Fluid Mechanics (21ME43)/Lecture Notes

Compressible Flows-Module 5
Compressible flows:
Compressible flow is defined as the flow in which the density of the fluid does not remain
Constant during flow. This means that the density changes from point to point in compressible
flow. Generally gases are compressible in nature.
A study of compressible flow is important for the following different applications:
• Natural gas piped from producer to consumer,
• High speed flight through air,
• Flow of air through compressor, flow of gases/steam through turbine, in machines etc.
• Flow of gases through orifices and nozzles,
• Projectiles and airplanes flying at high altitudes with high velocities, the density of the fluid
changes during the flow.
Speed of sound:
Velocity of Sound (or Sonic velocity) or Pressure wave in a fluid:
 The disturbance in a solid or fluid (liquid or gas) is transmitted from one point to other.
 In case of a fluid the molecules are relatively apart. Hence each molecule has to travel a
certain distance before it can transmit the disturbance.
 Thus the propagation of disturbance depends mainly upon the change of pressure and
mass density of fluid.
 This propagation of disturbance is similar to the propagation of sound through a medium.
Derivation of an expression for velocity of sound in a fluid:
Consider a flow through a long pipe of uniform cross-sectional area shown in figure 5.1. Let a
piston move towards right side in the pipe with velocity V, so it compresses the fluid and
produces disturbance propagating along its length in the form of a pressure wave travelling with
the velocity of sound C.

Let A = cross sectional area of the pipe

V = velocity of the piston
p and ρ = Pressure and density of the fluid in pipe before movement of the piston
C = Velocity pressure wave or sound wave
dt = Small interval of time in which the piston moves
X= Distance travelled by the piston in time dt (where V=Distance/Time)
L= Distance travelled by the pressure wave in time dt
Distance travelled by the piston in time dt X= Vdt ------(1)
Distance travelled by the pressure wave in time dt L= Cdt ------(2)

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As C ˃ V,L ˃ X.So (L- X) length of pipes fluid gets compressed.
Let p + dp = Pressure after compression
ρ + dρ = Density after compression
Now mass of fluid before compression (for length L)
m1 = ρ x Volume of fluid up to length L = ρ x AL = ρ x A x Cdt ------(3) (∵ L = Cdt, from eqn. 2)
Now mass of fluid after compression (for length (L – X))
m2 = (ρ + dρ) x A x (L- X) = (ρ + dρ) x A x (C- V) dt -------(4) ( ∵ from eqn.1 & eqn.2,L and X
values is taken)
But from Continuity equation, Mass of fluid before compression = Mass of fluid after
compression.
So equating the equations (3) and (4)
ρ x A x Cdt = (ρ + dρ) x A x (C- V) dt
ρC = (ρ + dρ) (C- V) = ρC – ρV + Cdρ – Vdρ
Cdρ = ρV + Vdρ
As V ˂ C and dρ is very small, Vdρ can be neglected.
Cdρ = ρV--------(5)
When the piston is moved with a velocity V for time dt,the fluid (initially at rest ) also moves
with velocity V,so the pressure of fluid increases from p to p+dp ,
Applying momentum equation,
Net force on fluid = Rate of change of momentum
(p+dp) A – p x A = Mass per second x Change in velocity
ρAL
p x A + Adp − p x A = (V − 0)
dt
(∵ F= p x A, also m = ρV = ρAL,L = Cdt)
ρACdt
Adp = V = ρACV
dt
dp = ρCV
dp
ρV = − − − −(6)
C
Sustituting eqn.(6) into eqn.(5) for ρV values
dp
Cdρ =
C
C2 dρ = dp
dp
or C2 =
dρ
dp
or C = √dρ -------- (7)
The equation (7) is known as velocity of sound wave, it is the square root of the ratio of the
change in pressure to the change in density of a fluid due to disturbance.
Derivation of an expression for velocity of sound in terms of Bulk modulus:
Bulk modulus is given by,
Increase in pressure dp
K = Volumetric strain = dV -------- (1)
(− )
V
Where dV = decrease in volume, V = Original volume
Negative sign shows that with the increase of pressure, volume of fluid decreases.
As mass of the fluid is constant,

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 Density x volume = constant (since m = ρ x V)
ρ x V = constant
Differentiating the above equation
dV dρ
ρdV + Vdρ =0 or − V = ρ ---------(2)
Substituting eqn. (2) into eqn. (1),
dp dp
K= = ρ
dρ dρ
(ρ)
dp K
Or =
dρ ρ
dp K
But C = √ dρ = √ ρ ,this is the equation of velocity of sound wave in terms of bulk modulus
and density.
Propagation of pressure waves (or disturbances) in a Compressible flow:
Whenever any disturbance is produced in a compressible fluid, the disturbance is propagated in
(in form of wave) all direction with a Velocity of sound. The nature of propagation of the
disturbance depends upon the Mach number. Let a projectile travel in a straight line with velocity
V.

