UNIT –I

Basic Types of elements, Definitions, Ohms Law with simple problems, Concepts of Series &
Parallel circuits, statements of KCL and KVL, Basic series parallel circuit problems,KVL
problems, KCL problems.
Basics of AC Circuits: Sinusoidal voltage and currents,Magnitude and phase, polar and
rectangular representation, R,L,C concepts, RL,RC-series circuits, RLC circuitpower factor,
phasor diagram. Problems includes calculation of reactance’s and power factor.
Brief about 3phase Ac Generation,Comparison between single phase and three phase ACtypes of
three phase connection,star derivationDelta derivation.

Total: 18 Hours
Introduction
Types of Network Elements:
We can classify the Network elements into various types based on some parameters.
Following are the types of Network elements −
• Active Elements and Passive Elements
• Linear Elements and Non-linear Elements
• Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements

Active Elements and Passive Elements

We can classify the Network elements into either active or passive based on the ability of
delivering power.
Active Elements deliver power to other elements, which are present in an electric circuit.
Sometimes, they may absorb the power like passive elements. That means active elements have
the capability of both delivering and absorbing power.
Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.

Passive Elements can’t deliver power (energy) to other elements, however they can absorb
power. That means these elements either dissipate power in the form of heat or store energy in
the form of either magnetic field or electric field.
Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.

Linear Elements and Non-Linear Elements

We can classify the network elements as linear or non-linear based on their characteristic to obey
the property of linearity.
Linear Elements are the elements that show a linear relationship between
voltage and current. Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
Non-Linear Elements are those that do not show a linear relation between voltage and current.
Examples: Diodes, transistors, vacuum tubes, other semiconductor devices, iron core inductors,
and transformers.

1.1 Basic Definitions

Electric Circuit:
An electric circuit is a closed path consisting of active and passive elements all inter connected
and the current flow is confined to the closed path.The elements present in an electric circuit will
be in series connection, parallel connection, or in any combination of series and parallel
connections.
Fig. l shows a typical circuit consisting of one active and two passive elements.

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An active element is one which supplies energy to the circuit where as a passive element is one
which receives energy and then this energy is converted into heat (resistor) or stores it in an
electric (capacitor) or magnetic field (inductor).

The battery is the active element in Fig.1

Fig.2 Electric Circuit

Electric Network:
An electric network need not contain a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a
voltage source or current source. Hence, we can conclude that "all electric circuits are electric
networks" but the converse need not be true.

Electric current:

The current "I" flowing through a conductor is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• Q is the charge and its unit is Coulomb.
• t is the time and its unit is second.
OR

The continuous flow of electrons constitutes electric current. It is denoted by ‘I’ and is measured
in amperes.
‘I’ is also given by I = coulomb / sec

As an analogy, electric current can be thought of as the flow of water through a pipe. Current is
measured in terms of Ampere. In general, Electron current flows from negative terminal of
source to positive terminal, whereas, Conventional current flows from positive terminal of
source to negative terminal
Electron current is obtained due to the movement of free electrons, whereas, Conventional
current is obtained due to the movement of free positive charges. Both of these are called as
electric current.

Electric Potential or Voltage:

The voltage "V" is nothing but an electromotive force that causes the charge (electrons) to
flow. Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
W is the potential energy and its unit is Joule(J).
Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb(C).
As an analogy, Voltage can be thought of as the pressure of water that causes the water to flow
through a pipe. It is measured in terms of Volt.
OR
The electric potential at any point in an electric field is defined as the work done in brining an
unit positive charge (Q) from infinity to that point against the electric field
‘V’ is given by V = Volts

Power
The power "P" is nothing but the time rate of flow of electrical energy. Mathematically, it can be
written as

Where,
• W is the electrical energy and it is measured in terms of Joule.
• t is the time and it is measured in seconds.

We can re-write the above equation as

Therefore, power is nothing but the product of voltage V and current I. Its unit is Watt.

