmani. A Russian traveler, Nikitin who visited
the region in 15th century, has mentioned flourishing trade and
commerce. He also mentioned about the export of cotton, black
pepper, etc. Furthermore, the horses were imported in a larger
number.
He has mentioned about the Dabhol port under Bahmani state. It
was significant in the sense that apart from India it was also
connected to the African coast.
Under the Bahmani state, society was heterogeneous in character.
Therefore, the different social groups coming from different social
background e.g. Hindus, Muslims, people from Iran, Iraq, lived
together. Apart from that, even Shias formed the part of society. So,
society was in actual sense cosmopolitan in nature.
Different languages flourished during this period e.g. Marathi,
Deccani (proto Urdu), Kannad, Telugu, etc.
This climate of social cosmopolitanism was further promoted
after the advent of Sufis in South India. Sufi saints from Chisti
Silsilah moved to this region and they were welcomed by
Bahmani rulers. For example, an important Chisti saint, Gesu
Daraz, was having proximity to an important Bahmani ruler,
Ahmed Shah.
So, the society under Bahmani state presented a unique type of
communal amity which prepared the way for the development of
composite culture in the court of successor state under Ibrahim
Adil Shah, popularly known as Jagad Guru.
 Foundation of Vijaynagar
There is a pertinent question about the foundation of
Vijayanagar that was it a product of reaction against the
Muslim rule?
In fact, this statement is just an exaggerated picture of reality. In
fact, the conflict between Vijayanagar and Delhi Sultan or
conflict between Vijayanagar and Bahmani state shouldn't be
viewed through the prism of Hindu-Muslim relations rather the
foundation of Vijayanagar state should be taken as a regional
revolt against centralised power. Not simply that, both, the
foundation of Bahmani and Vijaynagar state, represented the
same phenomenon of regional revolt.
 Administration
What extent the segmentary state model relevant for
defining Vijayanagar state? Critically examine. (2014)
For the first time, a British scholar Sewell brought Vijaynagar to
limelight in his famous text ‘A forgotten Empire’. Definitely, the
Vijayanagar Empire drew the attention of several scholars.
Earlier scholars like Krishna Swami Aayangar, Neelkanth
Shastri came to write over Vijayanagar Empire.
Neelkanth Shastri presented the Vijaynagar state with a
centralized administrative structure at least before the battle of
Talikota (1565). Shahtri’s view prevailed till 1980 when a
scholar, Burton Stein came to adopt a new paradigm known as
the Segmentary state model.
Actually he borrowed this model from a scholar Southall who
had used this model for the study of Aluri society in South
Africa. Burton Stein first applied this model for the study of
Chola polity then for that of Vijaynagar.
In this model, differentiation is made between the ritual head
and the real head. According to him, the Vijaynagar King worked
as a ritual head but he wasn't a real head. It is in the sense that
he wasn't having the control over the lower administration on
the basis of the bureaucracy but rather he made the claim for the
ritual headship simply on the basis of the method of religion and
ritualism.
Burton Stein has tried to prove that between 15th September to
15th October Dussera celebration went on in Vijaynagar for 10
days and in such celebration, it was the king himself who used to
take the role of a priest.
But many scholars sharply disagreed with this view. Nobru Karashima
and Subbarayalu rejected this view and instead they worked on the
feudal model. Then they tried to compare the polity under Vijayanagar
with that of Tokugawa of Japan.
Likewise, Herman Kulke differed sharply with the view of Stein and
while taking the model of Suryavanshi king of Orrisa he declared that
in different parts of India, the King enjoyed the actual power, they
were not simply the ritual head.
Above all, in his next text ‘Vijaynagar 1989’ even Stein has modified
his view and he has tried to interpret Vijaynagar polity in the light of a
new theory which has been developed by Maxweber, ‘Patrimonial
bureaucratic empire model’.
But even the above-mentioned paradigm isn't convincing. In fact, on
observing minutely we find that Vijaynagar polity can be discussed in
a better way in the context of the paradigm of feudalism as it appears
very near to European feudalism. This point would be clear if someone
is going to explore the Nayakar system under Vijaynagar.
Putting aside this debate we can concentrate on the structure of
the government under Vijaynagar state. In the central
government, the King occupied the supreme position. He was
assisted by the council of ministers which worked as an advisor
to the king.
The Empire was divided into provinces. The province was
known as Rajya but their actual number isn't clear. At the head
of the Rajya, an officer Pradhan was appointed from the royal
family.
Earlier provisional administration maintained its entity but after
Nayakar system its entity was blurred and lost. Provinces were
divided into Asthalas and Asthalas into Nadu. There existed
another unit as a group of villages, known as Melagram.
One unique feature of the Vijaynagar administration was
Nayakar/Paliagar and Aaygar system.
Nayakas were just military feudatories. Apart from the
contemporary inscription, foreign scholars like Domingo Paes
and Nuniz, the two Portuguese travellers made a study of the
Naykara system. It is believed that up to the period of
Krishnadev Ray, the system was crystallised.
The state used to give a part of the land to a Nayaka as Jagir
which was known as ‘Amram land’ and in return, he had to
perform two functions-
1. Transmit a part of the money to the central treasury
2. To provide military service to the state.
In fact, at that time state was badly involved in wars with the
Muslim state of Deccan. So even the state promoted military
aristocracy but the personal ambition of a Nayaka proved a
challenge to the unity of the Empire.
 So, the state adopted two different methods to check the subversive
activities of Nayakas-
1. The central government used to procure horses from the
Portuguese merchants and the state maintained the monopoly of
distribution of horses among the Nayakas.
2. During the period of Achyutdev Raya, some specific officers like
Mahamandaleshwara came to be appointed and he was supposed
to supervise the Nayakas’ activities.
But in spite of the steps taken by the state, subversive forces
couldn't be checked and this phenomenon led to the disintegration
of Vijaynagar Empire finally.
Just like the Nayakar system even the Aaygar system is the
unique feature of Vijaynagar administration. In fact, at a lower level
of administration whatever power was earlier enjoyed by village
like Sabha was now usurped by 12 hereditary village officers. These
officers were appointed by the government.
Above all, the posts of these officers were hereditary and they
are being paid through land grants. Not simply that, their post
could have been mortgaged as well as sold and purchased
openly. So, naturally, the autonomy which had earlier been
enjoyed by the local administration during Chola period was lost
now.
 Economy under Vijayanagar

Agriculture was an important source of income under

Vijaynagar. Agriculture land was divided into three categories
i.e. Amram land, Manya land and Bhandarwada land.
The Amram land was given to Amar Nayakas who had to provide
service to the state. From Manya land, grants were given to
Brahmanas, temples and Mathas. Likewise, through Bhandar
wada land, the income accrued to the state.
Under Vijaynagar, the normal rate of taxation was 1/6th of total
production. But differential taxation was also imposed at that
time. So, in some conditions, the rate of the tax was 50%. On the
other hand, Brahmans had to give tax in very low proportion i.e.
1/20th of the total production.
Flourishing trade and commerce was an important feature of
economic activities under Vijayanagar. From the viewpoint of
trade & commerce and money economy, it was definitely in
advanced condition as compared with the earlier phase under
Cholas.
A foreign traveller Barbossa had informed that external trade
was almost monopolised by Muslim merchants. But we also
came to know that trade was earlier monopolised by Arabian
merchants but later by Portuguese.
The horse was definitely a major importable item under
Vijaynagar. Usually, they were imported from Arabia, Syria, and
Turkey as better quality of horses weren’t breeded in India.
Apart from horses, silk from Mecca, velvet from China, precious
metal from Burma, pearls from Persian Gulf, etc. were also
imported to Vijaynagar.
In return, Vijayanagar maintained larger quantity of exportable
items like iron, rice, sugar, saltpeter (soda), etc.
Apart from that, this region was known mainly for better
diamond production. The Krishna Valley was known for
diamond production. Due to world-class of production of
manufacturing items as well as flourishing trade, Vijayanagar
came to be known as a ‘Golden bird’ at that time.