Mach Number:
It is defined as the ratio of Velocity of fluid or body moving in fluid / Velocity of sound in the
fluid.It is denoted by M.
V
Mathematically,M = C
Where V = Velocity of fluid or body moving in fluid,C = Velocity of sound in the fluid
For the compressible flow, Mach number is an important number.
Types of flow based on Mach number:
1. Sub-sonic flow 2.Sonic flow 3.Super-sonic flow.
1. Sub-sonic flow: If the Mach number is less than 1.0(or M ˂ 1), the flow is known as Sub-sonic
flow. In this type of flow the velocity of flow is less than the velocity of sound wave (or V ˂ C).

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2. Sonic flow: If the Mach number is equal to 1.0(or M = 1), the flow is known as Sonic flow. In
this type of flow the velocity of flow is equal to the velocity of sound wave (or V = C).
3. Super-sonic flow: If the Mach number is greater than 1.0(or M ˃ 1), the flow is known as
Super-sonic flow. In this type of flow the velocity of flow is greater than the velocity of sound
wave (or V ˃ C).
The compressible flow regimes are classified as below:
M < 0.3 (incompressible flow)
M < 1 (subsonic flow)
0.8 < M <1.2 (transonic flow)
M > 1 (supersonic flow)
M > 5 and above (hypersonic flow)
M = Mach number
Mach Cone:
Mach cone is the cone formed by drawing tangents to different circles which represent
propagated spherical waves on both sides with the vertex.
Mach Angle:
It is defined as the half of the angle (β) of the Mach cone.
C 1 1
Mathematically,sin β = V = 𝑉/𝐶 = M where V=Velocity of project
tile,C= Velocity of sound wave.
Zone of action:
In Super-sonic flow(M ˃ 1),the effect of disturbance is felt only in the Mach cone,this region is
known as zone of action.
Zone of silence:
In Super-sonic flow(M ˃ 1),the effect of disturbance is not felt otside the Mach cone,this region
is known as zone of silence.
Stagnation Properties:
A process in which flowing fluid is brought to rest adiabatically is known as stagnation process
or stagnation point or stagnation state. The properties like pressure, temperature and density
measured at that point are called stagnation properties.
The values of pressure, temperature and density at that point are called stagnation pressure,
stagnation temperature and stagnation density respectively. They are denoted as ps,ρs and Ts
respectively.

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Stagnation Pressure (ps): It is the pressure measured at the stagnation point where the velocity
becomes zero.
k
k−1 ( )
k−1
Mathematically, ps = p1 [1 + 2 M12 ] Where ps =Stagnation pressure, k =Constant, p1
=Pressure at point 1, M =Mach number.

Stagnation Density (ρs): It is the density measured at the stagnation point where the velocity
becomes zero.
1
k−1 ( )
k−1
Mathematically, ρs = ρ1 [1 + 2 M12 ] Where ρs =Stagnation density, k =Constant, ρ1
=density at point 1, M =Mach number.
Stagnation Temperature (Ts): It is the temperature measured at the stagnation point where the
velocity becomes zero.
k−1
Mathematically, Ts = T1 [1 + ( 2 ) M12 ] Where Ts =Stagnation temperature,k =Constant, T1
=Temperature at point 1, M =Mach number.
Adiabatic process: If the change in density takes place with no heat exchange to and from the
gas, the process is called adiabatic. The relationship between pressure (p) and density (ρ) is given
by p/ρk = Constant, where k=Ratio of specific heat of gas at constant pressure and constant
volume = 1.4 for air.
In an adiabatic flow q = 0.
Adiabatic and Isentropic Steady Flow:
The stagnation state is called the isentropic stagnation state when the fluid is brought to rest
reversibly and adiabatically (i.e., isentropically). The entropy of a fluid remains constant during
an isentropic stagnation process. The stagnation processes are often approximated to be
isentropic.
Consider the steady flow of a fluid through a duct where the flow takes place adiabatically and
with no shaft or electrical work and no change in potential energy. Energy balance of the system
is
𝑉12 𝑉22
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2 2
If the fluid is brought to a complete stop, then the velocity at state 2 would be zero and above
equation becomes
𝑉12
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 = ℎ02
2
2
V kJ
Stagnation enthalpy of flow, h0 = h + ( ) (𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 ∶ 𝑠 = 0 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
2 kg
The stagnation state is called the isentropic stagnation state when the fluid is brought to rest
reversibly and adiabatically (i.e., isentropically). The entropy of a fluid remains constant during
an isentropic stagnation process. The stagnation processes are often approximated to be
isentropic, and the isentropic stagnation properties are simply referred to as stagnation properties.
Isentropic flow with area change:
From continuity equation, the area velocity relationship for incompressible fluid is given by,
A x V = Constant,here With the increase of area,velocity decreases.
Also from continuity equation, the area velocity relationship for compressible fluid is given by,
ρAV = Constant ----(1), here With the change of area,both velocity and density are affected.