OHM’S LAW

Statement: Ohm's Law states that “at constant temperature and pressure the current(I)
flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied potential difference (V) and
inversely proportional to the resistance (R) in the circuit.”

Solved Examples:
1. An electrical iron carrying 2A at 120V. Find resistance of the device?
Soln:
Given: Current i=2A, Supply voltage=120V, Resistance R=?
From Ohm’s law:
R= (v/i) = (120/2) = 60Ω
2. The essential component of a toaster is an electrical element (a resistor) that converts
electrical energy to heat energy. How much current is drawn by a toaster with resistance
12Ω at 110V?

Soln: 9.167 A

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3. In the given circuit, calculate current I, the conductance G and the power P?

Soln:

Applications of Ohm’s Law

There are many applications of this law in our daily life. Few of them are.
• Conventional Domestic Fan Regulator is one very common device where the current
through the fan gets regulated by controlling the resistance of the regulator circuit.
• In voltage divider circuit this law is used to divide source voltage across the output
resistance.
• In electronic circuits, there are many purposes where intentional voltage drop is required
to supply specific voltage across different electronic elements. This is done by applying
Ohm’s law.
• In mainly dc ammeter and other dc measuring instruments shunt is used to divert current.
Here also Ohm’s law is used.

Limitation of Ohm’s Law

The limitations of Ohm’s law are outlined below:
1. This law cannot be applied to unilateral networks: A unilateral network has unilateral
elements like diode transistors etc., which do not have same voltage current relation for
both directions of current.
2. Ohm’s law is also not applicable for non – linear elements: Non-linear elements are
those which do not have current exactly proportional to the applied voltage, that means
the resistance value of those elements changes for different values of voltage and
current. Examples of non – linear elements are thyristor, electric arc, etc.
3. Cannot applied for arc lamps
4. Does not holds good when temperature raises rapidly.

Real world applications electric circuits are, most of the time, quite complex and hard to
analyze. But, by breaking them apart into smaller subsystems (circuits), we can apply
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) in order to calculate the
voltage drop and current across / through every electrical component.

Concepts of Series & Parallel circuits

Electric circuit will be in series connection, parallel connection, or in any combination of series
and parallel connections.There are two basic methods that are used for solving any electrical
network: Nodal analysis and Mesh analysis.

Series Circuit
In the series circuit, the components in the circuit are connected one after the other or we can say
in a cascaded fashion. More specifically we can say that a series circuit allows the connection in
a manner that tail of one component is directly connected to the head of the other and so on
corresponding to the two ends of the battery.
The figure below shows the series connection of 4 resistors in a circuit:
As we can clearly see that the components are cascaded in a single line, thus same current, I will
flow through all the resistors of the series network. While different potential difference exists
between the various resistors of the circuit.
It can be understood in a way that if the same current is flowing among all the resistors, so the
drop across each resistor will depend on the resistance offered by each resistor in the circuit.
Thus, we can say that, in a series circuit due to the presence of a single path, the same current
flows through all the components. Thereby giving rise to the existence of different potential
difference (voltage) across each component.

Two or more elements cascaded or connected sequentially and consequently carry the same
current are known as Series Elements.
The equivalent resistances of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances.

Three resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series. The current passing through all the
elements connected in series is same, I.
In the above figure 1, according to KVL, sum of voltage drops in a closed loop is zero.

Therefore voltage applied divides across the series connected elements.

Applications of Series Circuits:
1. Decorative serial sets, number of bulbs with low voltage ratings connected in series
across existing rated voltage.
2. Voltage distribution or tapping.

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Parallel Circuit:
In a parallel circuit, the components are arranged in a way that the heads of each component are
connected together with a common point. While the tails are connected together with another
common point. Thereby forming multiple parallel branches in the circuit.