The Development of Irrigation is a major priority under

Vijayanagar. It used to be developed through the state initiative
and also through the personal/private endeavours. But at the
time of Krishnadev Ray, some irrigation projects were
promoted. Likewise, the temple, which at that time worked
under state patronage, did a lot for the promotion of irrigation
as it was going to augment the temple’s income.
Furthermore, even some individuals took an interest in
promoting irrigation due to the fact that it was going to
supplement his income.
In fact, to develop irrigation in a semi-arid region was a major
source of income for an individual at that time. Irrigation
emerged to be a flourishing area for individual investment. It
was known as ‘Dashavanda’ in the Tamilnadu region and
Kottukodgai in the Karnataka region.
From an inscription at Mysore we came to know that the
Dashavanda was a source of individual income.
 Society under Vijayanagar
Society under Vijaynagar reflected the unique features of society in
South India e.g. Varna system could never strike its deep root in
South Indian society.
in fact society in South India was basically divided between two
groups- Brahmans and non-Brahmans. And non-Brahmans were
divided further on the basis of their professions/occupations.
About Brahmans, we can say, unlike in North India where the
religious role of Brahmanas was more prominent, in south India
the secular role of Brahmanas emerged to be much significant
phenomenon. For example, Brahmanas occupied important
administrative and military posts.
One interesting feature of South Indian society was the division of
different castes between right-handers (Valangai) and left-handers
(Ilangai).
In each group, there was 98 casts. Valangai group was associated
with either agrarian production or with the trade in agricultural
products, while Ilangai was associated with the craft production
or with the trade with non-agricultural products.
Likewise, Valangai belonged to a privileged section in society as
it enjoyed the support of Brahmanas and Vellars (higher nobles)
whereas Ilangai belong to be the non-privileged section.
Furthermore, Valangai belonged Vishnu cult and Ilangai
belonged to Shiva cult.
Some unique feature of South Indian society under Vijaynagar
was the division of society based on region rather on blood
relations. It was due to this fact, even if the people from the
same blood relations if they were coming from a different region
could develop matrimonial relations with each other.
If we compare Vijaynagar society with that of North India, we
also find a similarity between the two on the basis of the
prevailing social taboos. In fact, Brahmanic privileges
encouraged social orthodoxy in Vijaynagar society.
So, social evils like child marriage and Sati system existed. As
Nicolo Conti had mentioned about child marriage. Similarly,
Nuniz, Paes, Barbosa had talked about Sati system.
Furthermore, such literary description has been corroborated
even through some epigraphical evidence in which a woman
Malgaura is supposed to have taken self-immolation.
But for one important social feature of Vijaynagar state has been
praised even by foreign travellers. The policy of religious tolerance
and non-discriminatory policy between Hindus and Muslims were
really commendable. It equally patronised Muslim merchants as
well.
 Culture under Vijaynagar
Vijaynagar state, right from its very inception, has continuously
been involved in a war but still, it could make a major
contribution in the cultural field.
Vijaynagar rulers were a great patron to art and literature.
Vijaynagar court was decorated by a number of scholars. This
period was marked by Telugu Renaissance.
It is said that the court of Krishna Dev Ray was decorated by
‘Ashtadigajja’ (8 important scholars of Telugu). The greatest of
them was Peddanna. He composed his famous text ‘Swarochis
Sambhava’. The second text by him was ‘Manu Charita’.
Similarly, another important member of Ashtadigajja, was
Nanditimban, who composed ‘Parijatapaharan’.
It is said that Krishna Dev Roy was himself a great scholar. He
composed a famous text in Telugu ‘Amuktamalyada’. Then we
came to know about another composition by him i.e. 5 texts in
Sanskrit. One of them was ‘Jamwati Kalyanam’.
Furthermore, he was a great patron to scholars too. So, his court
was decorated by famous Tenalirama. He composed a text
‘Panduranga Mahatamya’.
It is under Vijayanagar that Dravida style of architecture
flourished further. It is said that after his coronation, Bukka I
made an appeal to scholars and architects from all over India to
give a boost to the so-called Hindu state. Thus scholars and
architects rushed from several parts of India to the palace of
Vijayanagar. So, under Sayana, a saint and the younger brother
of Madhav Vidyranya, scholars wrote commentaries on Vedas.
Apart from that, one can underline further evolution in Dravida
architecture. So, Larger Gopuram was attached to the temples. Apart
from that, two important features of Vijayanagar architecture were
the construction of Kalyan Mandapa along with Mandapa, as well as
the construction of decorated pillars whose uniqueness lay in the
representation of some animal along with the pillar.
Normally, in Kalyana Mandapa, matrimonial ceremony between God
and Goddess was celebrated. Some important temples were Hazara
Temple, Vitthal Swami Temple etc.
Apart from architecture, we can underline the development in other
forms of art as well. For example, under Vijaynagar some specific
form of painting known as ‘Leepakshi paintings’ evolved. In such
paintings, the subjects were taken from Ramayana and
Mahabharata.
Likewise, a combined style of art and music developed under
Vijayanagar. This was known as the ‘Yakshini style’.
Economy and Society under the Bahmani State
Flourishing trade and commerce was an important feature of the
economy under Bahmani. A Russian traveler, Nikitin who visited
the region in 15th century, has mentioned flourishing trade and
commerce. He also mentioned about the export of cotton, black
pepper, etc. Furthermore, the horses were imported in a larger
number.
He has mentioned about the Dabhol port under Bahmani state. It
was significant in the sense that apart from India it was also
connected to the African coast.
Under the Bahmani state, society was heterogeneous in character.
Therefore, the different social groups coming from different social
background e.g. Hindus, Muslims, people from Iran, Iraq, lived
together. Apart from that, even Shias formed the part of society. So,
society was in actual sense cosmopolitan in nature.
Different languages flourished during this period e.g. Marathi,
Deccani (proto Urdu), Kannad, Telugu, etc.
This climate of social cosmopolitanism was further promoted
after the advent of Sufis in South India. Sufi saints from Chisti
Silsilah moved to this region and they were welcomed by
Bahmani rulers. For example, an important Chisti saint, Gesu
Daraz, was having proximity to an important Bahmani ruler,
Ahmed Shah.
So, the society under Bahmani state presented a unique type of
communal amity which prepared the way for the development of
composite culture in the court of successor state under Ibrahim
Adil Shah, popularly known as Jagad Guru.
Hampi
Historical chronicles as the source of study for
Delhi Sultanate
Unlike early medieval age for the study of which we mainly
depend on the epigraphic (inscriptions) and numismatic
evidence, for the study of Delhi Sultanate, a large number of
historical chronicles are available which came to be known as
the Tawarikh. Tawarikh is a type of court narratives describing
the period from the formation to the decline of Delhi Sultanate.
If we explore such a historical narrative during the pre-Turkish
phase of Indian history except Kalhan’s Rajtarangini such
literature is missing. So, writing on purely historical chronicles
is supposed to be a grand contribution of Islam in India.
Naturally, a question arises, which factors worked as the
stimulus behind the composition of such historical chronicles?
When we observe minutely, we find several factors behind it-
One important factor was the tradition of the Quran itself. In
fact, the Quran encouraged the temperament of narrating events
that influenced the intellectual tradition of the age.
The second factor was that in Islam to narrate the events
associated with the life of the Prophet and Caliphs was supposed
to be sacred work. So, obviously, it encouraged history writing.
Third, under the rule of Caliph, the condition of economic
prosperity emerged. So, it became easy to give patronage to a
large number of scholars. Such a tendency definitely encouraged
intellectual activities.
Fourth, Islam was even influenced by the intellectual tradition of
the Byzantine and Sassanian Empire, which had earlier inspired
the narration of events.
Fifth, when there was the rise of the Turkish monarchy under
Mahmud Gazni, the first Sultan of the Muslim world, the event
which was associated with the life of the Sultan also encouraged.
For example, it was under Mahmud Gazni that Firdausi composed
his first famous history chronicle ‘Shahnama’. This text was
associated with Persian renaissance.
Later the same tradition was adopted by the Sultan of Delhi as
well, who gave patronage to important scholars in their court and
encouraged to record the events which speak about the
achievements of their period.
So, Islamic history writing can be divided into two phases. The
first phase first was associated with early Arabic history writing
which hovers around the life-history of Prophet and Caliphs and
the second phase was linked with Persian writing which started
with Shahnama of Firdausi and continued under Sultans of Delhi.
The early Persian text, which recorded about the success of
Turks and the foundation of Delhi Sultanate, was ‘Taj-ul-Masir’
by Hassan Nizami, a court historian of Aibak. Then it was
‘Tawkat-i-Nasari’ of Minhaj-us-Siraj which continued the story.
Siraj was a court chronicle of Iltutmish and his son Nasiruddin
Mahmud. Then Barani’s ‘Tarikh-i-Firozshahi’ appeared almost
to a sequel to Tawkat-i-Nasiri. In the same manner, ‘Tarikh-i-
Firozshahi’ of Afif goes further while starting the story. In this
tradition, we find other chronicles also e.g. ‘Tarikh-i-
Mubarakshahi’ of Yahiya-bin-Ahmad Sarhindi, ‘Futuh-us-
Salatin’ of Ishami.
Question- Minhaz-us-Siraj, Barani, and Afif were three
important chronicles of Delhi Sultanate whereas Siraj gives
focus over the adolescent phase of Delhi Sultanate, Barani
narrates its young age while Afif states its old age and decay.
Make a comment over the statement.
Minhaz-us-Siraj was one of the earliest court chronicles of Delhi
Sultanate and possibly he was close to central power. He wrote in the
early phase of the Delhi Sultanate. At that time, the three important
works, which Sultanate expected from its scholars, were education,
publicity and judicial work.
Siraj remained associated with all three important works. He
decorated the court of Iltutmish as well as his son Nasiruddin
Mahmud. He offered his famous text ‘Tabkat-i-Nasiri’ to Nasiruddin
Mahmud, the youngest son of Iltutmish. It briefs the story from the
period of Adam and Eve and up to the 14th year of the rule under
Nasiruddin Mahmud. This period represented the young age of Delhi
Sultanate.
Now ‘Tarikh-i-Firozshahi’ of Barani appeared to be a sequel to
the ‘Tabkat-i-Nasiri’. Barani started recording the events from
Balban’s period up to six years of the rule of Firuzsah Tughlaq. It
definitely represented the mature age of Delhi Sultanate.
Apart from that, this period is marked by the rise of some
important and powerful Sultans like Balban, Alauddin Khilji etc.
But as a chronicler, Barani wasn't satisfied with the direction in
which Delhi Sultanate was going at that time.
In fact, Barani, apart from being an elite Muslim, was an
orthodox Sunni Muslim as well. So he expected the Delhi
Sultanate to enforce the rules of Shariyat strictly, as Sultanate
was in its mature phase. But, he was frustrated at the failure of
Delhi Sultanate on this front.
Apart from that, he was having a sense of bitter realisation at his
failure to oppose MBT when he had tried to enforce his unjust policy
arbitrarily. So, the writing of Barani was coloured with his religious
orthodoxy. He was so much indulged in his writing that he almost
neglected the clarity in his chronology.
But in spite of the limitation mentioned above, Barani’s chronicles
became a useful and important source of study about Delhi Sultanate.
The events of almost 50 years after Barani’s discontinuation had been
started by Afif. He started his briefing from FST rule and covers
almost half a century. So, he became an eye witness to the phase of
decay and decline of Delhi Sultanate. Even the tragic events like
Tamur’s invasion became part of his writing. So, in one sense, his
writing became a swang song on the death of the Sultanate. But in
spite of political viccitute, he witnessed and tried to maintain an
optimistic attitude and he gave some special focus over the literary
achievement of the time.
Limitations of court Chronicles/Tawarikhs
On observing minutely, we come to know that readymade history
text was its own pitfalls. Peter Hardy, a modern scholar, believes
that such readymade historical text may dull our critical insight
while analysing facts of history.
Normally, historians take such chronicles as a contemporary and
authentic source but they ignore their prejudiced view. E.H. Carr, a
very reputed scholar, had emphasised a point that an author can't
be evaluated without knowing his political and social background.
So while making a study of any period we have to make some study
of various authors, on the basis of which we come to know about
that particular age.
Such a declaration is true about Delhi Sultanate as well. Here we
shouldn't forget the point that on the basis of whose text we come
to know about this period, can be prejudiced in their approach, as
they were the court chroniclers.
Evaluation of Amir Khusro as a historian:-
Amir Khusro wasn’t a historian in strict sense as he was basically
a poet and a cultural personality.
One of the texts composed by him was ‘Qiran-us-Sadain’. In this
text, he mentioned about the conversation between Bughra khan
and his son Kaiquabad. Apart from that, buildings, palaces, etc
had also been mentioned in it.
Likewise, in another text ‘Miftah-ul-Futuh’, he had focused over
the period of Jalaluddin Khilji.
Furthermore, in his third text, ‘Khazayan-ul-Futuh’ which was
also known as ‘Tarikh-i-Alai’, he throws light on the period of
Alauddin Khilji and 15 years of his rule. From this text, we come
to know about Mongol invasion and Malik Kafur’s Deccan
expeditions as well.
Apart from that, in one of his important texts, ‘Nuh Sipihar’, he
had given exclusive focus over the praise of Delhi and the
climate of Hindustan, its vegetation, flora and fauna etc.
In spite of certain limitations as a historical text, the
compositions of Amir Khusro were having some strength as
source material. First, Amir Khusro, apart from political events,
gives focus on the socio-cultural life of the time. Second, unlike
Barani, he is much clear about dates and chronology.
Malfuzat: As a source of study of Delhi Sultanate
Malfuzat or Malfuz was Sufi literature which reflects the
conversation of important Sufi saints, Pir, Seikh etc. Such
conversations had been recorded by the disciples of these Sufi
saints.
Among these kinds of literature, we can specify the name of some
text like ‘Fawad-ul-Fuwad’ composed by Hasan Sijzi and ‘Khair-ul-
Majlis’ by Hamid Qalander.
The first text gives focus on the conversation and sermon of
Nizamuddin Auliya while the second one mentions about the
religious context of Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Dehlavi.
Although these texts were associated with religious discourse they
give equal focus over contemporary society. That’s why now as
source material, Malfuzat emerged to be an alternative to Tawarikh
and some scholars prefer Malfuzat to Tawarikh as source material.
According to them, whereas Tawarikh reflects a courtly attitude
and elite lifestyle while Malfuzat makes us near to the life of
common people. That's why today the scholars like Simon Digby
etc. had highlighted the authenticity of Malfuzat for the study of
Delhi Sultanate.
 Mughal Empire
Syllabus Analysis
Babur and Humanyun:- Akbar-
Babur- A great soldier An Empire-builder, a
but not an Empire builder great innovator in the
Humayun- An field of Administration,
incompetent ruler or Its religious policy as well
unfortunate one as the policy towards
Shershah- non-Muslims.
Was he a reformer or an His contribution in the
innovator? field of Literature,
Architecture, Paintings,
Its life and battles music, etc.
Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Mughal Economy:-
Aurangzeb:- Agriculture, different
Changes in administrative, types of craft and
religious and other industries including
policies. Royal Karkhanas,
Nature of Mughal States Monetary system,
i.e. Centralised vs De- Population, Urbanization
centralised Trade & Commerce -
Mughal Administration:- Advent of European
Central administration, companies and Trade
Provincial administration, revolution in the 17th
Local administration century.
Mansabdari and Jagirdari
System, Land revenue
reforms
Mughal Culture:- The decline of Mughal
Architecture, paintings, Empire:-
Music, Literature Conflicting views
(Persian, Urdu, Marathi, regarding the decline,
Bangla, Punjabi, etc.) rise of regional states
Cultural contribution of (Bengal, Awadh,
regional states:- Bijapur, Hyderabad, etc.)
Golconda, Ahmadnagar, and The Political, Economic
the Rajput States. & Cultural condition of
Rise of Maratha power India in the 18th century
and Shivaji:-
The period of Peshawa
and the formation of the
Maratha Empire.
 Mughal Historiography
Different schools of historiography emerged for
interpreting Mughal history.
1. Imperialist Historiography
Some British scholars like Smith and Elphinstone came to
interpret the Mughal period, but they were specifically guided by
an imperialistic objective as they tried to undermine the
achievement of Akbar vis-a-vis Sher Shah.
Actually, they had to face the Mughal legacy in India and this
legacy was created by Akbar. So to undo the legacy of Akbar, they
started to over-estimate the achievements of Sher Shah.
Apart from that, in the economic field, British scholars like
Moreland was busy enough in proving that the economy under
Mughals wasn't in better condition from that under the British in
19th century.
2. Nationalist School
On the basis of the trend, we can divide the nationalist school of
historiography into two parts or subgroups-
(a) Communal historiography
(b) Secular historiography
(a)Even communal historiography is further divided into two
sub-groups -
Hindu Communalist approach:- It was promoted by scholars
like Sir Yadunath Sarkar, Aashirvadi Lal Shrivastava, etc. The
basic premise of their historiography was that due to the
progressive policy of Akbar there was the formation of a vast
Mughal Empire but once this policy was reversed by Aurangzeb,
the Mughal Empire disintegrated. In this way, this historiography
hovers around certain personalities in the interpretation of the
Mughal Empire.
 Muslim Communalist approach:- This school was
represented by scholars like I.H. Quraishi (First historian of
Pakistan). He tried to demonise Akbar while praised Aurangzeb.
For example, he emphasised the point that due to anti-Muslim
policy of Akbar, Hindu became indisciplined. So, Aurangzeb’s
tough nature towards Hindus disciplined them.
(b) Secular historiography:-
It also hovers around some personalities but with a different
agenda. The scholars were the product of the national movement
of India. So, naturally, they were anti-British. It was due to this
factor, they emerged to be great critics of the British Empire but
by mistake, they took British Empire as the descendent of Mughal
Empire. So, in course of attacking the British Empire, they
continued to attack Mughals as well.
 That's why, they continued to idealise the regional rulers like
Maharana Pratap of Mewar, Maratha King Shivaji and Levit
Fukkum of Assam who fought against Mughals, they were
consciously projected as national heroes. The scholar like A. K.
Majumdar belongs to the category of such scholars.
3. Marxist Nationalist School:-
Aligarh School of historiography is inspired by Marxist school.
The Marxist approach was taken in the interpretation of
Mughals. Certain features of this school are such as -
a. This school emphasised the role of socio-economic factors
than the role of personalities. For example, Harbansh
Mukhiya (although a Marxist scholar but not from the
Aligarh fraternity) declared that if we are going to accept the
theory that the liberal policy of Akbar was the product of his
 liberal mind such conclusion becomes very natural that orthodox
policy of Aurangzeb was the product of his orthodox mind. But in a
true sense, such policies aren't simply formulated by ideological
leaning.
b. Now even sources came to be re-evaluated as this school of
historiography emphasised that before making study of any period,
the source material on the basis of which we came to study the
period, should be re-examined. For example, the policy of Akbar
can't be evaluated simply on the basis of the description by Abul
Fazal.
c. Mughal administration was projected as a centralised structure.
d. For the decline of the Mughal Empire, there was an emphasis on
the study of socio-economic and administrative crisis like the
Jagirdari and Agrarian crisis. These scholars had tried to establish
that the decline of the Mughal Empire shouldn't be interpreted in
light of personality alone but also in the context of material factor.
 In Aligarh school of historiography, the Marxist approach was
promoted by Mohd. Habib then by Professor Noorul Hasan,
Athar Ali, Irfan Habib, Sirin Musvi, etc.
4. Revisionist School
In recent decades a new approach appeared in Mughal historiography
that is the Revisionist School. Scholars like Muzaffar Alam, Chetan
Singh, Sanjay Subramaniam, P.J. Marshall, Kairen Leonard, etc. came
to be included in this group. They differed with Marxist historians on
the following certain issues-
a. They drew certain weakness of Aligarh school of historiography.
According to this school of historians they had consciously selected one
hero and one villain from Mughal monarchs i.e. Akbar and Aurangzeb
while neglected others.
b. These scholars rejected the perception like the centralised
structure of Mughal administration and they tried to prove that
there were certain limitations behind the centralisation of
Mughal administration.
c. In the interpretation of the decline of the Mughal Empire, some
of the scholars rejected the empire-centric approach of Aligarh
school instead they give a region-centric approach behind that.
d. While Aligarh scholars had declared the first half of the 18th
century as the age of crisis, but the revisionist scholars took first
half of the 18th century as the era of economic prosperity.
 Politics of Central Asia and West Asia before Babur's
invasion
The ancestral tradition of the Mughals was associated with the
Mongols. The Mughals established a vast empire under Timur. This
empire extended from Central Asia (Turan) to West Asia (Iran). But
after Timur, this empire disintegrated and reason behind this was
the prevalent tradition of empire division among their successors in
Central Asia.
Political condition of Central Asia and West Asia after Timur
1. Emergence of Uzbek Empire in Central Asia. It was a Sunni state
and its ruler was Saibani Khan Uzbek.
2. After the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, small states ruled by
the Mughals.
3. Safavid Empire established in West Asia. It was a Shia state and its
ruler was Shah Ismail.
 Emergence of Babur

Babur became the ruler of Fargana (1494) at a young age as his

father Omar Shaikh Mirza died accidentally. Babur was eyeing
Samarkand which was under his uncle, the ruler of Herat.

Babur was ambitious since childhood. So he attacked Samarkand

but his uncle defeated him with the help of the Uzbek ruler,
Saibani Khan Uzbek.

Babur, later, succeeded to conquer Samarkand with the help of

the Shia ruler, Shah Ismail, although very soon he vacated it.
 Impact of Central Asian politics on Mughals
1. It left a special impact on the foreign policy of the Mughals. The
Mughal rulers themselves were Sunni, but they took help from
Shia, the Safavid Empire, from time to time. So they distanced
themselves from the Sunni alliance (Uzbek and Ottoman
Empire). On the other hand, with a few exceptions, he remained
in close proximity to the Safavid Empire.
2. Due to proximity to Shia Safavids, the Mughals distanced
themselves from Sunni fanaticism. Thus it also impacted the
religious policy of the Mughals.
 Babur's invasion and its Reason

1. Babur writes in Tuzuk-i-Baburi that we never forgot the land of

India right from the period of conquest of Kabul (1504) to the
first war of Panipat.
Reason
1. Kabul is an economically backward region, so Babur is attracted
towards India's resources.
2. North India was politically disintegrated and the Afghan nobles
were having differences with the Sultan.
3. Babur, firstly, made a claim on the territory of Punjab as the
legitimate successor of Timur.
 Babur's conquest of Hindustan-
His campaign on Hindustan started from the Fort of Bhira in 1518 and
after the fifth invasion he could capture Punjab. Then he got success
against the Afghan ruler Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Panipat in 1526
and captured Delhi and Agra.
But he got final success against Maharana Sanga, the ruler of Mewar,
in the battle of Khanwa in 1527.
Success against Medini Rai, the ruler of Chanderi, in 1528.
In 1529, the Afghans of Bengal were defeated in the battle of Ghagghar.
Reason behind the success of Babur
1. Political fragmentation in North India and differences between
different states.
2. The main cause behind the failure of Afghan state were lack of the
elements of centralisation in the Afghan political system, the
differences between the Sultan and the nobles as well as the
undisciplined nobles.
3. Demonstration of superior combat technology by Babur, e.g.
linking the Tulgama warfare system with artillery.
Impact of Babur's conquest of Hindustan-
1. Re-established the prestige of the crown, that is, the position of
the king became much stronger than the nobles.
2. Hindustan's engagement with Central Asia and promotion of
trade.
3. Powerful foreign policy and connection of Indian politics with
that of Central Asia and West Asia.
4. Control over Kabul and Qandhar by a dynasty after a long
period.
5. After the use of artillery by Babur, better control over the
provincial authorities by the central government became
possible. This also encouraged administrative centralization.
Do you agree with the statement that Babur was a
dedicated warrior, not an empire-builder?
It is beyond doubt that Babur possessed the unparalleled military
acumen among Mughals. Throughout his life, he remained involved
in many military conflicts and also got several military successes.
First, he captured Kabul and then after the battle of Panipat and
Khanwa, he led the foundation Mughal state.
It is true that he was having insufficient time so, he couldn't give
proper focus over either to strengthened the base of the newly
founded Mughal state or to think in terms of empire-building. But it
is also equally true that Babur introduced certain measures which
resulted in empire-building in the future.
Before the advent of Babur in India, northern India is having some
sort of balance of power between Afghans and Rajputs. Babur
destroyed this balance in the battle of Panipat and Khanwa. So, the
empire-building in the north became possible in future.
In order to make an empire to survive, it was essential to deny
Mongol-Mughal succession rule in India. Under the succession
rule, the empire had to be divided among different successors.
Babur rejected such a rule in India. He advised his son and
successor, Humayun, that not to enforce such rule in India after
his death.
Babur infused a new spirit into the government as well to make
India based Mughal empire long-lasting. Actually, the structure of
the Afghan government was based on a confederate system in
which the position of a monarch was weak but Babur emphasised
over a centralised structure and took the title of Badshah. In fact,
in this system of government, no other noble could make the claim
of equality with the monarch.
Apart from that, he selected a specific social policy for the
government in India. Once he advised Humayun that he should
have never interfered in the religious life of Hindus.
Such advice could become a precursor of the liberal religious
policy of Mughals in India.
Likewise, he got his two sons Humayun and Kamran married
with the Rajput princess from the family of Medini Rai. So it was
Babur who revealed the potentiality of Mughal-Rajput relation in
future.
So, last but not the least, in the light of the evidences mentioned,
we came to know that Babur’s steps could result in not simply
strengthening the Mughals in India but also prepared the way for
empire-building in future.
 Tuzuk-i-Baburi
Tuzuk-i-Baburi is an autobiography of the Mughal ruler Babur,
written in Chagatai Turk.
Positive aspect
1. It has wide significance as a source of study. It provides details of
some major states of India, such as Delhi, Gujarat, Bengal,
Mewar, Vijayanagar and Bahmani.
2. It also mentions the prosperity of India and various professional
groups and production systems prevailing here.
3. Babur was interested in the geography of India. He has described
the geographical landscape, animals, birds, vegetation of India in
detail.
4. He was also a connoisseur of human behaviour and nature and
has given details about it.
5. In many places, he is completely honest in his writing. He has
exposed the weakness of his father and other relatives. At some
places, he has revealed his own weaknesses also. On this basis,
Tuzuk-i-Baburi appears to be closed to the Confession of St.
Augustine and that of Rousseau.
6. His sensibility as an author transformed a regional language,
adopted by him, into a rich literary language.
7. He was also a great connoisseur of art and architecture, but he
did not like the architecture of India because they lacked balance
and proportion.
 Limitations
1. Tujuk-i-Baburi does not present a picture of Babur’s entire
period. Not only this, there is a time gap at many places.
2. Babur has manipulated the facts in his favor at many places. For
example, in the Battle of Panipat, he states that Ibrahim Lodhi's
army was having larger numerical strength than his army.
3. He seems to be biased towards Indians in many places. For
example, according to him, there is no glaze on the face of
Indians, they are not intelligent. This description does not match
the description of Amir Khusro.