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Differentiating equation (1),
ρ d(AV) + AVdρ = 0
ρ[AdV + VdA] + AVdρ = 0
ρAdV + ρVdA + AVdρ = 0---(2),dividing the eqn. by ρAV on both sides,
dV dA dρ
+ + = 0 − − − (3)
V A ρ
From Eulers equation for compressible fluid is given by,
dp
+ VdV + gdz = 0, neglecting the z terms,
ρ
dp
+ VdV = 0 − − − (4), diving and multiplying by dρ
ρ
dp dρ
X + VdV = 0 − − − (5)
dρ ρ
dp
But = 𝐶2
dρ
dρ dρ dρ VdV
So eqn. (5)becomes, C2 + VdV = 0 or C2 = −VdV or = − 2 − − − (6)
ρ ρ ρ C
dρ
Substituting the value of from eqn. (6)into eqn. (3), we get
ρ
dV dA VdV dA VdV dV dV 𝑉 2
+ − 2 = 0 or = 2 − = [ − 1]
V A C A C V V 𝐶2
dA dV 2
= [M − 1] − − − (7)
A V
The eqn.(7) gives relationship between change of area with change of velocity for different Mach
numbers.
Shock Wave:

In supersonic flow, the sound waves(C) takes the speed of body (V) and these weak pressure
waves merge themselves ahead of body which gives rise to compression in the vicinity to the
body which is shock in upstream.
Normal Shock Waves:
It occurs in Super-sonic flow (M˃ 1).A normal shock wave is one where the flow properties
change drastically in one direction. The wave is normal to flow direction. The shock strength is
high.
Oblique Shock Waves:
It occurs in Super-sonic flow (M˃ 1).A oblique shock wave is one flow direction changes. The
wave is inclined to flow direction. The shock strength is low.

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Nozzle: A nozzle is a duct (a pipe or tube) that increases the velocity of the flowing fluid at the
expense of pressure drop.

From First Law,

𝑉𝑜2 𝑉𝑖2
ho + = h𝑖 +
2 2
The outlet velocity, Vo = √2(hi − ho ) + V12
Types of Nozzle:

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Diffuser:A duct which decreases the velocity of a fluid and causes an increase in pressure is a
diffuser or A diffuser is a nozzle in which the direction of flow is reversed.

Note:
 The same duct may be either a nozzle or a diffuser depending upon the end conditions
across it. If the cross-section of a duct decreases gradually from inlet to exit, the duct is
said to be convergent.
 If the cross section increases gradually from the inlet to exit, the duct is said to be
divergent.
 If the cross-section initially decreases and then increases, the duct is called a convergent-
divergent nozzle. The minimum cross-section of such ducts is known as throat.

dA dV 2
= [M − 1], M in above sketch is from this equation.
A V

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Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD):
 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical
analysis and data structures to analyze and solve problems that involve fluid flows.
 In this technique, computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the
free-stream flow and interaction of fluid (liquids and gases) with surfaces defined
by boundary conditions.
 With high-speed supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved, On-going research
yields software that improves the accuracy and speed of complex simulation scenarios
such as transonic or turbulent flows.
 In case of engineering problems the equations become more difficult. For example:
Problems involving chemical reactions, heat transfer, multiphase flows etc. In all these
type of problems, CFD is an effective tool to obtain the solution and results.
 Navier–Stokes equations is the fundamental equation for all CFD problems, which define
many single-phase (gas or liquid, but not both) fluid flows. These equations can be
simplified by removing terms describing viscous actions to yield the Euler equations
In this approach the following basic procedure is used:
1. Pre-processing
i) The geometry and physical bounds of the problem is defined.
ii) The volume occupied by the fluid is divided into discrete cells (the mesh). The mesh
may be uniform or non-uniform.
iii) The physical modeling is defined – for example, the equations of fluid motion
+ enthalpy + radiation, etc.
iv) Boundary conditions are defined. This involves specifying the fluid behaviour and
properties at all bounding surfaces of the fluid domain.
2. The simulation is started and the equations are solved iteratively as a steady-state or transient.
3. Finally a postprocessor is used for the analysis and visualization of the resulting solution in the
visual form like graphs, images, animations etc.
The following are the commonly used methods:
i) Finite volume method (FVM) ii) Finite element method (FEM) iii) Finite difference method
(FDM)
Advantages/Merits of CFD:
1. CFD simulations are relatively low cost.
2. CFD simulations can be executed in a short period of time.
3. CFD can simulate any physical condition or any complex real time problem.
4. CFD gives comprehensive information about the problem.
Limitations/De-merits of CFD:
1. Solving equations on computer invariably introduces numerical errors.
2. Truncation (to shorten something) error due to approximation in the numerical models.
3. Round-off error due to finite word size available on the computer
4. The accuracy of CFD solutions depend upon the initial or boundary conditions provided to
numerical model.
Application of CFD:
1. Biomedical engineering: Example Heart pumping, Air flow in lungs etc.
2. Mechanical engineering: Example Heat exchanger, Flow through pipes, Combustion in IC
engine, Aerodynamics of air craft, automotive design etc.
3. Food Industry: Example Sterilisation, refrigeration etc.
4. Chemical Industry: Example Simulation of various chemical reactions and modes of heat transfer.