The figure here shows the parallel connection of 4 resistors in a circuit:

As we can see here that the parallel circuit is having

4 branches and different current is flowing through
each branch. But as the branches are sharing
common points thus the same potential exists across
the two points wrt the two ends of the battery
potential.
It can also be understood in a way that if the same
potential difference is existing across each resistor of
the circuit. Then the actual current flowing through
each branch will automatically depend on the
resistance offered by each resistor in the circuit.
Therefore, we can say that due to the existence of
multiple branches in the circuit, the overall current
from the supply gets divided into multiple
branches, as the voltage across the points is the same.

Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them.
The parallel connected elements have the same voltage across them.

The equivalent resistance of the parallel resistors is equal to the product of their resistances
divided by their sum.
The equivalent conductance connected in parallel is the sum of their individual conductance.

Differences Between Series and Parallel Circuit

1. The components in a series circuit are arranged in a single path from one end of supply to
another end. However, the multiple components in a parallel circuit are arranged in multiple
paths wrt the two end terminals of the battery.
2. In a series circuit, a common current flows through all the components of the circuit. While
in a parallel circuit, a different amount of current flows through each parallel branch of the
circuit.
3. In the series circuit, different voltage exists across each component in the circuit. Whereas in
the parallel circuit, the same voltage exists across the multiple components in the circuit.
4. A fault in one of the components of the series circuit causes hindrance in the operation of a
complete circuit. As against fault in a single component in a parallel network do not hinder
the functioning of another part of the circuit.
5. The detection of a fault in case of a series circuit is difficult, but it is quite easy in parallel
circuits.
6. The equivalent resistance in case of a series circuit is always more than the highest value of
resistance in the series connection. While the equivalent resistance in the parallel circuit is
always less than any of the individual resistances in parallel combination.

SOLVED PROBLEMS:
1. A circuit is made of 0.4 Ω wire, a 150Ω bulb and a 120Ω rheostat connected in
series. Determine the total resistance of the circuit.
Given data:
Resistance of the wire = 0.4Ω
Resistance of bulb = 150Ω
Resistance of rheostat = 120Ω

To find:

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 The total equivalent resistance of the circuit Requ or Rtotal=?
Formula used:
The total resistance of the circuit Requ or Rtotal = R1+R2+R3
Solution:
Total equivalent resistance,Requ = 0.4 + 150 +120 = 270.4Ω
Result:
The total resistance of the circuit Requ = 270.4 Ω

2. Three resistances of values 2Ω, 3Ω and 5Ω are connected in series across 20 V, D.C
supply.Calculate (a) equivalent resistance of the circuit (b) the total current of the
circuit (c) the voltage drop across each resistor and (d) the power dissipated in each
resistor.
Given data:
R1 = 2Ω
R2 = 3Ω
R3 = 5Ω
Vs = 20V
To find:

Requ or R T =?
I or I T =?
V1, V2, V3 =?
P1, P2, P3 =?
Formula used:
RT = R1+R2+R3 (series connection)
IT = VT / RT
V1 = R1*I1, V2= R2*I2, V3 = R3*I3
P1=V1*I1, P2=V2*I2, P3=V3*I3
Solution:
RT = R1+R2+R3 = 2+3+5
RT = 10Ω
IT = Vs/ RT = 20 / 10
IT = 2 A
In series connection I1 = I2 = I3 = IT = 2A
V1 = I1*R1 = 2*2
V1 = 4 V
V2 = I2*R2 = 2*3
V2 = 6 V
V3 = I3*R3 = 5*2
V3 = 10V
P1 = V1*I1 = 4*2
P1 = 8W
P2 = V2*I2 = 6*2
P2 = 12W
P3 = V3*I3 = 10*2
P3 = 20W

Result:
(a)Equivalent resistance of the circuit RT = 10Ω
 (b) The total current of the circuit IT = 2A
(c) Voltage drop across each resistor V1 = 4 V, V2 = 6 V, V3 = 10V
(d)The power dissipated in each resistor P1 = 8W, P2 = 12W, P3 = 20W
Ex: Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

SOLUTION:

Given

Fig.(a)

To get Req we combine resistors in series and in parallel. The 6 ohms and 3 ohms resistors are in
parallel, so their equivalent resistance is