Question-
Does Babur appear to be a cultured person on the basis
of Tuzuk-i-Baburi?
(200 words)
 Humayun (1530–1555)
Challenges before Humayun after becoming ruler
1. His brother Kamran captured Kabul and Kandhar, then Lahore,
Hisar Firoza and other areas were also captured by him.
2. He was also opposed by his relatives.
3. The foundation of the Mughal state, established by Babur, was
very weak.
4. Humayun faced continuous revolt of Afghans.
Question: Was Humayun an incompetent king or
unfortunate one?
On the basis of traditional historiography, Humayun was declared to
be a lazy, badly engrossed into opium taking and luxuries of life. He
spent his precious time building a new capital ‘Dinpanah’ in Delhi
neglecting the Afghan challenge. But on the basis of the latest research
on Humayun, such view has seriously been challenged and certain
hidden abilities in his personality have come to light.
Humayun presented a rare example not only in Indian history but also
in the history of world that a king who lost his empire completely but
regained it during his lifetime. It was not possible without military
ability and political acumen.
So far as the charge of opium taking is concerned, we shouldn't forget
the fact that he was not a single example of Mughal Emperor. Almost
all of the Mughal emperor took opium throughout his lifetime. Even
Babur, after the battle of Khanwa, took the oath that he will not take
wine. Then he depended over opium for the rest of his life.
Likewise, the decision to build a new capital ‘Dinpanah’ was also
a far-sighted decision. Actually, due to the political ambition of
Gujarat ruler, Bahadur Shah, Agra was threatened. So, in one
sense it was a wise step taken by Humayun to build an
alternative capital in Delhi.
That’s why Humayun shouldn't be taken as an incompetent ruler
but rather as an unfortunate ruler. If fortunate couldn't have
smiled over him, he might have covered a larger page in history
than he has today. He was a competent ruler.
 Shershah
Rise of Sher Shah:
By dint of his personal valour, entrepreneurship, diplomatic
acumen and military talent, Shershah supposed to have risen from
the status of Jagirdar of Shasaram to the Padshah status. It is said
about Sher Shah that he assimilated the elements of fox and that of
the lion within his personality.
When we observe minutely, we came to know that even the material
condition of the time favoured him. For example, firstly, he made a
benefit from political confusion created by the continuous conflict
between Mughals and Afghans. Secondly, he made use of the
Afghan tribal structure and the rule of succession in his favour.
In fact, in the Afghan structure, succession was transferred from
husband to wife. So, Shershah misappropriated this rule in his
favour through marrying some prosperous Afghan women who
could fulfill his economic needs.
Empire-building under
Sher Shah:
In fact, the process of political
unification had already
started when Sikander Lodhi
annexed Jaunpur. Then the
process of political unification
continued under Babur and
Humayun. Later, Sher Shah
brought it to its climax.
Shershah created a big empire
that extended to the border of
Kashmir in North to Vindhya
in the South and the Indus
region in West to Bengal in
East.
Administrative structure:
The main challenge before Shershah was how to suppress the
Afghan legacy which worked as a major impediment in the way
of administrative centralisation. Shershah made this point clear
that the rule of Afghan succession wouldn't apply in a
government post in the state. Shershah gave emphasis on
effective, transparent and active government.
Sher Shah promoted administrative centralisation through
combining the Afghan structure of government with the Turkish
one. Turkish model of administration was relatively more
centralised than Afghan model where centrifugal forces were more
active.
Although he maintained the old departments under his
government, he could infuse new strength into them. These
departments were such as Diwan-i-Wizarat, Diwan-i-Insa, Diwan-i-
Ariz and Diwan-i-Risalat.
As we know, these departments were
extended even under Sultans of Delhi but Model Under
Sher Shah brought some innovation in it Delhi Sultanate
through making a curtailment in the
power of the head of the departments. Central Government
For provincial administration, we can say
that under Shershah the standard Khitta
provincial administration didn't start. In provincial
actual sense, this was introduced by government
Akbar later. In fact, by Sultans of Delhi, a
number of Siqs were clubbed together Siq
into irregular administrative unit, known Local government
as Khitta or Vilayat in the bordering
region or insecure region. The same Pargana
tradition continued under Shershah.
Village
We can give credit to Shershah for the formation of standarised
local adminstration in the form of Sarkar and Pargana, i.e. Siq is
replaced by Sarkar. At the level of Sarkar, he appointed two
officers, Siqdar-i-Siqdaran and Munsif-i-Munsifan. First was
accountable for general administration while the second one for
land revenue administration.
Likewise, at the level of Pargana, there were officers, Siqdar and
Munsif. Siqdar was for general administration and Munsif for
land revenue administration.
The village was the lowest unit of administration and was guided
by two local officers i.e. Muqaddam and Patwari. Muqaddam was
the head of the village while Patwari was a semi-government
officer who maintained the documents of the land revenue.
Maqaddam wasn't a paid officer.
 Land revenue reforms under Sher Shah

Objectives behind the reforms

To augment the production of the state
To boost up the production
To give protection to the peasants. Shershah has tried to
establish that the peasants were the axis of production and so if
they would remain dissatisfied it will affect the whole process of
production.
Land measurement: -
Shershah carried land measurement and for that, he made a
Bigha as the basis. For the measurement of land, he adopted
Gaz-i-Sikandari as a measuring unit. His system is known as the
Zabti system. Gaz-i-Sikandari was introduced by Sikandar
Lodhi.
Recognition of the Rights of tenants:-
Shershah introduced the system of Patta and Qabuliyat. In Patta,
the rights of the peasants were clearly mentioned but in Qabuliyat
the liability of tenants were mentioned.
Fixation of the rate of land revenue:-
Generally, 1/3rd of the total production was fixed as land revenue.
In order to make the collection more convenient, he introduced a
rate chart known as Ray.
Furthermore, apart from the regular rate of land revenue, there
were some additional taxes like Zariwana & Muhasilana. The rate of
first was 2.5% of the total production while the second one was 5%
of the total production.
Along with these taxes, the state used to impose an additional tax in
the rate of 2.5 Sair per Bigha which was safely stored in state
storehouses, so that the grains could be used at the time of
exigencies.
Approach to Zamindars and Intermediaries:-
Unlike Alauddin Khilji, Shershah adopted a very pragmatic
approach to Zamindars and Intermediaries. In place of
suppressing them he preferred to have an effective check over
Zamindars.
Other reforms under Shershah:-
Shershah introduced the system of local responsibility for local
crime. i.e. Muqaddam (the head of the village) had to be
convicted if he failed to divulge the name of the criminal.
He built four Grand Trunk Roads in his empire and by the side of
the roads, he built Sarais and planted shade-giving trees. Later,
Sarai developed as Dak Chauki also.
In order to give a boost to trade and commerce, he adopted
some other measures as well-.
 a. He introduced standard coins like silver currency, Rupiya,
and copper currency Dam.
b. He standardised import duties and taxes. So now on goods,
the tax could have been collected only at two points.
Shershah introduced some military reforms as well. He
introduced Chehra or Hulia as well as the system of Dagh
(branding of horses).

Questions:-
1. Was Shershah an innovator or a reformer?
2. Examine Shershah as a precursor to Akbar.
3. Analyse the achievements of Shershah as a precursor of Akbar.
4. How far did Shershah become successful in destroying the
Afghan legacy in his government?
Was Shershah an innovator or a reformer?
The period of Shershah drew the attention of a number of
scholars because he got remarkable achievements within a short
span of 5 years. But after deep observation, we find that he was
basically a reformer than an innovator. Although, it is another
thing that he could infuse a new spirit into all institutions.

We can very well underline the reforms done by Shershah in the

existing administrative system. For example, in central
administration, Shershah maintained all departments i.e.
Diwan-i-Wizarat, Diwan-i-Insa, Diwan-i-Ariz and Diwan-i-
Risalat. But he promoted administrative centralisation through
the curtailment of the power of officers.
As for provincial administration, we can say that Shershah
couldn't introduce any standard model there rather standard
provincial administration (Suba administration) started later
under Akbar. On the other hand, the credit for introducing
standard local administration definitely should be given to
Shershah, like the unit of Sarkar and that of Pargana. But here
also after a deep inquiry, we came to know that Shershah simply
changed the nomenclature of officers but the old system of the
government like Siq and Pargana already existed there, Shershah
simply restructured them.
Likewise, as military reforms, Shershah introduced Hulia and
Dagh system but here we can’t neglect the fact that it has earlier
been introduced by Alauddin Khilji. So, Shershah simply
reintroduced it.
As for land revenue reforms, we can say that initiative had first
been taken by Alauddin Khilji when he introduced land
measurement but there remained certain loopholes in his system
which tried to remove by Shershah. But even in the system of
Shershah some flaws still existed which Akbar tried to remove.
So land revenue reforms should be viewed as a process of
gradual evolution, So, here total credit shouldn't be given to
Shershah.
In the light of above factors, Shershah appears to be a great
reformer but not an innovator.
 Akbar
ACHIEVEMENTS
A great Empire-builder:-
He created a big empire that consists of the region of Kashmir in
North to Berar and Balaghat in south and Kandhar in west to
Bengal in the east. So he combined a vast region of North India and
north-west under a single empire.
A new theory of kingship:-
In Akbar's theory of kingship, one can manifest the pluralistic
character of Hindustan. In other words, he tried to establish that
the king shouldn’t favour any social group or a particular class
rather he should work for the betterment of all.
While describing about Akbar’s theory of kingship, Abul Fazl
characterises it as ‘Farr-i-Izadi’ (Divine light) which directly
emanates from god and falls on the king. Therefore, the role of
intermediaries was automatically undermined.
In the whole of his writing on kingship, Abul Fazal had never used
the term either ‘Dar-ul-Harb’ (country of Idolater) or ‘Dar-ul-
Islam’ (the country where Muslim rule prevails), as Akbar’s theory
of kingship was based on ‘Dar-ul-Sulah’ (peace for all).
A great Institution-builder:-
From central administration to local administration, Akbar
established an efficient model of government. In central
administration, he created a new department like Diwan-i-Aala.
Apart from that, he introduced a standardised provincial
administration. His whole administrative structure functioned on
two important formulas, i.e.-
1. Administrative uniformity
2. Check and balance
Above all, Akbar made a great innovation by introducing the
Mansabdari-Jagirdari system. Not simply that, he also developed
an efficient land revenue system in the form of ‘Aain-i-Dahsala’.
Policy towards non-Muslim/ His Rajput policy:-
Hindu nobles could have been inducted into royal service under
Muslim rulers for a long time. Even marriage between Muslim
rulers and Hindu families wasn't a new thing but Akbar certainly
gave a new orientation to state policy towards Rajput or Hindu
nobles. In fact, he successfully assimilated this warrior class
within the Mughal’s system of government.
Factors encouraging his Rajput policy are-
1. He was inclined to break the power of Afghans in India.
2. To break the monopoly of Mughal nobles.
3. Akbar was inclined to enter into the largest military market in
India.
4. The region of Rajasthan was having its economic and
strategic importance and it was rich in certain minerals.
 Methods of Akbar
1. Akbar employed the policy of carrot and stick to Rajput nobles.
Rajput states who surrendered before him, he returned their
region as ‘Watan Jagir’. Akbar also inducted him into royal service
and they were given the higher Mansabs. Akbar preferred
matrimonial relations as a cementing force but it wasn't
compulsory.
2. As a policy of stick, Akbar didn’t hesitate to suppress those states
which were not ready to submit before him e.g. Mewar.
Benefit for Mughals:-
1. The social base of the Mughal Empire widened as even Rajput
nobles came to support the empire.
2. As a result of the pragmatic policy of Akbar towards Rajputs, the
arch-enemy of the empire was converted into potential friends and
the Rajput nobles became a pillar for Mughals and their empire.
 Religious policy of Akbar
The religious policy of Akbar went through a long evolution and
it emerged to be a standard for those who aspired to rule in India
as it was Akbar who could very well perceive the heterogeneous
character of the Hindustan.
The factors which shaped the religious policy of Akbar are: -
1. Liberal Mongol-Mugal tradition
2. The impact of previous rulers like Alauddin Khilji and MBT
3. The impact of Sufi-Bhakti tradition
4. Influence of his mother Hamida Banu Begum and Guru Abdul
Latif
5. Apart from that, Akbar’s religious policy was guided by his
political ambition as well. He was inclined to form a composite
and unified aristocratic class i.e. elements drawing from various
racial and communal groups.
Different stages in the religious policy of Akbar: -
The first stage ( 1556-1570):- During this stage Akbar remained
to be an orthodox Sunni Muslim in his personal conviction but still
he maintained a liberal religious policy in his statecraft, for example,
he banned the war captives being forcefully converted to Islam from
1562, the abolition of the pilgrimage tax in 1563, the abolition of
Zazia in 1564.
The second stage (1570-1579):- During this period, Akbar was
inspired more and more by mystical ideas, that’s why he
experimented with the ‘Ibadatkhana’ (a place for open religious
discourses). He led the foundation of Ibadatkhana in 1575 and there
he introduced the system of religious conversation and debates.
Firstly, these debates were confined with Islamic text and culture
only but later it was opened for different religious sects i.e.
Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity, Zoroastrian etc. So, in one sense,
nearly 300 years before the religious parliament of Chicago, Akbar
successfully experimented with a religious assembly.
Although, on the one hand, Akbar propagated the mystical ideas
and religious universalism through the debates of Ibadatkhana but
simultaneously, he tried to strengthen the political power and
position of the throne through the support of some Islamic
institutions. So, in June 1579, Akbar read ‘Khutba’ in his name in
Jama Mosque at Fatehpur Sikri. In this way, Akbar tried to usurp
the position of chief Ulema.
In September 1579, Akbar declared a ‘Mahzarnama’. According to
this declaration, if there was a difference among different Ulemas
on any religious issue, Akbar, being ‘Insan-i-Kamil’, could choose
any of the views. Insan-i-Kamil means the most rational person.
Not simply that, Akbar authorised himself even to issue a new order
while neglecting all advices, in favour of the state if required. On the
basis of Mahzarnama, Akbar took the title like ‘Imam-i-Adal’. So
even in the matter of foreign policy, he just came near to Persian
emperor and Ottoman Caliph.
A British scholar Smith coined the term ‘Decree of Infallibility’ for
Mahzarnama. He emphasised that by introducing Mahzarnama,
Akbar tried to reserve the status of prophet for him but after deep
observation, we find that Smith was mistaken in the course of
observing Mahzarnama.
In fact, through Mahzarnama, Akbar tried to bring the relation
between Hindu and Muslim subjects directly under the control of
the state while undermining the Ulemas role. But orthodox ulemas
were not ready to accept the changed situation. They, in
association with disgruntled nobles, revolted against the state.
Akbar could suppress the revolt but simultaneously he came to
realise that he committed some mistake by giving priority to
religion and by reserving the highest position in Islam in order to
fulfill his non-religious objective. So, Akbar then moved on further
and tried to undermine religion in statecraft by introducing ‘Din-
i-Ilahi’.
Third stage after 1579: -
During this stage, the basis of Akbar's religious policy was prepared by
his long experience of the last 20 years as well as the failure of his prior
policy. In 1582, Akbar introduced his famous ‘Din-i-Ilahi’ and earlier it
was known as ‘Tauhid-i-Ilahi’.
On observing minutely, we find that it was neither a separate sect nor a
religious creed. It wasn't ritualistic in nature. Its method was very
simple and easily applicable. Akbar opened its gate for all under ‘Din-i-
Ilahi’. Normally, under this, there were two stages of the spiritual
development of ‘Ilahia’. During the first stage, followers simply
received Shasta (Allah Hu Akbar) from Akbar personally, then in
second stage devotee was ready to submit before him his property, his
honour, his religion and his life to Akbar.
So far as the number of followers is concerned, the number of common
followers who were at the first stage of initiation wasn't more than a
thousand, while the number of those who reached up to the second stage
was nearly 18 among Muslims and Birbal was the single among Hindus.
Do you agree with the idea of Smith that Akbar's Din-i-
Ilahi was a monument of folly?
Din-i-Ilahi of Akbar is a unique example of some religious and
spiritual initiative taken by a monarch to promote religious
harmony in his multi-racial, multi-lingual and multi-regional
empire. The true nature of such initiative couldn't be perceived
by Smith so he coined the term ‘folly’ for Din-i-Ilahi.
In fact, the mistake in his perception was guided by a number of
factors. First, Smith was not having the neutral source material.
For example, the writing of Badauni and that of Portuguese
Christian priest both were anti-Akbar in their approach for a
different reason. Badauni was irritated with the rational policy of
Akbar and Christian priest irritated because Akbar didn't join
Christianity.
Secondly, the followers of Din-i-Ilahi were very limited in number
and Smith made numerical strength as a criterion for evaluation of
success or failure of Din-i-Ilahi.
The third point is that the writing of Smith reflected the common
prejudice of British author against a Mughal Emperor, who left a
very rich Mughal legacy in India against which the British had to
carry a long fight.
In fact, Din-i-Ilahi should be evaluated from a different
perspective. Through Din-i-Ilahi, Akbar tried to promote his
political ambition. It wasn't a different religious sect rather it was
an attempt to undermine the religion in statecraft.
In other words, through Din-i-Ilahi, Akbar presented code of
conduct on the basis of which nobles from different classes and
communities could be linked to statecraft. Apart from that, Akbar
even tried to reserve the personal loyalty of the nobles to the
institution of monarchy.
So, the success of Din-i-Ilahi can’t be evaluated on the basis of
numerical strength of its followers rather on the basis of Akbar’s
intention behind it. Furthermore, the Safavid ruler of Persia also
made such attempts.
So, we can't agree with the view of Smith that Din-i-Ilahi is a
monument of folly.