Fig.(b)

Also, the 1 ohm and 5ohms resistors are in series; hence their equivalent resistance is
1Ω+5Ω=6Ω
Thus the circuit in Fig.(a) is reduced to that in Fig. (b)

In Fig. (b), we notice that the two 2 ohms resistors are in series, so the equivalent resistance is
2Ω+2Ω=4Ω
This 4 ohms resistor is now in parallel with the 6 ohms resistor in Fig.(b); their equivalent
resistance is
4Ω ‖‖ 6Ω= [(4˟6) / (4+6)] =2.4 Ω
The circuit in Fig.(b) is now replaced with that in Fig.(c).

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Fig. (c)In Fig.(c), the three resistors are in series. Hence, the equivalent resistance for the circuit
is
Req=4Ω+2.4Ω+8Ω=14.4Ω

Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

Solution:
In the given network 4ohms,5ohms and 3ohms comes in series then equivalent resistance is
4+5+3=12ohms

Fromfig(b),4ohmsand12ohmsareinparallel, equivalentis3ohms

Fromfig(c), 3ohmsand3ohmsareinseries, equivalentresistanceis6ohms

Fromfig(d),6ohmsand6ohmsareinparallel, equivalentresistanceis3ohms

Fromfig(e),4ohms,3 ohmsand3 ohmsareinseries.Hence,Req =4Ω+3Ω+3Ω=10ohms

 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS:

Kirchhoff’s current law or point law (KCL)

Statement:- In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a node
(junction or point) in an electric circuit is zero.
ΣI = 0 ……………………at a junction or node
OR
Kirchhoff’s Current Law can also be stated as, “The sum of incoming currents is equal to the
sum of outgoing currents at a point or junction in an electric circuit.”

Assumption: - Incoming current = positive

Outgoing current = negative
Consider five wires carrying current I1, I2, I3, I4, I5 meeting at a point O.

• To take the algebraic sum, the sigh of the current is to be considered.

• If we take the flow of current towards point O as positive, then the flow of current away
from point O will be negative.
Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law,
The algebraic sum of current at point O = zero
i.e. I1 + I2 + (-I3) + (-I4) + (-I5) = 0
or I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 + I5
i.e. Incoming currents = Outgoing currents

Example 2: As the image below demonstrates, the sum of currents entering (i1+i2) must be
equal to the sum of current leaving (i3+i4) or Sum of Currents at a node is Zero.

Kirchoff’s voltage law or mesh law (KVL)

Statement:- The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each of the
conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the emfs in that
path is zero.

Σ(IR) +Σemf = 0 …………………………..round the mesh

Assumption:-i) Rise in voltage (If we go from negative terminal of the battery to positive
terminal) = positive

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KVL and KCL Solved Examples :

EMF’s and voltage drops must be given a proper sign.

A rise in potential should be considered positive while fall in potential should be considered
negative.
Signs to be given to EMF’s

While tracing any circuit, if we go from negative terminal of a battery or source of EMF to the
positive terminal, there is a rise in potential and it should be given a +ve sign.

Whereas, if we go from positive terminal to negative terminal, there is a fall in potential and it
should be given –ve sign.

It is worthwhile to note that sign of EMF’s is independent of the direction of flow of current.

Signs to be given to Voltage Drops

When current flows through a resistance, there is a voltage drop (IR).

If we go in the direction of flow of current, a negative sign should be given to the voltage drop
(fall in potential) as current flows from higher potential to lower potential.

However, if we go in the opposite direction to the flow of current a positive sign should be given
to the voltage drop (rise in potential).
It is worthwhile to note that the sign of voltage drop depends upon the direction of flow of
current through the resistance.