Contribution to social reforms: -

Akbar took interest even in social reforms. He enhanced the age
of marriage for boys and girls both. Not simply that, he even
tried to discourage the Sati system or at least to stop the self-
immolation of those women who didn't have any child.
Cultural contribution: -
He was a great patron of literature and art. His court was
decorated by several scholars. He encouraged not simply Persian
literature but also Indian literature. He established a translation
department also and translated a number of Sanskrit texts into
Persian. He also encouraged Indian elements in architecture,
painting and music.
Akbar's contribution to technology:-
Just like the Russian monarch of 18th century, Peter the Great,
Akbar was having a larger interest in promoting new technology.
He was supposed to have invented such a gun which used to fire
17 cartridges through touching a single button.
Apart from that, he is given the credit of inventing such a bullock
cart which worked as carrying goods as well as a grinding
machine.
Underline the point of difference in Akbar's Rajput
policy with respect to his predecessors.
It is true that the policy towards non-Muslim nobles in India was
not the product of a single ruler and a single time rather it was the
product of gradual evolution. We can't deny the fact that Akbar,
through bringing a lot of innovation in his policy, developed it as
a model.
Akbar's predecessors like Babur and Humayun and even earlier
sultans continued to induct Hindu nobles in royal service and
even some of them preferred to perform matrimonial relations
with the family of Hindu nobles. For example, Babur got his two
sons married to Rajput princess of single-family. Likewise,
Shershah got his son, Islam Shah, married to the daughter of a
Rajput king Maldev. But Akbar adopted a more effective policy
towards Rajputs.
The first effective method of Akbar was to induct those Rajput
nobles into Mughal service who submitted before him and he
provided them a larger incentive to ensure their loyalty. So, their
own regions were given to them as a Watan Zagir.
Likewise, although Akbar preferred matrimonial relations with
the Rajput family but never made it a compulsion for them.
Furthermore, once the matrimonial relation was established,
Akbar maintained this relation very warmly. He gave religious
freedom to his Rajput wife and also permitted his Rajput wife to
maintain deep relation with her father's house.
In this way, Akbar brought innovation in relation with Rajput.
 How far do you agree with the idea that the religious
policy of Akbar was the product of a great political
objective?
The demand for statecraft is one of the factors which give a
direction to the policy of the ruler. Even Akbar was not an
exception to it. So, certainly, his religious policy was guided by
some political objective as well but still, whole credit shouldn't be
given to his political ambition even other factors were also equally
accountable.
1. Political ambition
2. His liberal tradition
 Evaluate the achievements of Akbar as a national ruler.
- Akbar can be given the credit for being a national ruler on the
ground that he created an all India model.
- Creation of an all India empire
- Tried to develop a uniform model of government from central to
local administration
- He developed a theory of kingship as well as the liberal religious
policy which suited to the environment and character of
Hindustan which was multi-lingual, multi-cultural and multi-
communal.
- He promoted a composite culture
Do you take Akbar as a national ruler of India?
Akbar should be definitely given the credit to have created an all
India model and it was certainly a greater achievement of that
time but before declaring him as a national ruler, the term
‘National’ should better be defined.
Mention about all points about his all India
achievements.
But while using the term national we must conscious about some
points.
In fact, a nation requires better integration between state and
society. So during the period of Akbar, the term ‘nation’ appears
to be far ahead of his time. Furthermore, whatever unity Akbar
obtained within his empire, was on the level of nobles not on the
level of common people. So, the word ‘nation’ should be used with
some reservations.
 Akbar’s policy of ‘Sulah-e-Kul’
The literal meaning of ‘Sulah-e-Kul’ is peace and friendship for
all. This policy was having some spiritual aspect as well. In fact,
its spiritual basis was prepared by the ideas of a Sufi saint, Ibn-
ul-Arbi. According to him, in this visible world, all the things
including religion are unreal so religious division is just an
illusion. But Akbar tried to apply it in the social sphere as well.
If we examine the objectives of the policy of Sulah-i-Kul of
Akbar, two things appear before us. In fact, ulemas placed two
big challenges before Akbar.
On certain issues, ulemas were having serious differences while
on some other issues Ulemas were having the consensus. Akbar
tried to solve the first challenge through issuing Mahazarmama
and the second one was by the promotion of the policy of Sulah-
i-Kul.
In fact, Akbar tried to specify the relation between his Hindu
and Muslim subjects from the policy of Sulah-i-Kul which was
based on amity and mutual trust. Akbar’s Din-I-Ilahi was the
reflection of the policy of Sulah-i-Kul. Abul Fazl tried to
interpret the policy of Sulah-e-Kul in a social context as well. He
tried to compare fire, water, air, and earth with four organs of
society such as warrior, merchant and Artisans, intellectuals,
and servant class respectively.
Akbar’s policy of Sulah-e-Kul produced a wide impact. It
strengthened the base of the Mughal Empire and above all, it
promoted the composite culture of India.
 Jahangir (1605 - 1627)
Rajput policy: -
His Rajput policy reflected more continuity than change. He
maintained good relations with Rajput. He continued to induct
them into royal service and even continued matrimonial relation
but he certainly degraded the Kachhwaha family and promoted the
Bundela one.
In one way, it was the right step. In fact, too much weightage to the
Kachhawa family created some sort of disequilibrium in relation
with other Rajput families.
Religious policy: -
Jahangir as a whole maintained the liberal religious policy of
Akbar. Even after Akbar, he continued to promote Din-i-Ilahi
through giving Shast. Likewise, he also gave a larger donation to Bir
Singh Bundela for building Hindu temples at Mathura, Vrindavan
and Banaras. He even permitted his grandson to adopt Christianity.
But certain steps taken by him put a question mark on his liberal
policy. For example, he tortured Guru Arjandeva to death. On one
occasion he demolished the boar statue at Pushkar. Likewise, he
banished Digambar saints of Jaina from his region.
Deccani policy:-
As we know that Akbar set his foot in Deccan and snatched Barar
and Balaghat, then he annexed the region of Khandesh. Jahangir
wasn't having any specific ambition in Deccan rather simply
inclined to control the regions which were earlier conquered by
his father.
But in the meantime, an Abyssinian warrior, Malik Amber,
emerged in the politics of Deccan. He was the prime minister of
Ahmad Nagar.
Malik Ambar, through the combined power of Ahmed nagar,
Bijapur and Golconda, could expel Mughal subedar, Abdul Rahim
Khan-e-Khana, from Deccan.
Then Jahangir sent his competent son and an able commander,
Sahjada Khurram to suppress the revolt of Deccan. He restored
the Mughal power by defeating the combined forces of Ahmed
nagar, Bijapur and Golconda. Jahangir awarded him the title of
'Shah Jahan' to commemorate this victory.
But after such a great victory, Jahangir didn't make a claim for
any extra region. It amply shows that Jahangir wasn’t having
any further territorial ambition in the Deccan.
 Shahjahan (1628 - 1658)

Revolts against Shahjahan:-

1. Revolt of Juzhar Singh, the son of Bir Singh Bundela.
2. Revolt of Mughal governor of Deccan, Khan-i-Jahan Lodhi. He
defected to the side of Ahmed Nagar and then with the support
of Murtaza Nizam Shah, he revolted against Mughal Empire.
Later Shahjahan punished and killed him.