Steps to solve circuits by Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

• Mark the direction of flow of current in various branches of the circuit according to
Kirchhoff’s Current Law.
• Choose as many numbers of closed circuits as the number of unknown quantities.
• Find the algebraic sum of voltage drops and EMF’s in that circuit and put their sum equal
to zero.
• After solving the problem, if the calculated value of the current has a +ve sign, it
indicates that the direction assumed is correct. If it has –ve sign, it means that the actual
direction of flow of current is opposite to that of assumed direction.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Examples

Example: Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the below circuit and calculate the current in each
branch of the circuit.

Solution:
• To solve the above circuit, mark points A, B, C, D, E, F.
• Apply Kirchhoff’s Current Law at the junction B, mark the assumed direction of flow of
current in various branches i.e. Incoming currents = Outgoing currents.
• In this problem, there are two unknown quantities (I1 and I2). Therefore, we have to
choose two closed circuits to solve the problem.

The current is starting from the positive plate of the 3 V cell is I1. This current after flowing in
10 Ω resistance, is divided into two parts at point B.

One part I2 goes through 20 Ω resistance and 50 Ω resistances and the remaining part I1 – I2
goes through 15 V Ω resistance.

Both the currents meet at point E and again current I1 reaches the negative plate of the cell.

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Consider the closed path ABEFA.

If we trace the closed path in the direction ABEFA, various voltage drops and EMF’s will have
the following signs:
• Voltage drop in 10 Ω = 10 I1 negative (fall in potential).
• Voltage drop in 15 Ω = 15(I1 – I2) negative (fall in potential).
• EMF = 3 positive (rise in potential).
Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to mesh ABEFA, we get,

– 10 I1 – 15(I1 – I2) + 3 = 0

or – 10 I1 – 15 I1 + 15 I2 +3 = 0
or – 25 I1 + 15 I2 + 3 = 0

or 25 I1 – 15 I2 – 3 = 0 ………. (i)

Now to get the second equation, consider the closed path BCDEB.

If we trace the closed path in the direction BCDEB, various voltage drops and EMF’s will have
the following signs:
• Voltage drop in 20 Ω = 20 I2 negative (fall in potential).
• Voltage drop in 50 Ω = 50 I2 negative (fall in potential).
• Voltage drop in 15 Ω = 15(I1 – I2) positive (rise in potential).
• EMF = 0 (no EMF source in this mesh).

Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to mesh BCDEB, we get,

– 20 I2 – 50 I2 + 15(I1 – I2) + 0 = 0

or – 20 I2 – 50 I2 + 15 I1 – 15 I2) = 0
or – 85 I2 + 15 I1 = 0
or – 17 I2 + 3 I1 = 0

or 3 I1 – 17 I2 = 0 ………..( ii)

By solving equations (i) and (ii), we get,

I1 = 0.134 A and
I2 = 0.024 A

Example: A circuit is shown in Figure. Calculate the current in each branch of the circuit.
Solution:
• To solve the above circuit, mark points A, B, C, D, E, F.
• Apply Kirchhoff’s Current Law at the junction B, mark the assumed direction of flow of
current in various branches i.e. Incoming currents = Outgoing currents.
• In this problem, there are two unknown quantities (I1 and I2). Therefore, we have to
choose two closed circuits to solve the problem.

Consider the closed path ABEFA.

If we trace the closed path in the direction ABEFA, various voltage drops and EMF’s will have
the following signs:
• Voltage drop in 20 Ω = 20(I1 + I2) negative (fall in potential).
• Voltage drop in 6 Ω = 6 I2 negative (fall in potential).
• EMF = 140 positive (rise in potential).
Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to mesh ABEFA, we get,

– 20(I1 + I2) – 6 I2 + 140 = 0

or 20 I1 + 26 I2 = 140
or 10 I1 + 13 I2 = 70 …….. (i)

Now, to get the second equation, consider the closed path BCDEB.

If we trace the closed path in the direction BCDEB, various voltage drops and EMF’s will have
the following signs:
• Voltage drop in 5 Ω = 5 I1 negative (fall in potential).
• Voltage drop in 6 Ω = 6 I2 positive (rise in potential).
• EMF = 90 negative (fall in potential).
Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to mesh BCDEB, we get,

– 5 I1 – 90 + 6 I2 =0
or – 5 I1 + 6 I2 = 90 ………. (ii)

By solving equations (i) and (ii), we get,

I2 = 10 A
I1 = – 6 A

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Therefore, current in branch BE is 10 A, current in branch BC is 6 A (but opposite to the
assumed direction, because I1 has a negative sign in the solution) and current in branch AB is 16
A.

2.Two storage batteries A& B are connected to supply a loadof 0.30Ω.the open circuit EMF
of A is 11.7V and that of B is 12.3V.the internal resistance are 0.06Ω and 0.05Ω
respectively.Find the current supplied to the load.
2.Find the current in all the branches of the network shown below:

AC FUNDAMENTS:

Review of Complex Number:

● In order to analyze AC circuit, it is necessary to represent multi-dimensional quantities.
In order to accomplish this task, scalar numbers were abandoned and complete numbers
were used to express the two dimensions of frequency and phase shift at one time
● In mathematics, ‘i’ is used to represent imaginary numbers. In the study of electricity and
electronics, j is used to represent imaginary numbers so that there is no confusion with I,
which in electronics represents current (i). It is also customary for scientist to write the
complex number in the form of a + jb.
1. A complex number may be written in Rectangular form as:

2. Second way of representing the complex number is by specifying the magnitude(r)

and angle (θ) in polar form

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 3. The third way of representing the complex number is the Exponential form.

Polar & Exponential Form:

Most people are familiar with complex numbers in the form z=a+bi, however there are some
alternate forms that are useful at times.

Geometric Interpretation
Consider the complex number z=a+bi. We can think of this complex number as either the point
(a,b) in the standard Cartesian coordinate system or as the vector that starts at the origin and
ends at the point (a,b). An example of this is shown in the figure below.

In this interpretation we call the x-axis the real axis and the y-axis the imaginary axis. We
often call the xy-plane in this interpretation the complex plane.

Note as well that we can now get a geometric interpretation of the modulus. From the image
above, we can see that |z|=√(a2 + b2) is nothing more than the length of the vector that we’re
using to represent the complex number z=a+bi.

Polar Form

Let’s now take a look at the first alternate form for a complex number. If we think of the non-
zero complex number z=a+bi

as the point (a,b) in the xy-plane we also know that we can represent this point by the polar
coordinates (r,θ), where r is the distance of the point from the origin and θ is the angle, in
radians, from the positive x-axis to the ray connecting the origin to the point.

When working with complex numbers we assume that r is positive and that θ can be any of the
possible (both positive and negative) angles that end at the ray.
We have the following conversion formulas for converting the polar coordinates (r,θ) into the
corresponding Cartesian coordinates of the point, (a,b).
a=rcosθ b=rsinθ
If we substitute these into z=a+biand factor an rout we arrive at the polar form of the complex
number,z=r(cosθ+isinθ)…………………….(1)

Note as well that we also have the following formula from polar coordinates relating rto a and
b.r=√(a2 + b2)

So, sometimes the polar form will be written as,z=|z|(cosθ+isinθ)….(2)

The angle θis called the argument of z

tanθ=(b/a) ……………………………………(3)
For a given complex number z pick any of the possible values of the argument, say θ. If you now
increase the value of θ, which is really just increasing the angle that the point makeswith the
positive x-axis, you are rotating the point about the origin in a counter-clockwise manner. Since
it takes 2π radians to make one complete revolution you will be back at your initial starting point
when you reach θ+2π. See the figure below.

Explain Generation of Sinusoidal wave

Faradays Law:
When the coil moves by some angle in the anticlockwise direction, there is a rate of
change of flux linking the coil and hence an emf is induced in the coil.

GENERATION OF SINUSOIDAL AC VOLTAGE

Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field as shown in the figure.
The coil is rotating in the anticlockwise direction at an uniform angular velocity of ω rad/sec.