Rajput policy:-
We can underline a slight change in the Rajput policy of
Shahjahan. Although he continued to employ Rajput nobles into
Mughal service, he discouraged the matrimonial relations with a
Rajput family.
Religious policy:-
Even in his religious policy, Shahjahan seemed to have made a
departure from the liberal outlook of Akbar and even Jahangir.
He showed a sense of religious orthodoxy and promoted Islam.
He even passed an order to those Muslim girls who had married
Hindus that their marriage remained be void, till it would be
performed again on the basis of Islamic customs.
As you come to know that during this period, some events of
temple demolition took place at Orchha. Not simply that, he also
tried to revive the pilgrimage tax but after the advice of
Kavindacharya (saint of Mathura), he dropped this idea.
But whatever might be his earlier thoughts, he turned to be a bit
liberal during his later phase of life in association with his liberal
son and daughter Dara Shukoh and Jahan Ara Begum.
Deccani policy: -
Just after coming to power Shahjahan faced a revolt from a
Deccan governor Khan-i-Jahan Lodhi, who made a secret
contract with the ruler of Ahmad Nagar, Murtaza Nizam Shah.
So, Shahjahan finally decided to annihilate Ahmed Nagar
completely. According to him, that was the only solution for the
Deccani problem.
So, in 1633, Shahjahan annexed Ahmed Nagar. But soon after
that, he made a very strong diplomatic move because he knew
that the support of the Deccani states was necessary to give
legitimacy to the Mughal conquest of Ahmednagar. So in 1636, a
historical agreement was signed among three states Ahmad
Nagar, Bijapur and Golkonda. This treaty proved a landmark
treaty. Important provisions of this treaty were such as-
1. Bijapur was offered one-third region of Ahmed Nagar and in
return, Bijapur accepted to give Mughals 80 lakh Rupees in
instalments.
2. Bijapur and Golconda were given the right to make expansion
in south at the cost of Nayaka state and whatever region they
would conquer, they would divide this region in 2:1 i.e. two
parts to Bijapur and one part to Golkonda.
Then to prove the sanctity of this treaty Shahjahan sent a letter
to Bijapur’s ruler and this letter was bearing his palm
impression. This symbolically meant that the provisions of this
treaty were inviolable.
But in 1656, Shahjahan reversed his prior commitments.
Subsequent events proved that the reversal of the treaty by the
Mughal Emperor would result in the Deccan crisis.
 Aurangzeb
Normally, in the evaluation of Aurangzeb, one can find different
approaches to historiography –
1. Traditional approach
2. Marxist/ New approach
Traditional approach:-
Scholars like Sir Jadunath Sarkar, S.R. Sharma many others
approached it. According to this approach, Aurangzeb was
presented as an antithesis to Akbar and it was the orthodox
religious policy and the prejudiced Rajput policy of Aurangzeb
which became instrumental behind the decline of the Mughal
Empire.
About his religious policy, it has been declared that Aurangzeb
tried to combine the statecraft with prophet-hood and there was
no change in his policy through out his career.
Likewise, his Rajput policy was projected as his anti-Hindu
agenda and it was emphasised that this mistake proved much
costly for the empire.
Marxist/ New approach
But after 1950s, a new trend in historiography. According to this
new historiography, the role of an individual shouldn't be over-
emphasised as a factor of change rather it should be evaluated in
the context of the objective material factor. So now they
emphasised over the objective behind and the impact of religious,
Rajput, Deccan policy, etc, and they studied and evaluated in
context of some objective material factor.
In this way, the new historiography created the background for
the re-evaluation of the religious policy, the Rajput policy as well
as Deccan policy of Aurangzeb.
 Religious Policy of Aurangzeb
Stage one (before 1679): -
1. It is true, in his personal conviction, Aurangzeb was an orthodox
Sunni Muslim but it is equally true that his policy and programmes
were guided not only by his orthodox mind but even by the
circumstances of which he was a product.
For example, in one sense, the basis of his orthodox religious policy
was prepared in course of his war of succession itself. In fact, in
course of war of succession with Dara Shukoh, he gave a slogan
‘Islam vs Heretics’ i.e. Aurangzeb vs Dara Shukoh. So
unconsciously, he raised the expectations of ulemas and orthodox
Muslims.
He took certain measures, which could make India convert from
‘Dar-ul-Harb’ to ‘Dar-ul-Islam’ (country of idolaters to that of
Islam). But initially, he maintained some sort of balance between
statecraft and religion.
 In fact, he tried to appease orthodox Muslims and ulemas without
antagonizing Hindus. So, he just started the purification programme
and with this purpose he banned all intoxicants, striking off Kalima
from coins, prohibition Tika ceremony and Tuladan etc.
2. Then he took some measures which could prove even harsh but for
such measure individual factor might have been accountable for the
individual measure.
For example, he banned history-writing as well as music. It was
possibly an economic measure, with the objective of shading off some
burden on the treasury.
He dismissed the Hindu officers from the post of Karori for sometime.
Possibly this step was guided by the objective to promote employment
among Muslim youths.
Above all, he ordered the governor of Bananas and Thatta to demolish
some temples. It was definitely an extremist step but wasn't the part of
his common policy. Possibly this measure was inspired by the sense of
some immediate animosity.
Stage Two (after 1679): -
The second stage in his policy started in 1679. In this period,
possibly his semi-liberal policy failed and he faced a series of
revolts against his government. Then it was merely a coincidence
that most of the revolts were organised at the local level i.e. Jat
revolt, Rajput revolt, Satnami revolt, etc. by Hindu community.
But during the second half of his rule, Aurangzeb was entangled
into Deccani issues. Now his conflict started against Muslim states
of Deccan. According to Muslim Shariyat bloodshed of Muslim
brethren was prohibited. So, he was in need of making orthodox
Muslims and ulemas rally behind him. It became the reason for
the revival of the Zazia tax in 1679. Although, while making the
basis of the statement of European traveler, Manucci, some
modern scholars had tried to establish that the imposition of
Zazia was the result of the economic compulsion of Aurangzeb.
But this view was not convincing because the amount collected
through Zazia was spent for the promotion of Islam at the discretion
of ulemas. So, there was no question of its replenishing the royal
treasury.
After observation, we know that before 1679, Aurangzeb was
involved in a war with the Muslim states of South. While in Islam
shading of the blood of Muslim brothers was seriously prohibited. It
is on this pretext, one important ulema refused to issue Fatwa
against Deccani states, so, it was in one sense Zazia was some sort of
bribe given by Aurangzeb to ulemas, in order to enlist their support.
Stage three: -
Once again we can underline a turn in his policy towards non-
Muslims after 1687 when he conquered the state of Bijapur and
Golkonda. As one scholar who accompanied Aurangzeb in Deccan,
Bhim Sen, informed us that even after the conquering of Bijapur and
Golkonda, Aurangzeb didn’t demolish any temple.
Not simply that we also came to know that in Deccan in 1704,
Aurangzeb abolished Zazia. Although the pretext behind that
was recurring famine but the actual reason was that Aurangzeb
needed the support of Hindu Nayakas against Marathas.
So, there is no reason to accept that neither age nor experience
brought any change in the religious policy of Aurangzeb.
 The new approach to Rajput Policy
In 1679, after the demise of Jaswant Singh, the ruler of Jodhpur,
the question of succession appeared. Due to the intervention of
Aurangzeb into this matter, it resulted in an open conflict
between the Mughal Empire and the Rathods of Jodhpur under
Durga Das. Later even Sisodias joined Rathods in this fight.
Traditionally, about the Rajput policy of Aurangzeb, there are
two general perceptions-
I. Aurangzeb reversed the Rajput policy of his predecessors.
II. The reversal of Rajput policy by him resulted in the
disintegration of the empire.
But the view mentioned above isn't convincing on following
ground-
Firstly, Aurangzeb didn’t reverse the Rajput policy of Akbar. We have
sufficient reasons to prove it. We should keep in our mind that
Aurangzeb continued to induct Rajputs in royal service. Not simply
that, under Aurangzeb, the higher Jat and Sawar rank was enjoyed by
two Rajput nobles i.e. Raja Jai Singh and Jaswant Singh.
Furthermore, since the time of Jahangir, after recalling Man Singh
from Bengal, no Rajput Mansabdar was given the post of Subedar in
any province. It was Aurangzeb who appointed Mirza Raja Jai Singh
and Jaswant Singh on that post. So, the term reversal of Rajput policy
doesn’t appear to be convincing.
Secondly, even the impact of the conflict between Aurangzeb and
Rajput states shouldn’t be over-estimated. In fact, even after
Aurangzeb lost the support from Rathods and Sisodiya, he continued
to enjoy the support of Ranthambhore, Amber, Bundi, and Kota states.
Apart from that, when Jagat Singh, the successor of Rana Raj Singh,
withdrew himself from this conflict then this conflict remained to be
much limited.
 Deccani policy of Aurangzeb
Traditionally, the Deccan policy of Aurangzeb was evaluated by Sir
Yadunath Sarkar. He tried to prove that Aurangzeb’s empire
collapsed under its own weight. Aurangzeb was compared with
such a python that swallowed so much so that it couldn't digest.
He declared further that as Spanish ulcer ruined Napoleon so
Deccani ulcer ruined Aurangzeb. Here he dealt with Aurangzeb’s
Deccani policy in the manner as if the unrestricted expansion of
Aurangzeb in Deccan was simply a matter of choice for Aurangzeb.
But after deep observation, we find that it was not only the matter
of choice rather it was a matter of some material compulsion for
almost all the Mughal rulers not only for Aurangzeb. For example,
if Akbar preferred to bring the region of Berar, Balaghat and
Khandesh under his control, it was not simply to fulfill his
imperialistic desire but also to have the control over the trade of
Gujarat and Malwa.
Likewise, during the period of Shah Jahan in 1656, the treaty of
1636 was reversed and then Aurangzeb started an unrestricted
expansion towards south. One of the strong reasons behind it was
to have effective control over the trade of the Coromandel coast. In
fact, in the second half of the 17th century, the mercantile
trafficking on the Coromandel coast was almost 4 times larger than
that on Gujrat coast. Aurangzeb’s Deccani policy should be viewed
in this context as well.
In this way, Aurangzeb’s Deccani policy was the representation of a
proper mix between imperialistic design and the material
compulsion.
But it is also true that, through several personal mistakes, he
brought the situation from bad to worse in Deccan. For example, he
failed to perceive the popular character of the Maratha movement
and the elimination of Shambhu Ji proved an unwise decision on
his part and he fell into an unending Maratha imbroglio.
 Critically examine the impact of Deccani policy: -
Negative: -
1. Aurangzeb remained badly involved in the Deccani imbroglio
for 25 long years, so overall administration slackened.
2. Due to his involvement in Deccan, he continued to appoint
Mansabdars on massive scale from among the Deccani nobles.
So it intensified the demand for more and more Jagirs.
3. When the Mansabdari/Zagirdari system was extended towards
rather the infertile regions of Deccan, it produced a new type of
challenge which is characterised as the Jagirdari crisis.
Positive: -
In fact, the Deccan expedition of Mughals, don’t present simply
a story of all-round failure, rather they produced some positive
results as well.
1. It was as the result of Mughal influence, Zabti system was
extended to the Deccan region as well.
2. As a result of Mughals’ influence, there appeared some
successor states in Deccan like Hyderabad and Mysore and they
could provide an efficient government in South India.
3. Before the Mughal conquest of Deccan, the gold currency was
the main currency in South India, while in North India silver
currency was the dominant. But after the advent of Mughals in
Deccan, monetary unification became possible, as silver
currency was introduced as the main currency in South India as
well.
 Revolts against Aurangzeb and their nature: –
A series of revolts in the 1670s onward occurred, some
important revolts were -
1. Jat Revolt:- In 1669, under Gokul Jat and in 1685 under Raja
Ram Jat. Both were the Zamindars of Mathura.
2. Satnami Revolt:- Satnamis were the followers of Kabirdas and
they were coming from the lower cast. As an occupation, they
adopted cultivation. In 1672, they revolted against the state.
3. Afghan revolt:- Earlier this revolt took place under Bhagu. Then
in 1672, once again there was a rise of Afghans under a leader
Akmal khan. In fact, Afghans consisted of different tribes, and
from time to time one or other tribe revolted.
4. Rajput Revolt:- Rathods of Jodhpur revolted under the
leadership of Durga Das in 1678.
5. Maratha Revolt:- Throughout his life, Aurangzeb faced the
challenge of Maratha revolts.
About the nature and character of such revolts, there emerged
much controversy. Some of the scholars tried to project them as
a reaction against the religious orthodoxy of Aurangzeb. This is
also a fact that except the Afghan revolt, all other revolts are
associated with the Hindus but such view doesn’t appear to be
convincing. It isn’t logical to project Aurangzeb as anti-Hindu
and to project different groups of Hindus as if they were in fear
of Aurangzeb phobia.
How can we neglect the fact that whole of the Mughal
administration, even under Aurangzeb, was running mostly on
the pillars of Hindu officers. Rajput Mansabdars enjoyed the
highest position under the empire. So such arguments appear to
be self-contradictory.
In fact, after close examination, we come to realise that for
every such revolt, an individual reason was accountable in
individual case. For example, in the case of Jat, Satnami, Sikh
and Maratha revolts, peasants’ discontentment or agrarian
discontentment might have been a major factor.
On the other hand, Afghans appear to be guided by a strong
sense of tribal independence. While in Rajputs’ case, the revolt
was the reaction against the intervention of the Mughal Empire
into succession matter.
How far do you take Aurangzeb as the destroyer of the
Mughal Empire?
The evaluation of the role of Aurangzeb remained to be a very
controversial issue in medieval historiography. Some scholars
have projected him as a villain, who activated the destructive
machinery that finished the empire. It was in this context, his
religious, Rajput and Deccani policy have been highlighted but
here Aurangzeb needs a conscious re-evaluation. As he could
work as a supplementary factor in the whole process of decline
but the main factor should be searched in the structure of the
empire itself.
Although, it is true that Aurangzeb introduced the orthodox
religious policy and intensified it further. It should certainly
have affected the policy of the Sulah-e-Kul (peace for all) of
Akbar.
But we shouldn’t forget the fact that after his death, the Zazia tax was
quickly revoked and his successor, Bahadur Shah I, promoted rather
a liberal policy. But the process of decline didn’t halt.
Likewise, due to his intervention into the succession matter of
Jodhpur, he picked up conflict with Rathod as well as Sisodia, but
how can we neglect the fact that still he enjoyed the support from
other Rajput states like Amber, Bundi, Ranthambore, Kota etc. In the
same manner, the failure of his Deccani policy created some tremors
into the empire but it couldn’t lead to the collapse of the Mughal
Empire.
So, the cause of decline should better be searched into some other
major factors like Jagirdari and agrarian crisis.
So, the material factor definitely played a significant role in the whole
process of decline. Thus, so far as the contribution of Aurangzeb is
concerned, due to his rude policy, it simply intensified the process of
decline.
Comment on Turko-Mongol theory of sovereignty. To
what extent was it adopted by Babur and Humanyu?
Mongolan and Turkish theories of kingship were having different
nature and they gave shape to even the Mughal theory of
kingship. In Mongolan theory of kingship, the tradition of Yassa,
the denial of all sorts of religious discrimination, was having a
prominent place. This was the positive side of the theory but its
negative side was the bad precedent of the partitioning of the
empire among successors. On the other hand, in Turkish
tradition, there was a better scope for administrative
centralization.
In India, both Babur and Humanyu remained to be influenced by
Mongolan theory of kingship while they simultaneously tried to
promote the Turkish model as well. It was under the influence of
Yassa that both Babur and Humanyu tried to promote liberal
religious policy in Hindusthan.
Babur gave suggestions to Humanyu that you should never try
to intervene in the religious matter of Hindus. But
simultaneously both tried to become free from Mongolan legacy
of division of the empire. So, he also suggested Humanyu be
kind to your brothers but you shouldn’t prefer to divide the
empire among them.
But in spite of his best efforts, Humanyu couldn’t take his
region united and intact, as his recalcitrant brother Kamran
virtually divided the empire. So although, both Babur and
Humanyu tried to make the government free from the bad
Mongolan legacy rather they tried to promote administrative
centralisation under the Turkish influence but they got only
partial success. So finally it was Akbar who could make a big
alteration in this situation.
Do you take the Mughal Empire as a centralised state?
A group of medieval scholars prefers to characterise the state
under Mughals as centralised. If we observe minutely, we can
very well underline the grain of truth in such a statement. It is
true that the Mughal empire made serious attempts to maintain
a larger level of centralisation but it is equally true that even
they couldn’t overcome certain impediments and obstacles in
the way of centralisation.
The specific emphasis of Mughal emperors, particularly Akbar,
was on maintaining the higher level of administrative
centralization. So administration under Mughal was constituted
on the basis of two principles, administrative uniformity, and
check and balance.
In central administration, mainly there were four departments
i.e. Diwan-i-Ala or Diwan-i-Kul, department of Mir Bakshi,
Mir-i-Sama or Khan-i-Sama, and Sadra-us-Sudra. Here the
government was conscious enough about the demarcating the
powers and responsibility of different departments and it was
also equally conscious about having the proper check over the
head of the department.
For example, the post of Diwan-i-Aala was accountable for the
assessment and collection of revenue and to maintain the
account of income and expenditure. Then in order to put a
check over the department, he appointed an officer of humble
origin or even sometimes he appointed half a dozen of Diwan
also in order to maintain a check and balance within the
department.
Similarly, an important department was that of Mir Bakshi.
Except the supreme command of the army, he used to enjoy all
the powers pertaining to the military department. But still, the
Badshah was conscious enough to apply the check and balance,
as Mir Bakshi used to recommend the candidates for the post of
a Mansabdars but a Mansabdar could have been appointed by
the king himself, after taking an interview. Bakshi also used to
recommend the salary but the salary was released by the
department of Diwan.
Another department, Mir-i-Samana, was accountable for the
supply of all the essential commodities to the royal palace.
Royal Karkhanas were also under the supervision of this
department. In order to maintain the proper checks over the
department, its annual account had to be scrutinised by the
department of Diwan.
Lastly, in the central department, Sadra-us-Sudra, which was a
religious department, existed. This department used to
distribute land grants and Wazifa (cash).
Provincial administration was supposed to be the replica of the
central administration. The standard provincial administration
was introduced for the first time by Akbar. In provincial
administration, Subedar/Nazim was appointed as the head of
administration. Apart from him, provincial Diwan, provincial
Bakshi and provincial Sudra were associated with the provincial
administration.
In order to maintain a proper check and balance even in provincial
administration, some steps were taken. In a province, the provincial
Diwan was a junior officer than the Subedar but some time on the
post of provincial Diwan an officer of higher rank was appointed
and so the proper check and balance could have been maintained.
Likewise, the provincial Bakshi was the head of the espionage
department as well so, he was having access to some sensitive
informations. He was authorized to pass such informations directly
to the central government while surpassing Subedar and a similar
officer.
At the level of Sarkar, an officer Faujdar, was appointed for the
supervision of the whole administration. At that level, we are
informed that sometimes more than one Faujdar was appointed to
tackle the special situation. Mughals could maintain the uniform
structure of administration at the local level as well, i.e. at the level
of Sarkar and that of Pargana.
 Mansabdari/ Jagirdari
The term Mansabdari/Jagirdari system worked as the steel
frame of Mughal Empire. Although, the system was analogous
to the decimal system of Chengiz Khan Akbar gave it a new
shape. He introduced this system in his 40-41st (1595-96)
regnal year.
The term Mansab denotes the post and through the Mansabdari
system Akbar tried to organize the aristocratic class, civil officer
and military officer into a single structure. Every officer was
given a dual-status i.e. Jat & Sawar rank. Jat denotes his civil
status, his ranking among officers, his personal salary etc. while
Sawar rank shows the military status of an officer i.e. the
number of cavalry men under him.
Abu Fazal mentioned about 66 grades of Mansabdars starting
from 10 Jat rank to 10,000 Jat rank but only 33 grades were
working grade.
On the basis of the Jat rank, one could classify Mansabdar in 3
categories. For example, the Mansabdar who was having a Jat rank
something between 10 and 500 was called Mansabdar. Those who
were having the Jat rank between 500 and 2500 were called Amir
and similarly, those who were having the Jat rank more than 2500
were called Amir-ul-Umda.
Likewise, even on the basis of the relationship between Jat and
Sawar rank, the status of a Mansabdar was decided. If a
Mansabdar was having equal Jat and Sawar rank then he belonged
to the Mansabdar of the first category. If the mansabdar’s Sawar
rank was half or more than half of the Jat rank, he belonged to the
second category. If Sawar rank was less than half of Jat rank, he
was in the third category.
Normally, the Sawar rank must not have been exceeded the Jat
rank. Only there were two exceptions, first one was the system
of Masrut Jagir (conditional Jagir) and the second one was the
‘Do Aspah se Aspah’ system.
The Jagirdari system was associated with Mansbdari.
Mansabdars were paid through cash and Jagir both. If
Mansbdar was of junior status then cash payment was preferred
and they were termed as Nagadi (Cash) Mansabdar. But big
Mansabdars were paid through Jagir and to posses a Jagir, it
was supposed to be prestigious in medieval society and termed
as Jagirdar.
 Jagir can be classified into different categories:-
1. Jagir-i-Tankhwah:- This Jagir was given by the state to a
Mansabdar after making a proper calculation of his Jat and
Sawar rank. A Mansabdar was given a Jagir yielding the income
of his salary per annum. The assessment of the income of a Jagir
was called Jamadami and the collection of that income was called
Hasildami.
2. Watan Jagir:- It was given to the Rajput nobles in perpetuity. It
means it wasn’t transferrable but it was given on a hereditary
basis.
3. Al-Tamaga Jagir:- This was introduced by Jahangir on the model
of the Watan Jagir. It was given to the Mansabdar in perpetuity.
4. Masrut Jagir:- It was a conditional Jagir and it was given to a
noble in order to fulfill some specific assignment and once this
assignment was fulfilled, this Jagir was taken back.
Reforms within the system under Jahangir and
Shahjahan:-
Jahangir introduced the system ‘Do Aspah se Aspah’. It means
without any increasement in the Jat rank the number of Sawars
could be increased by two times (do Aspah) and three times (se
Aspah).
Furthermore, Shahjahan introduced a new system that was
known as a monthly pay scale. Possibly he did so in order to
tackle the Jagirdari crisis. In other words, in course of time, the
mismatch appeared between the Jamadami and Hasildami, due
to which, the actual salary of the Mansabdars actually
decreased. So Mansabdars were concerned to demand extra
Jagir. That’s why Shahjahan started to give a fixed salary on the
monthly basis i.e. salary for 4, 6, 8 months etc., not for the year.
 Difference between Iqta system and Mansabdari
system:-
1. In the Mansabdari system, there was a better scope for
administrative centralisation. In fact, under the Iqta system, the
Muqti was offered the Jagir/Iqta first, and then their
responsibility as well as their salary was fixed. But under the
Mansabdari system, responsibility as well as salary were fixed
first then Mansabdars were provided a Jagir.

2. In the Iqta system, Muqti was given the administrative right as

well but under the Mansabdari system, there was no provision
for administrative rights.
 Agrarian and Jagirdari crisis:-
Satish Chandra has given the theory of the Jagirdari crisis in his
earlier text “Party and Politics at Mughal court and Jagirdari
crisis” which was composed in 1959 but be brought a slight
change in the theory in 1981.

Basic emphasis of this theory:-

1. When the Jagirdari system expanded into the less fertile region
of South India, it took the form of a crisis.
2. Due to entanglement in the south, the allocation of Jagirs was
done by Aurangzeb indiscriminately.
3. On the one hand, the number of Jagirdars was increasing, on
the other hand, the state was converting a large number of
Jagirs and Mahal-e-Paibaki into Khalisa land.
4. Due to the revolt of the Zamindars, many Jagirs were
transformed into 'Jor-e-Talab' Jagir. On the other hand, there
were some 'Sair-e-Hasil' (where recovery is easy) Jagirs, but the
policy of the state was to convert maximum number of ‘Sair-i-
Hasil’ Jagirs into Khalisa land.
5. Now rivalry started among the various nobles to approprate
remaining Sair-i-Hasil Jagir in their favour. This encouraged
factionalism in the Mughal court.
 Agrarian structure under Mughals

According to Sir Jadunath Sarkar, the category of Zamindars

were
1. Primary Zamindars
2. Secondary Zamindars
3. Autonomous Zamindars/ Kings / {Highest Status}
When we observe rural structure under Mughals, we find a
clear cut division and hierarchy among the peasantry. The
higher peasants who were owning their land and doing
cultivation on their own land were termed as ‘Khud Kasht’ in
North India, ‘Mirasdar’ in Maharashtra, ‘Gharhul’ in Rajasthan.
There were also lower peasants who were not having land and
they worked as share cropper on other’s field. They were termed
as ‘Pahikast’ in north India.
Beneath Pahikast, there was another level of the peasants who
were known as ‘Mujarian’. They were just marginal farmers as
they were having a small tract of land. So, they worked on others’
fields as agricultural labour also.
Other than Mujarian there was a larger band of agricultural
labour who worked as the wage labour in the agricultural field.
Above peasantry, there was a hierarchy of landlords (middle
men) who were associated with the collection of revenue. Under
Delhi Sultanate different names were given to the Zamindars in
different regions. For example, Khut and Muqaddam in north
India, Satrahavi and Viswi in Awadh and Banth in Rajasthan.
But during the Mughal period they were known through a single
name Zamindar. A modern scholar has divided Zamindars
during the Mughal period in different categories such as primary
Zamindar, Secondary zamindar and Autonomous kings.
Primary Zamindars, apart from being the collector of revenue,
were themselves, cultivators as well while the secondary
Zamindars were associated only with collection of revenue.
How did the Mughal state influence rural structure?
The Mughal Empire was in search of more and more resources so,
in comparison to other regime it tried to penetrate the countryside
more actively and efficiently.
Towards Zamindars, Akbar was having a very specific policy. The
autonomous Hindu kings should have been encouraged to join
Mughal Mansabdari. On the other hand, his policy to smaller
Zamindars was different. In fact, his emphasis was to convert
more and more Khidmati Zamindar into Kharaz giving Zamindar.
Increasing the movement of officers in rural areas, measurement
of land, and then determining land revenue accordingly, it
destroyed the seclusion of villages.
Mughal state encouraged the collection of revenue in cash. It
encouraged the production of cash crops in the rural areas.
Thus it created further differentiation among the peasantry.
Crafts production was encouraged during this period as there
was the expansion of internal and external trade. Due to the
heavy demand of craft production, merchants involved even
village handicrafts into the production of merchandise goods. It
gave a jolt to self-sufficient nature of village economy, popularly
known as Yajmani System.
 LAND REVENUE SYSTEM
Through a method of long trial and error, Akbar with the
support of a great expert Todermal could introduce a relatively
more efficient system known as Zabti system or Aain-i-
Dahshala. It was characterised as Todermal Bandobast as well.
It was introduced in 1582.
Sailent features of Aain-i-Dahshala:-
Measurement of land:- Earlier Shershah had made Bigha as
the basis of measurement, Akbar continued with this model.
Likewise, Shershah as a unit of measurement had introduced
Gaz-i-Sikandari. It was in the form of a Zarib i.e. a measuring
unit made up of rope. On the other hand, Akbar introduced a
new measuring unit Ilahi Gaz. It wasn’t a zarib rather it was an
iron chain. In this way, in measurement Akbar’s unit could give
more accuracy.
Classification of the land :- Shershah had made
productivity as the basis for the classification of land. On that
basis he divided the land in three categories i.e. good, middling
and bad. But even this system wasn’t a full-proof system as we
can find even such categories of land which was productive but
wasn’t fit for cultivation all the years. So, Akbar in order to
make the system more workable, preferred to classily the land
on the basis of the continuity of production first and on this
basis he divided the land in 4 categories i.e.-
Polaj- Two crops per year i.e. best quality of land
Parti - Cultivation for one year but after that the land was
left vacant for next year
Chachar - In such land production after 2-3 yeas
Banjar -Not fit for cultivation for 5 years
After classifying the land on the basis of continuity of
production, Akbar classified it further on the basis of
production as well i.e. good, middling and bad. So, he tried to
adopt a more scientific approach in classification of land.
Fixation of Land Revenue:- At the time of Shershah, state’s
share was 1/3rd of the total production. Even under Akbar, the
same rate continued. Although, under both the rulers, middle
man was checked but allowed to take their share. So, in actual
sense the peasants had to pay a larger share. Then for the
assessment of the land revenue Shershah devised a method in
which there was a provision of assessment of production of 1
year in a village. But Akbar realised that the assessment of 1
year couldn’t give a true picture of the production so he tried to
make some improvement and average production of 10 years
was made the basis for the assessment of land revenue.
Commutation of kind into cash:- The peasants were given
the choice to pay the amount of land revenue in kind or in cash
both. But the state always preferred cash. The state encouraged
to pay in cash because the state needed to develop a scientific
method for commutation from kind into cash.
Earlier Sher Shah had fixed a rate chart (Ray) but it was based
on the prevailing prices of different agrarian products around
the capital for cash revenue assessment, whereas in remote
areas, the price of grains was not so high. Therefore farmers
had to bear the loss.
To overcome this weakness, Akbar divided the different regions
into separate Dastur (where cereals had the same price). Not
only this, he fixed the rate of the state by taking the average
price of 10 years in each Dastur.
 Land Revenue Administration
Akbar tried to make land revenue administration a bit more
efficient. The land revenue officers were given Dastoor-ul-Amal
as a code of conduct. Likewise, an officer Amal Guzar (Sarkar
level) was supposed to be the friend of peasants and they had to
work for the promotion of agriculture.
 Nobility under Mughals
Under Babur and Humayun aristocratic class was having
Chagtai character. As the Mughal emperors used to make a
claim for their high pedigree so did even the Mughal
aristocratic class.
Obviously Mughal emperors Babur and Humayun had to face
difficulty from Mughal nobles. Even Akbar had to face the
challenges during the earlier phase of his rule due to the revolts
of Mirza and Uzbeks.
So Akbar took drastic steps to remove such hurdles in future.
In fact, Akbar’s steps were not as novish as we find in the case
of Sultan like Alauddin Khilji and MBT. Both the Sultans had
tried to discipline the nobility class through crushing their
power but they got only partial success.
Akbar on the other hand ,brought the long-lasting solution. In fact,
he changed the Chagatai character of the aristocratic class as it
opened the doors of Mughal nobility for Hindu Kings as well. He
introduced Rajputs in Mughal Manasbdari on big scale. In this
way, the monopoly of Chagatai model could have been removed.
Jahangir continued the policy of Akbar in this regard. Apart from
that, he started to induct even Afghan nobles into Mughal
Mansabdari. So, he broadened the social base of Mughal
mansbdari further.
After him, Shahjahan also adopted a new step when he started
inducting Marathas into bureaucracy. Later under Aurangzeb the
requirement of Maratha nobles into Mughal mansabdari increased
further, as he was involved into that Deccani question.
In this way, Mughal aristocracy underwent a gradual change from
the beginning up to the period of Akbar and afterwards, it is
assumed a truly Indian character.
Agrarian Economy:-
Under the Mughal empire, agrarian productions were in better
condition. India was among selected countries in the world
where the larger part of cultivable land was available.
Furthermore, due to a wide range of climatic conditions as well
as the availability of the different quality of soil, there was a
scope for different crops. Abul Fazl in his Aain-e-Akbari
presented a long list of crops.
During the Mughal period as a cash crop Opium, Indigo, Cotton
and Sugarcane were important items. Then in the beginning of
the 17th century, the Portuguese introduced Tobacco in India.
Up to the end of the 17th century, its production expanded.
It was in the 17th century itself even maize was introduced in
India. Tobacco and maize were such items that had been
introduced from the new world (America).
Even the production of coffee stared in India. Likewise, silk
production was an important item in Bengal, Assam, Kashmir, and
western India. Bengal was definitely the main centre of production
where the production started from the 15th century onwards.
Up to the 18th century, even some new cash crops like red chili and
potatoes were introduced. Apart from that, several fruits were also
introduced e.g. pineapple, cashew nut, papaya.
At that time, for irrigation different methods were in use e.g. Sakia
(Persian wheel) was already in use, drawing water from well i.e.
lever system. Furthermore, for irrigation, even canals were built.
Shahjahan was given the credit for building some canals. The state
used to give economic assistance to the peasantry for digging wells.
Furthermore, the state was interested in developing the barren land
through the resettlement of the peasantry in that region. For
example, a royal Farman from Aurangzeb in the name of Rasik Das
shows that the state was concerned for the development of the land.
 Craft and Industries
Under Mughals, the craft and industries were highly flourishing
and some of them could produce even world-class products. In
clothes production, India assumed a very significant place in
the world. In the field of cotton, it was unparallel. Bengal and
western India were an important point for cotton cloth
production. Although, today it seems unbelievable during the
beginning of the 18th century, India had control over 25% of the
world’s cotton market.
Similarly, in silk production, India occupied a vast position.
According to contemporary sources, Kashmir was an important
centre for silk production. Banaras was also famous for silk
production. Above all, from 17th century Bengal was a larger
supplier of silk products. In the 17th century, two specific things
were to be underlined-
1. In North India, Agra, Lahore, Fatehpur Sikri emerged to be an
important centre for the production of carpet.
2. In India, Apart from the production of silk, even silk items were
produced in larger quantities.
Apart from the production of different types of clothes, this period
was known for the promotion of carving work (embroidery) as well
on clothes.
Quite surprisingly, in certain field artisans were producing world-
class product. But our productions were organised from the level of
village handicrafts to town Kharkhanas, but the technology was at
the primary level. Artisans were organised into guilds. A foreign
visitor, Paelsart, mentioned that nearly one hundred specialised
guilds were working in the production of cloth. After the advent of
the British and Dutch companies, the demand for cloth was
certainly intensified. Then in the production of clothes, a new
system was introduced and this system was known as Dadni system.
 Trade and Commerce
Internal trade-
1. Better law and order condition under Mughals.
2. Better facility for transport and communication e.g. Shershah
developed four Grand Trunk Roads.
3. Rulers like Jahangir provided the special facility to merchants
and ensured the safety of their merchandize goods and safety
even after the death of merchants.
4. Sher Shah issued standardised silver and copper currency in the
form of Rupiya and Dam.
5. During this period, even banking and insurance developed.
Sarraf used to issue Hundi which a merchant could encash after
payment of some charge. For example, we come to know in
Ahmadabad almost all the purchasing was made through
Hundi.
Merchandise goods in internal trade:-
There were several production centres in India and there was
an exchange of products from one to another centre. For
example, Bengal supplied rice and sugar to Delhi, likewise,
Coromandal coast was linked to Deccan and Gujarat coast and
it was supplying clothes. In internal trade clothes as well as
agrarian products were the important items for exchange.
External trade:-
Earlier, it was supposed that Mughal came from the central
Asian region, so they weren’t having an interest in trade and
commerce. But now such a view has been rejected. Now, it is
believed that the central Asian region was an steppes region
marked by grassland, so not fit for agriculture. Therefore,
naturally, the people in the region were attracted to trade and
commerce.
 As about Mughal Emperor, we can say that Mughal emperor and
princes all were interested in trade and commerce on personal level.
It is said that some of the members of royal house were maintaining
their own ship with the purpose of securing their personal income.
For example, Dara Sukoh, Jahan Ara Begum, Aurangzeb, Mughal
nobles Mir Zumla, were all maintaining their personal ship.
Two major factors contributed to the intensification of the
external trade at that time:-
1. There was the development of a wide trade network from America in
West to China and South-East Asia in East. In one sense it was the
manifestation of the earliest phase of the global economy in which
Chinese and Indian economies played a very significant role.
Furthermore, there was the existence of some major empire like
Ottoman Empire in Eastern Europe, Safavid Empire in West Asia,
Ming Empire in China and Mughal Empire in India, all these empires
created a better law and order condition in their respective regions.
2. In the 17th century, the advent of European companies like
Dutch and British company made a major contribution to
international trade. They gave a major boost to the
international trade characterised as a trade revolution in the
17th century.

Mercantile Goods:-
So far as mercantile goods were concerned, we can underline a
change in its composition from the 16th century to the 17th
century. For example, up to the first half of the 17th century, the
major exportable item from India was spices and importable
item was horses, but during the second half of the 17th century,
the major exportable item was cotton and importable item was
silver.
 Urbanisation
All European travellers from Ralph Fitch to Bernier have mentioned
about flourishing towns of Delhi, Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. Then a
contemporary scholar Nizamuddin Ahmad has presented a list of 120
towns and 3200 Kasbas.
A number of factors made a contribution to the process of
urbanization at that time-
The capital as well as provincial headquarters, which were the centre
of important administrative activities, were established as flourishing
towns e.g. Delhi and Agra.
Even the capital of regional rulers like Bijapur, Golkonda and Ahmad
Nagar developed as flourishing towns.
The Mughal government encouraged the monetization of the
economy as it continued to collect revenue in cash. So, peasants were
compelled to sell their agrarian products nearby their village. So, the
villages developed as Kasba and later into towns.
Mughal Empire continued to distribute Madad-i-Mas or
Sayurgal to a number of Muslim scholars. Later, some towns
based on the Muslim population evolved there.
The Mughal nobles also took interest in the foundation of new
towns. For example, some nobles like Diler Khan under Shah
Jahan led the foundation of a town.
Some towns developed due to some specific products in the
region. For example, Bayana developed as a town due to indigo
production, while Khairagarh came into existence due to cotton
products.
So in comparison to Delhi Sultanate, urbanization progressed
under Mughals but growing urbanization shouldn't be taken as
the symbol of prosperity of common people. In fact, the
condition of the common people remained to be more or less
the same.
Ques:- Medieval towns were simply an extension of
village. Make comments over the statement.
The above statement implies that during the medieval period
towns were the centre of consumption rather than the centre of
production. The towns survived through exploiting the
resources from villages. Villages supplied grains and raw
materials to towns without reciprocity.
The village used to supply materials continuously to the town
but in return, it got virtually nothing. Apart from that, even this
point has been emphasized that towns during medieval age
were the centre for the administrative activities but not for the
production activities.
But it is very difficult to accept the view mentioned above. In
fact, such a statement could be applied for certain towns but not
to all the towns.
For example, there were certain towns which were known for
some specific type of production as well. Towns like Lahore and
Fatehpur Sikri apart from being the centre of political activities;
they were known for the production of superb quality of carpet.
Furthermore, mercantile activities also contributed to the
prosperity of certain towns. Therefore, it is not appropriate to
accept that medieval towns were merely the extension of
villages.
Mughal Karkhanas:-
Literally, Karkhanas meant a production centre where the
common people used to organise craft production on massive
scale. But during the Mughal period, the term Karkhana was
having a different connotation. During this period, in such
Karkhanas the production was carried out to fulfill the
requirement of royal necessities. It was associated with not
simply the production of products but even with royal cavalry,
elephant, and other means of transportation as well.
Scholars like K. M. Ashraf held that Mughal karkhana was
based on Persian model but on the basis of the new research, it
was emphasised that such Karkhanas had existed even under
Indian rulers like Mauryas, Alauddin Khilji, FST etc. We are
informed that under FST 36 Karkhanas existed and in these
Karkhanas nearly 12000 slaves were employed.
During the Mughal period, such karkhanas were known as
Bayutat and it was under an officer Diwan-i-Bayutat. But the
highest officer associated with this Karkhana was Mir-i-Sama
who was accountable for all sorts of royal supply.
Main resion behind the establishment of such Karkhana was
the dearth of an alternative source for making Royal supply. In
other words, the royal palace and nobles were in need of better
quality of products. Such products were not available in the
market. The quality products in such a large quantity were not
available. Only Royal Karkhana produced the quality products
and higher volume of production both.
In order to run such Royal Karkhana, skilled labours and
artisans were needed, so the state was in regular search of
skilled workers and artisans who could have been inducted into
Karkhanas.
Royal Karkhanas could maintain the highest standard in quality
production. So, naturally, such products became a template
even for the common artisans. Consequently, it could create a
natural competition in the market for the production of quality
products. In this way, Mughal Karkhana could emerge to be the
model of quality production during this period.
Mughal approach towards Science and Technology
During the Mughal period Islamic world as a whole lost its earliest
fervour for scientific ideas and technology. In fact, at the time of
the advent of Turks in India, due to the spread of liberal and
rational ideas, the Islamic world was on the path of progress.
But in the 12th century, the arrival of a saint Al Gazzali proved a
game-changer. He rather undermined the tradition of Mutazil
(rationalism) in Islam and instead he tried to revive the faith. It
obviously proved a major setback to scientific ideas.
So during Mughal period, although some kings and nobles were
attracted to science and technology on the basis of their personal
inclination it couldn't become the temperament of the age. For
example, Akbar was having a personal inclination towards
technology. It is on this basis Irfan Habib has compared Akbar
with Russian Monarch Peter the Great, as both the rulers were
having a deep penchant for new technology.
Akbar encouraged the flintlock technique in making guns and
cannons in Royal Karkhanas. Apart from that, he is supposed to
have invented such a bullock cart which apart from carrying
goods could grind grains as well. Furthermore, he is said to have
invented such a gun that could fire 17 cartridges at a single click
of a trigger.
Apart from that, some Mughal nobles were having an inclination
towards science and technology. For example, Bernier informs us
that Mughal noble, Danishmand Khan, was familiar with the
theory of the circulation of blood.
Likewise, Abu Fazl was familiar with the new world, America.
Furthermore, Akbar was highly impressed with the knowledge of
a Mughal noble, Mir Fattulah Siraji. About him, once he made a
statement that if firangi (foreigners) would kidnap him, in return
they will demand from me the whole of my treasury, I will submit
it.
He further told that even if the all old basis of knowledge would
be destroyed then this man could create a new basis for
knowledge.
But unfortunately, the personal inclination of Akbar and some
of his nobles towards science and technology couldn't become
the interest of the age. That's why India lags behind Europe in
this field and later it had to pay a lot for that.
 Decline of Mughal Empire
Mughal Empire remained to be unparallel in its geographical
reach, political stature and grandeur during the medieval
period. So, naturally, its decline attracted a larger number of
scholars who tried to interpret its decline in their own
respective manner. So, the decline of the Mughal Empire
became one of the most complex and controversial issue in
Indian history.
Some earlier scholars like Irwin and Jadunath Sarkar tried to
explain the decline in the context of the role of the personality
i.e. Aurangzeb’s orthodox policy and reactions against it.
While some scholars focused on the incompetency of later
Mughal rulers, irresponsibility and characterless of Mughal
aristocracy as the factor behind the decline of the Mughal
Empire. But in course of time, such views lost their lusture.
But from 1950 onwards, the debate about the decline of the
Mughal Empire came to hover around institutional factors. It
was in this context, Satish Chandra and Irfan Habib presented
the theory of Jagirdari crisis and Agrarian crisis respectively.
Then Professor Noorul Hasan gave focus over zamindars under
Mughals. Even Athar Ali made a study of Jagirdari system under
Mughals.
Normally the Aligarh School of Historiography had talked in
term of crisis for the decline of the Mughal Empire. Later in the
1970s, some scholars like M.N. Pearson, P. Hardy and J.F.
Frederick, etc. gave a partial challenge to the view of Aligarh
scholars and they started to talk in terms of Mughal involvement
in Deccan as the important factor behind the decline. But even
these scholars couldn't modify the view of the crisis and the
whole process of decline continued to be discussed in the terms
of the crisis itself.
But later in the study of the decline of the Mughal Empire, there
was the rise of the revisionist historiography. It tried to give a
serious challenge to the view of crisis rather it started to talk
about economic prosperity at the regional level.
For that, a region-centric view was adopted in the study of the
decline of the Mughal Empire. Muzaffar Alam, Chetan Singh,
Karen Leonard, Sanjay Subrahmanyan, etc. adopted a new
paradigm for the study of decline of the Mughal Empire. Now it
has been emphasised that during the early 18th century there
was the rise of certain prosperous economic regions like
Bareilly, Awadh, Bengal, etc.
Two factors made the contribution to economic prosperity at
regional level. One factor was the influx of silver due to
European trade and the second one factor was the production of
cash crops.
So, according to some scholars, different regions always felt the
pressure from the Mughal Empire and it was compelled to submit a
major part of the surplus to the centre. So, they started to think in
terms of separation from the Empire.
In fact, the economic prosperity of the regional level promoted local
patriarchy to think in terms of separation so that the available
surplus in the region could have been appropriated by them without
giving a share to the Mughal Empire. In fact, at the local level, there
was a polarisation of the interest of subedar, local Jagirdar and
Madad-i-Mash-holder against the central government.
Consequently, the empire started to collapse and provincial states
like Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad, etc. came into existence.
In this way, we can underline conflicting views in the interpretation
of the decline of the Mughal Empire. When we observe minutely all
the views mentioned above, we find that it will be too simplistic to
rely on any single view.
 In fact, the Mughal Empire had remained to be one of the largest
empires in India having its reach to a major part in the Indian
subcontinent. Likewise, it had to face a number of internal as
well as external challenges. Therefore, its decline might have
been caused by a complex process, not by a single one.
In some region, the disruption in Jagirdari and agrarian system
might be a cause and in some other regions, the economic
prosperity might have encouraged separation and once the
process of the dismemberment started, incompetent rulers
could have intensified the process of dismemberment through
adopting fallacious policy. Simultaneously, the foreign invasion
also added further fuel to the fire.
Question :- How far do you agree with the view that the
decline of Mughal Empire was caused due to the Jagirdari
and agrarian crisis?
 18th Century Controversy
Traditionally, the 18th century was divided into two parts i.e.
first half and second half. Then in course of their evaluation,
both were juxtaposed with each other. The first half of the 18th
century was characterized as the ‘Dark age’ or the age of crisis
and the second half was projected as a progressive age which
was associated with Plassey Revolution. But in the light of new
historiography, such view has been rejected.