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When the coil is in the vertical position, the flux linking the coil is zero because the plane of the
coil is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. Hence at this position, the emf induced
in the coil is zero. When the coil moves by some angle in the anticlockwise direction, there is a
rate of change of flux linking the coil and hence an emf is induced in the coil according to
Faradays Law. When the coil reaches the horizontal position, the flux linking the coil is
maximum, and hence the emf induced is also maximum. When the coil further moves in the
anticlockwise direction, the emf induced in the coil reduces. Next when the coil comes to the
vertical position, the emf induced becomes zero. After that the same cycle repeats and the emfis
induced in the opposite direction. When the coil completes one complete revolution, one cycle of
AC voltage is generated.

The generation of sinusoidal AC voltage can also be explained using mathematical equations.
Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field in the position shown
in the figure below . The maximum flux linking (Φmax) the coil is in the downward direction as
shown in the below figure. This flux can be divided into two components, one component acting
along the plane of the coil Φmaxsinωtand another component acting perpendicular to the plane
of the coil Φmaxcosωt.
The component of flux acting along the plane of the coil does not induce any flux in the coil.
Only the component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil ieΦmaxcosωt induces an emf in
the coil.

Hence the emf induced in the coil is a sinusoidal emf. This will induce a sinusoidal current in the
circuit given by

Angular Frequency (ω)

Angular frequency is defined as the number of radians covered in one second (i.e., the angle
covered by the rotating coil). The unit of angular frequency is rad/sec.

Problem:
An alternating current iis given by i= 141.4 Sin(314t)
Find i) The maximum value
ii) Frequency
iii) Time Period
iv) The instantaneous value when t = 3ms i = 141.4 sin(314t)

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- Define Average value, RMS value and Form Factor and Calculate for sinusoidal wave.

Average Value:
The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is called
its average value.

For Symmetrical waveforms, the average value calculated over one cycle becomes equal to zero
because the positive area cancels the negative area. Hence for symmetrical waveforms, the
average value is calculated for half cycle.

Sinusoidal Current
RMS or Effective Value:

The effective or RMS value of an alternating quantity is that steady current (dc)
which when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the
same amount of heat produced by the alternating current flowing through the same
resistance for the same time.

Form Factor:

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It is the ratio of RMS value to the average value of an alternating quantity is known as Form
Factor.

Peak Factor or Crest Factor:

It is the ratio of maximum value to the RMS value of an alternating quantity is known as the
peak factor.

For a Sinusoidal Waveform :

Explaination about phasor, and Lead and lagging.

Phasor Representation:
An alternating quantity can be represented using
i) Waveform
ii) Equations
iii) Phasor
A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating line called a
Phasor. A phasor is a line of definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction at
a constant angular velocity
The waveform and equation representation of an alternating current is as shown. This sinusoidal
quantity can also be represented using phasors.
In phasor form the above wave is written as

Draw a line OP of length equal to Im. This line OP rotates in the anticlockwise direction with a
uniform angular velocity ω rad/sec and follows the circular trajectory shown in figure. At any
instant, the projection of OP on the y-axis is given by OM=OPsinθ = Imsinωt. Hence the line OP
is the phasor representation of the sinusoidal current.

Phase:
Phase is defined as the fractional part of time period or cycle through which the quantity has
advanced from the selected zero position of reference
Phase of +Emis π/2rad or T/4 sec
Phase of -Emis π/2rad or 3T/4 sec

Phase Difference:
When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero points, they are said
to have a phase difference. The angle between the zero points is the angle of phase difference.

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In Phase:
Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between them is zero. That is
the zero points of both the waveforms are same. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation of two sinusoidal quantities which are in phase is as shown. The figure shows that
the voltage and current are in phase.

Lagging:

In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is after the zero point of the voltage
waveform. Hence the current is lagging behind the voltage. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation is as shown.