Concept of the Dark age or the Age of Crisis:-

It was a British oppologist scholar, Jadunath Sarkar, who
preferred to call the first half of the 18th century as a dark age.
Then Aligarh school of historians called this period the age of
crisis i.e. Jagirdari crisis, Agrarian crisis, etc.
 The rational behind the concept of Dark Age:-
1. Political Decline:- This period was marked by the collapse of
the Mughal Empire and the rise of regional states. Sir Jadunath
Sarkar had presented his logic that there was complete political
anarchy due to the regional revolts and the Maratha raids.
2. Economic: - This period was marked even by the economic
crisis.

Why had this view been rejected?

In the light of new historiography supported by Muzaffar Alam,
Chetan Singh, Sanjay Subramanyam, P. J. Marshal, etc. as well
as recently by Satish Chandra, the following points had been
highlighted -
1. Rise of efficient successor states-
During the first half of the 18th century, the decline of Mughal
Empire was one factor that had been too much highlighted but
there was another factor as well which had almost been
neglected. This factor was the rise of efficient successor states
like Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad, etc. These regional states
established an efficient administrative structure in their
respective regions. So, there was no question of the political
collapse or anarchy which had earlier been highlighted.
2. Not economic decline rather economic prosperity -
On the basis of the new research, it has almost been proved that
during this period two factors made a contribution to economic
prosperity i.e. influx of silver and the introduction of cash crops
on a larger scale. So, this period was marked by the presence of
certain prosperous economic pockets.
3. Above all, this period was marked by great cultural upsurge.
Although Mughal Empire disintegrated there was a wide
expansion of Mughal culture at the regional level i.e. Mughal
paintings, architecture, music, etc. They were patronised by
regional courts. So, even after the decline of Mughal Empire ,
Mughal culture flourished.
4. Thus, in light of the above-mentioned factors, we can say that
the first half of the 18th century shouldn't be termed as the
Dark Age or age of crisis rather this period was impregnated
with new potentialities.
Second half as the Age of Revolution:-
This view has been promoted by a British apologist scholar, Sir
Jadunath Sarkar. He characterized the Battle of Plassey as the
Plassey Revolution. He believes that the conquest at Plassey
heralded the process of modernization in India. So, he
declared, with the Battle of Plassey the medieval age ended and
modern age started.

In fact, the British apologist scholar characterized the first half

of the 18th century as dark age so that it would be easy for them
to highlight the success of British rule after the Battle of
Plassey. But this view has totally been rejected by Indian
scholars on following grounds-
1. After the Battle of Plassey, during almost whole of the 18th
century the company government did not take any concrete
step to modernise India. Up to the end of the 18th century, the
company government maintained almost all the old Mughal
structure and the government with limited modifications.
During this period, their main objective in India was simply to
maximize the collection of revenue.

2. According to Satish Chandra, the whole 18th century should be

viewed in continuation without dividing it within the first and
second half.
 Rise of Maratha Power
Like Rajputs, Marathas also belonged to the landed aristocratic
class. They were the local landlords but Rajputs could form states
up to 8th century while Marathas up to 17th century only.
In fact, the rise of Maratha power was the product of a complex
process-
Geographical Factor:-
Geographically, the region was much naturally protected. It was
encircled by some important hills i.e. Vindhya, Sahyadri, and
Satpura. So, it was tough for an organized army to reach there.
Apart from that, from an agrarian point of view, the region was
less fertile. Moreover, it wasn’t developed even from viewpoint of
craft and trade. So, living condition was difficult in this region. It
inculcated in the people living in the region uncommon fighting
sprit.
The social basis for the Rise of Marathas:-
Earlier the rise of Marathas was taken as a Hindu reaction to
the orthodox religious policy of Aurangzeb, but later, research
had amply shows that the religious factor was almost an
insignificant factor as the process of Maratha’s rise already
started during the period of Shahjahan himself earlier than
Aurangzeb.
So now the main catalyst behind this rise can be
explored in social factors-
Maharashtra Dharma gave a common cultural identity to Marathas.
Although the caste system wasn’t openly rejected, it was at least
undermined. So, there was a better opportunity for upward social
mobilization of the lower caste people. Shivaji benefited from the
situation. He inducted the lower caste people like Mawale, Kunbi
and Koli into his army. In this way he strenghthened his position.
In the Maratha region, there were a large number of
Deshmukhs (landlords) and some of them were even making a
claim of superiority even to Shivaji. Furthermore, under the
Bijapuri rule, these Deshmukhs had enjoyed a lot of power and
privileges. So, they weren’t ready to submit before Shivaji. Later
Shivaji decided to deal with them very tactfully. He won smaller
Deshmukhs to his side and started to play them against bigger
Deshmukhs. Then with the support of smaller Deshmukhs,
Shivaji subdued them.
Not simply that, Shivaji adopted two pronged strategies to deal
with influential Deshmukh. On the one hand, he continued to
fight against them, and on the other hand, he preferred to
develop matrimonial relations with some big Deshmukh
families so that his own social position would have been
exalted.
 Political factor: -
The continuous conflict between the Mughal Empire and Deccani
states was going on. Maratha made benefit from the situation and
consolidated their own position in Deccan.
Pragmatic approach and effective strategy by Shivaji:-
1. Shivaji preferred to induct even lower caste people into the army.
2. According to the specific geographical position of the Maratha
region, he preferred Gurilla tactics of warfare.
3. In his region, there wasn't a big town like Hyderabad, Ahmed
Nagar, etc. So, Shivaji preferred to maintain powerful forts as a
substitute.
Ques:- Apart from the builder of Maratha state, Shivaji
was the organizer of civil institutions as well. Examine the
statement.
Ques- Due to its geographical and diplomatic limitations,
Maratha fell to create an empire.
Military Success: -

Shivaji started his career from Jagirdar of Poona and

strengthened his position through expanding in the region of
Konkan, Tonn and Raigarh.
In 1656, he defeated another powerful Maratha Sardar,
Chandra Rao Mode and captured Javali.
In 1657, he benefitted from the situation of conflict between
Mughals and Deccani states.
Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb, remained busy while tackling the
situation in North India, Shivaji expanded in South.
In 1660, Aurangzeb sent Saista Khan as a Subedar of Deccan
with special objective to subdue Shivaji but he did not get
success.
In 1665, Mirza Raja Jay Singh was sent on the special mission
on subduing Shivaji. Then Shivaji was compelled to come to the
negotiating table. Then in June, 1665 a treaty was signed but it
could not last longer.
In 1674, Shivaji could successfully perform his coronation. It
benefitted him in following ways-
(a) He could negotiate a treaty with the Deccani state on equal
footing.
(b) No other Deshmukh could make a claim of equality with
Shivaji.
 Administration

Swarajya Region Mughatai Region

Under direct control Chauth

Administration based on Deccani Model One-fourth of total
coupled with certain Mughal influence revenue
Sardeshmukhi
Chhatrapati (King) 10% of total revenue

Ashta Pradhan
(Eight Ministers)
THE STUDY [email protected]
BY MANIKANT SINGH MOB: 9999516388
 Ashta Pradhan
(Eight Ministers)
Peshwa (Prime Minister)
Amatya or Mazumdar (Finance Minister)
Sachiv or Surnavis (Royal correspondence)
Mantri or Wakyanavis (Internal or court Affairs)
Dabir or Sumant (External Affairs)
Pandit Rao or Danadhyaksha (Religious advisor)
Nyayadhish (Judge)
Sar-i-Naubat (Military commander)

THE STUDY [email protected]

BY MANIKANT SINGH MOB: 9999516388
 Division of the Region

Centre

Suba Subadar or Mamlatdar

Pargana Mamlatdar and Kamvishdar/Deshmukh and Deshpandey

Village Patel and Kulkarni

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BY MANIKANT SINGH MOB: 9999516388
Land Revenue System: -

Having influenced by the model of Malik Amber, he carried

land measurement –
Twenty Kathi – One Bigha
A hundred twenty Bigha – One Chawar
He tried to put a check over Mokasha or Saranjami but he did
not try to remove them. Likewise, he preferred to regulate
Zamindars but not abolished them.
Maratha After Shivaji: -
Shahu was released from Mughal captivity in 1707 and with the
support of Balaji Vishwanath, he could overpower the rival faction
of Tarabai. Then he captured Satara and Panhala, the two
important centre for Maratha state. On the other hand, Tarabai
along with Shivaji II shifted to Kolhapur, another shit of power in
Maharashtra.
A great feat for Shahu was a treaty between Balaji Vishwanath and
Hussain Ali (1719). This treaty authorised Shahu to have
possession of the Swarajya region of Shivaji and also to collect
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from six subahs of Deccan.
Then Balaji Vishwanath divided the right to collect Chauth and
Sardeshmukhi among different Maratha Sardars (nobles). It
benefitted Shahu in that Maratha sardars rallied behind Shahu
while deserting Tarabai. But its negative impact was the feudalism
of the Maratha administration outside the Maratha region.
In 1720, as Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath was succeeded by a young
Peshwa Bajirao I (1720-40). It was during this period when even
Nizam came to South India, so a contest between Bajirao I and
Nizam started. Baji Rao I defeated Nizam in the battle of Palkhed in
1728.
Baji Rao I gave the slogan of ‘Hindu Padpadshahi’ and organised an
expedition to North India. He decided to fill up the vacuum created
due to the decline of the Mughal Empire and also to mobilize extra
resources to North.
His successor Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61) carried his policy of
northward expansion but simultaneously, he maintained his pressure
even over the region of South India. But in practice, the Maratha
confederacy started to eat away the vitality of the Maratha empire.
Factionalism became a common feature. Balaji Baji Rao virtually
turned to be financially dependent on some ambitious Maratha
nobles like Malhar Rao Holkar and Raghunath Rao who were
carrying raids in North India.
But it was during this period Marathas were intricated in
courtly factional politics in Delhi and then they had to face a
formidable rival party Afghans under Ahmad Shah Abdali who
also made their presence in North India.
Due to their short-sighted policy, Marathas virtually deserted
all the parties in North so, virtually went in the battle of Panipat
all alone.
It is a well-known statement that the battle of Panipat did not
decide who is going to rule India but rather it decided who is
not going to rule India.
Maratha After Shivaji: -
Shahu was released from Mughal captivity in 1707 and with the
support of Balaji Vishwanath, he could overpower the rival faction
of Tarabai. Then he captured Satara and Panhala, the two important
centre for Maratha state. On the other hand, Tarabai along with
Shivaji II shifted to Kolhapur, another shit of power in Maharashtra.
A great feat for Shahu was a treaty between Balaji Vishwanath and
Hussain Ali (1719). This treaty authorised Shahu to have possession
of the Swarajya region of Shivaji and also to collect Chauth and
Sardeshmukhi from six subahs of Deccan.
Then Balaji Vishwanath divided the right to collect Chauth and
Sardeshmukhi among different Maratha Sardars (nobles). It
benefitted Shahu in that Maratha sardars rallied behind Shahu
while deserting Tarabai. But its negative impact was the
feudalisation of the Maratha administration outside the Maratha
region.
In 1720, as Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath was succeeded by a young
Peshwa Bajirao I (1720-40). It was during this period when even
Nizam came to South India, so a contest between Bajirao I and
Nizam started. Baji Rao I defeated Nizam in the battle of Palkhed in
1728.
Baji Rao I gave the slogan of ‘Hindu Padpadshahi’ and organised an
expedition to North India. He decided to fill up the vacuum created
due to the decline of the Mughal Empire and also to mobilize extra
resources to North.
His successor Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61) carried his policy of
northward expansion but simultaneously, he maintained his pressure
even over the region of South India. But in practice, the Maratha
confederacy started to eat away the vitality of the Maratha empire.
Factionalism became a common feature. Balaji Baji Rao virtually
turned to be financially dependent on some ambitious Maratha
nobles like Malhar Rao Holkar and Raghunath Rao who were
carrying raids in North India.
But it was during this period Marathas were intricated in
courtly factional politics in Delhi and then they had to face a
formidable rival party Afghans under Ahmad Shah Abdali who
also made their presence in North India.
Due to their short-sighted policy, Marathas virtually deserted
all the parties in North so, virtually went in the battle of Panipat
all alone.
It is a well-known statement that the battle of Panipat did not
decide who is going to rule India but rather it decided who is
not going to rule India.
 Change in administrative structure under Peshwa:-
1. Among the members of Ashta Pradhan, a new officer,
Pratinidhi, was inducted.
2. The post of officers became hereditary.
3. The system of land-measurement was virtually discarded and
Izara system (collection of revenue through auction) was
introduced.
 Sikh Sect (Khalsa Sect)
Guru Nanak established a religious community based on a
democratic and egalitarian value system. It is known as Sikh
Sect. Guru Nanak attacked on the religious rituals, social
divisions and superstitions. He influenced the contemporary
society more than Kabir, Ravidas, and other Nirguna saints.
Guru Nanak chose his disciple, Angad, as his successor in place
of his son. Thus the importance of Guru and disciple
established in Sikhism.
It further played an important role in the development of
Sikhism. Guru Angad compiled the teachings of Guru Nanak in
the Gurumukhi script. Guru Angad was succeeded by Guru
Amardas and Guru Amardas was succeeded by Guru Ramdas.
Guru Ramdas constructed a lake. It was named Amritsar.
Further a city was built in the name of this lake.
Guru Ramdas made the post of Guru hereditary. Guru Ram Das
was succeeded by his son Guru Arjan Dev. Guru Arjan Dev
established Harminder sahib in Amritsar. He compiled
Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Granth Sahib was different from
the tradition of Veda and Brahmin texts. This gave the Sikh sect
a distinct identity.
The Sikh Sect, inspired by the ideal of equality and social
equalitarianism, emerged as a challenge against the
contemporary social and political order based on feudal values.
It was the period of Guru Arjan Dev when the first time Sikh
Guru clashed with the Mughal emperor.
The Mughal emperor Jahangir certainly took a short-sighted
step when he gave capital punishment to Guru Arjan Dev. This
resulted in a peaceful community turning into a military force.
Guru Hargobind militarized the Sikhs. He simultaneously held
two swords. One sword was a symbol of spiritual power and the
other was of worldly power. He built a Akal Takht in front of
Harminder Sahib. Sitting on it, he used to take political
decisions. Thus the Sikh community began to shift their
orientation from the religious activities to the military activities.
After Guru Hargobind, there was no special event in the era of
Guru Har rai and Guru Harkishan, but the ninth Guru, Guru
Tegh Bahadur, had to face wrath of the Mughal Emperor once
again. The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb martyred him.
Thus Guru Gobind Singh, the successor of Guru Tegh Bahadur,
started organizing the Sikhs as a political power. In 1699 AD,
Guru Gobind Singh laid the foundation of the Khalsa Sect.
Under this, some formalities and rituals were incorporated.
For example, throwing water with a sword, which was called
Pahul and then assuming the Panchakakar (kesh,
kachcha, Kripan, kangha, kada) by the Sikhs. It
symbolically meant the complete surrender of each Sikh to
protect the Sikh Sect.
Guru Gobind Singh gave special importance to Guru Granth
Sahib and Khalsa Sect and declared Guru Granth Sahib as his
successor. Khalsa has now become the centre of the Sikh Sect and
membership of the Khalsa has become an essential condition of
this cult. The Sangat Sabha established at the regional level got
banned and the spread of the Khalsa Sect increased rapidly.
The Khalsa was founded to protect against religious persecution,
but soon began to tilt towards political organization. Then
further the establishment of the Sikh state under Ranjit Singh
was a victory for the ideal of the Khalsa.
 Ahom State
The Ahom states belonged to the great Thai family in Southeast
Asia. Sukhpa, a member of this family, left the native place due to
a family dispute and traveled to the west.
In fact, Ahom moved towards the Brahmaputra valley from
present-day Myanmar in the 13th century and conquered it. He
established the state by suppressing the regional landlord
Bhuyan. In the 16th century, Ahoms defeated regional powers
such as Chutis and Koch Haijo and captured their territories. The
credit for this success goes to a Ahom ruler Shuhungmung who
assumed the title like Swargnarayan.
Originally, the Ahoms were worshipers of tribal deities, but the
influence of Brahmins increased in the first half of the
seventeenth century. A large number of grants were given to
Brahmins and temples both by the king.
Hinduism emerged as an important religion in the Ahom kingdom
during the era of Shiv Singh in the 18th century, but despite
adopting Hinduism, the Ahom rulers did not abandon their
traditional religion.
The administrative and economic structure of the Ahom
state was to a large extent driven by regional conditions. The forced
labor was organized by the Ahom state in the production. Those
who were engaged in forced labor by the state were called Pike.
The census was also conducted by the state. People were used to
transfer from the densely populated area to the less populated area
by the state. By the first half of the 17th century, the administrative
structure had become largely centralized.
Almost all the young men used to give service in the army at the
time of the war. The rest of the times, he was involved in the
construction of dams, development of irrigation, and other public
works.
The Ahom society was divided into clans, which were called
Khel. One Khel used to control many villages. Farmers were given
land by the rural community. Ahom society was an advanced and
developing society.
Scholars and poets had state patronage under the Ahoms.
Theatrical arts were also encouraged by the state. During this
period, some important Sanskrit texts were translated into the
native language. Similarly, the historical text, known as Burunji,
was composed first in Ahom language and then in Assamese
language.
Mughal-Ahom conflict
The Mughal-Ahom conflict is an interesting episode in the history
of medieval India. Despite being a regional power, the Ahoms
fiercely fought with the Mughal power. The Mughals could achieve
success against Ahom only after a long time, but this success also
proved to be temporary.
The Ahoms came face to face with Mughal power after the
Mughals captured Kamarupa. The main reason for the conflict
between the Mughals and the Ahoms was the border dispute
and trade relations. The direct military conflict between the
Mughals and Ahoms occurred during Jahangir's reign in 1616,
when the governor of Bengal, Kasim Khan, sent an army against
the Ahoms.
In fact, the powerful Mughals, who had subjugated almost the
whole of India, hoped that a small state like Ahom would be
conquered easily, but it didn't happen. In the first attack itself,
the Mughals suffered a shock. Even beyond this, the Ahoms
continued to fail every attempt of Mughal imperialism. Ahom
ruler Pratap Singh continued the resistance.
Then, a treaty was signed between the two in 1639. According to
this treaty, a boundary was setup between the two. But this did
not prove to be a long-lasting peace. In 1662, Mir Jumla, an
important Mughal General and possibly Asia's most aggressive
military officer, invaded Ahom. Ahom was defeated by Mir
Jumla but the victory of Mir Jumla could not bring any final
result.
Then soon in 1663 Mir Jumla died. After Mir Jumla,
Aurangzeb's most trusted military officer, Raja Ram Singh, was
defeated and returned back. Thus no clear result of the Mughal-
Ahom conflict came to light.
 Mughal Culture
Development of literature under the Mughals
From the viewpoint of the development of art and literature,
Mughal period is supposed to have attained classical excellence.
This period appeared to be unparallel from the viewpoint of the
development of Persian and indigenous literature.
1. Under Mughals, the resources could be mobilized in a vast
region. In comperision to the Sultans of Delhi, Mughal Emperor
could achieve a lot in the field of literature and they patronised
a large number of scholars from all language groups.
2. Mughal Emperors preferred to get the courtly proceedings and
events recorded. So, Persian history-writing progressed in
Mughal court.
 Akbar's court - Abul Fazl, Fazi, Sarhindi and
Nizamuddin Ahmed
Jahangir’s court - Mutmid Khan, Khawaja Kamgar
Shahjahan's Court - Abdul Hamid Lahori, Amini
Kazvini, Inayat Khan
3. Some of the Mughal emperors had literary taste. They
composed their autobiography e.g. Tuzuk-i-Baburi of
Babur and Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri of Jahangir.
4. Mughals encouraged composite culture in India. For
example, under Akbar, there was the formation of a
translation department which functioned under Fazi and
Sarhindi. Then a number of Indian texts like Ramayana,
Mahabharata, etc. were translated into Persian.
5. Apart from Persian, Mughal emperors patronized Indian
language and literature as well. For example, Birbal was a
Hindu Poet in Akbar's court, likewise, Pandit Jagannath
decorated Shahjahan’s court.
6. Persian and regional literature were patronised even by
regional states like Bijapur and Golconda.
7. This period was marked by the flourishing Bhakti movement in
various regions. So, vernacular literature progressed under
Bhakti Saints. For example, in North India Tulsidas enriched
Awadhi literature, Surdas Brajbhasha, Rajasthani literature by
Mirabai, while some Sufi saints encouraged Punjabi literature.
Likewise, in Bangal Tirlochan Das, Vrindavan Das etc
supported Bengali literature. Similarly, Eknath, Tukaram etc
made their contribution in Marathi literature.
 Mughal Architecture
The Mughal period is termed as classical era from the point of
view of development of architecture because in this period, we
can see much better progression in the prevailing style of the
architecture as a result of which architecture assumed new
standards.
The Mughal period is distinctive in many aspects -
First, there was widespread exploitation of resources over a
large area under the Mughal Empire. Therefore it was possible
to spend more money on construction works. Due to this better
quality materials were used in the architectural construction
during the Mughal period.
Secondly, the style of architecture matured as a result of
centuries of gradual evolution and experimentation.
Thirdly, the Mughal rulers were having the personal interest in
architecture. In a painting of Akbar's period, he was depicted
inspecting the ongoing construction work at Fatehpur Sikri.
Fourth, the method of making designs before the construction of
a monument came into existence during this period.
Babur and Humayun had not much time for the construction
works. Hence some mosques were built by them. Then Humayun
also built a new capital named Dinpanah but the first example of
the grand Mughal architecture is Humayun's tomb.
It was constructed in Iranian style. But even Indian influence was
also visible. The indicator of Persian influence was double-dome
and the construction of rooms. On the design of slim minarets
there may be Persian influence or that of regional architecture of
Gujarat.
Likewise, to place the monument in a garden, higher platform,
construction of kiosk, all reflected Indian elements.
Architecture under Akbar:
The architecture of the reign of Akbar represents encouragement of
the indigenous techniques and a selective use of the experiences of
other countries. The chief elements of the style of architecture that
evolved under Akbar:
a. The buildings mainly used red sandstone as the building material
b. A widespread use of the trabeated construction
c. The arches used mainly in decorative form rather than in
structural form
d. The dome was of the 'Lodi' type, sometimes built hollow but never
technically of the true double order.
Akbar's building projects can be divided into two main groups,
each representing a different phase. The first group comprised
buildings of forts and a few palaces mainly at Agra, Allahabad and
Lahore. The second group related basically to the construction of his
new capital at Fatehpur Sikri.
The First Phase: One of the earliest building projects of
Akbar's reign was the construction of a fort at Agra, conceived
actually as a fortress-palace. Its massive walls and battlements
convey an effect of great power.
Akbar had built many structures in the styles of Bengal and
Gujarat. Except the Jahangiri Mahal, however, all the other
structures were demolished by Shah Jahan as part of a later
phase of remodelling.
The Second Phase: The second phase of Akbar's architectural
scheme coincides with the conception and creation of a
ceremonial capital for the Empire at Sikri.
It is one of the most remarkable monuments in India. In its
design and layout, Fatehpur Sikri is a city where the public
areas like the courtyards, Diwan-i-Aam and Jami Masjid
form a coherent group around the private palace apartments.
All the buildings are in characteristic rich red sandstone, using
traditional trabeate construction.
The buildings in Fatehpur Sikri may be resolved into two
categories: religious and secular character.
The religious buildings comprise
(a) the Jami Masjid;
(b) the Buland Darwaza and
(c) the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti.
The buildings of secular nature are more varied and
thus numerous. These can be grouped under-
(a) Palaces;
(b)Administrative buildings; and
(c) Structures of miscellaneous order.
Architecture under Jahangir and Shah Jahan:
In the sphere of the building art, Jahangir and Shah Jahan's
reigns were an age of marble. The place of red sandstones was
soon taken over by marble in its most refined form. This
dictated significant stylistic changes which have been listed
below:
a. The arch adopted a distinctive form with foliated curves,
usually with nine cusps.
b. Marble arcades of engrailed arches became a common
feature.
c. The dome developed a bulbous form with stifled neck.
Double domes became very common.
d. Inlaid patterns in coloured stones became the dominant
decorative form.
Major Buildings:
The account of the major buildings of this period begins with a
remarkable structure, that is, the tomb of Akbar, located at
Sikandra, eight kilometers from the Agra on Delhi road. It was
designed by Akbar himself and begun in his own lifetime but
remained incomplete at the time of his death. Subsequently, it
was completed by Jahangir with modifications in the original
design.
The tomb of Itimadud Daula, built in 1622-28 by Nur Jahan on
the grave of her father Mirza Ghiyas Beg marks a change in
architectural style from Akbar to Jahangir and Shah Jahan. The
transition from the robustness of Akbar's buildings to a more
sensuous architecture of the later period is evident in the
conception of this structure.
In contrast to Jahangir, his son and successor Shah Jahan,
was a prolific builder. His reign was marked by a extensive
architectural works in his favourite building material, the
marble. Some of these were:
a. The palace-forts, e.g. the Lal Qila at Delhi;
b. The mosques, e.g. the Moti Masjid in the Agra Fort and
the Jami Masjid at Delhi;
c. The garden-tombs, e.g. the Taj Mahal.
The Lal Qila is a regular rectangle with the north wall
following the old course of the Yamuna river. There are two
gateways - the Delhi and Lahore Gates. Inside, there are several
notable buildings of which particular mention may be of Diwan-
i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas and Rang Mahal.
The Taj Mahal is a square building with deep alcoved recesses
in each side and its four corners bevelled to form an octagon.
Above this structure rises a beautiful bulbous dome topped with
an inverted lotus finial and a metallic pinnacle. At the four
corners of the platform rise four circular minarets capped with
pillared cupolas.
The decorative features of the building consist of calligraphy
and inlay work in the exterior and pietra dura in the
interior.
Buildings of Aurangzeb:
Aurangzeb had none of his father's passion for architecture.
Under him, the generous encouragement given by his
predecessors to the arts was almost withdrawn. The
architectural works during the reign of Aurangzeb were less
numerous and of a lower standard than those executed under
any previous Mughal ruler.
The major buildings include the mausoleum of his wife Rabia
ud Dauran in Aurangabad, the Badshahi Masjid in Lahore and
the Moti Masjid at Lal Qila, Delhi.
 ARCHITECTURE

THE STUDY [email protected]

BY MANIKANT SINGH MOB: 9999516388
 Mughal paintings
Paintings, as a form of art, wasn’t permissible under Islam but
still, paintings flourished in the Mughal court. Particularly
during this period, we can underline better assimilation
between Indian and Persian elements. With growing Indian
influence Mughal paintings struck its root in Indian soil and
even after the disintegration of Mughal Empire Mughal
paintings left its impact even on regional styles.

Humayun - He was having a personal interest in paintings, so

when he returned from Persia to India, he brought with him
two important painters, Mir Sayyad Ali and Khwaja Abdul
Samad. These painters portrayed some specific Mughal
paintings known as ‘Khandan-e-Taimuriya’. Later they
decorated Akbar's court also.
Akbar- Under him, there was a fusion between Persian elements
and Indian elements preferably. In Persian style, there was the
use of a flat brush but in Indian style round brush was in use.
Furthermore, in Indian tradition, blue and red colours were
given priority. Likewise, in the Persian style court, hunting
scenes, etc occupied a prominent place, while in Indian style
religious subjects were significant. In Akbar's court, one can see
better assimilation between the two.
According to Abul Fazl, in Akbar's court at least 17 painters were
active and among them, Daswant was a leading one.
Under Akbar, miniature painting was much prominent, although
fresco painting also got attention. Above All, under Akbar, we can
underline two major advancements as the result of European
influence. One was the development of portraiture painting and
the second was the technique of foreshortening.
Jahangir - He was himself a great connoisseur of painting.
Even as a youth, he has patronized painting. Then after
becoming the king, he started to patronise the paintings.
His court was decorated by a series of grand painters like Abul
Hasan, Ustad Mansur, Bishan Das, etc. He sent Bishan Das to
the Persian court in order to make the portrait of the Persian
Shah and his important nobles.
Under him, the importance of miniature paintings diminished
while that of portraiture paintings increased. Under Jahangir,
special emphasis was given on natural scenes like birds,
animals. In this field, Ustad Mansoor was having greater
excellence.
Furthermore, under Jahangir, the portraiture of halo around
the head of the king used to be depicted in order to support the
idea of the divine right of kingship.
After Jahangir- One can underline a relative decline in
paintings under Shajahan. As Shahjahan gave too much
weightage to decoration than to originality of ideas, so Mughal
paintings lost their earlier vitality. Then later, Aurangzeb
banned paintings.
But even after the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, their
paintings gave an impact on regional paintings like Rajput,
Sikh, Tehri Garhwal paintings, etc.
 Development of music under the Mughals
Babur and Humayun- Babur was always busy in military
campaigns, so he had little time to devote to music. But he had a
personal interest in music, so whenever he had a break in the
midst of a military campaign, he enjoyed music.
Humayun was also interested in music. It is said that there were
29 singers in his court and he used to organize music concert on
Monday and Wednesday every week. He himself listened to music
and also invited important people to listen to music.
Akbar- Akbar was a great patron of art. Whether it was
architecture or painting or music, he patronized all with great
enthusiasm. The development of Mughal culture established a
standard during the period of Akbar. Abul Fazl writes that there
were 36 singers during Akbar's reign, three of them - Tansen,
Baiju Babara and the former ruler of Malwa, Baz Bahadur. Tansen
was the best singer.
There had been no singer like Tansen in the last 1000 years. He
received training in music from Sufi Saint Muhammad Gaus of
Gwalior. Then he had also learnt music from Swami Haridas, a
devotional saint and learnt style of Dhrupad.
Tansen is also credited with giving birth to some new ragas such
as Mian ki Malhar (Raga Malhar), Mian ki Todi and Raga
Darbari.
Jahangir- Though Jahangir's personal interest lay in painting,
but he also patronized music. In his court, Chattar Khan,
Khurram Dad and Tansen's son Bilas Khan were established as
leading singers.
Shah Jahan- Even during the reign of Shah Jahan, music
continued to resonate in the Mughal court. It is said that Lal
Khan son-in-law of Bilas Khan also got patronage in Shah
Jahan's court. Shah Jahan himself had a special interest in
singing.
Aurangzeb- As we know that Aurangzeb banned music
through declaring it un-Islamic but most of the texts on music
were written during his period. In this period, a scholar named
Fakir Ullah translated the treatise on music called Raga Darpan
into Persian language. Then in this period, music was preserved
in the Mughal harem.
Later on a Mughal ruler Muhammad Shah Rangeela gave
special patronage to the music. Two prominent singers like
Sadarang and Adarang resided in his court. During this period,
the importance of Khyal music style increased in place of
Dhrupad.