Leading:
In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is before the zero point of the voltage
waveform. Hence the current is leading the voltage. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation is as shown.
AC circuit with a pure resistance (R):

Consider an AC circuit with a pure resistance R as shown in the figure.The alternating voltage
vis given by
𝑣=𝑣𝑚sin(𝜔𝑡) …………(1)
The current flowing in the circuitisi. The voltage across the resistor is given as VR
whichisthesameas v.
Usingohms law,wecanwrite thefollowingrelations
i=(v/R)=(𝑣𝑚sin(𝜔𝑡)/R)

i=imsin(𝜔𝑡) ………………………(2)

where im= 𝑣𝑚/ R

From equation (1) and (2) we conclude that in a pure resistive circuit, the voltage and current are
in phase. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasors can be drawn as below.

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Fig: (a) Vector representation (b) Phasor representation

An ac circuit consists of a pure resistance of 10Ωand is connected to an ac supply of 230

V, 50 Hz. Calculate the (i) current (ii) power consumed and (iii) equations for voltage
and current.

Soln:

Given R=10Ω, V=230 V, f=50 Hz

𝜔=2πf=2*π*50=314
(i) i=(v/R)=(230/10) = 23A
(ii) power consumed P=V*i=230*23= 5260 W
(iii)
𝑣𝑚=√2 V=√2*230=325.27 V

i𝑚=√2 i=√2*23=32.52 A

Therefore 𝑣=𝑣𝑚sin(𝜔𝑡) = 325.27 sin(𝜔𝑡) = 325.27 sin(314𝑡)

i=imsin(𝜔𝑡) = 32.52 sin(314𝑡)

AC circuit with a pure inductance:

Let the applied voltage, v = Vm sin ωt---------------------(1)

As stated above that the emf induced is equal and opposite to the applied voltage, i.e., v = – e

Where e is the back emf and is equal to –L di/dt

Substituting the emf expression, we get

v = L di/dt

Vm sin ωt = L di/dt

di = (Vm / L) sin ωt dt

By applying integration on both sides, we get

 i = (Vm / L) ∫ sin ωt dt

= (Vm / ωL) (– cos ωt)

i = (Vm / wL) (sin ωt – π/2)

When (sin ωt – π/2) is unity, the current flowing through the circuit will be maximum.

Soim = (Vm / ωL)

Then the current equation becomes,

i = im sin (ωt – π/2)------------(2)

Where im = (Vm / ωL)

From the above current and voltage expressions, it is clear that the current lags the voltage by
90°.

Therefore, in pure inductive circuit current is in quadrature with the voltage as shown in
waveforms of the above figure.

Fig: (a) Vector representation (b) Phasor representation

PROBLEM:
A pure inductive coil allows a current of 10A to flow from a 230V, 50 Hz supply. Find (i)
inductance
of the coil (ii) power absorbed and (iii) equations for voltage and current.

Soln:
Given :i=10A, V=230V, f=50 Hz
𝜔=2πf=2*π*50=314
(i) Inductive reactanceXL=(v/i)=(230/10) = 23Ω
Inductance of the coil L;
We know that, XL=2πfL
L=[(XL)/ (2πf)]=[(23)/ (314)]=0.0732 H

(ii) power absorbed P=0;

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The instantaneous power in inductive circuit is fluctuating in nature. The average power in a pure
inductive circuit is zero. Or in other words, the power consumed by a pure inductance is zero.

(iii)

𝑣𝑚=√2 V=√2*230=325.27 V

i𝑚=√2 i=√2*10=14.14 A

Therefore 𝑣=𝑣𝑚sin(𝜔𝑡) = 325.27 sin(𝜔𝑡) = 325.27 sin(314𝑡)

i=imsin(𝜔𝑡) = 14.14sin(314𝑡– π/2)

AC circuit with a pure capacitance:

Consider an AC circuit with a pure capacitance C as shown in the figure.

Let the alternating voltage applied to the circuit is given by the equation:

v = Vm sin ωt---------------------(1)

Charge of the capacitor at any instant of time is given as:

Current flowing through the circuit is given by the equation:

Putting the value of q from the equation (2) in equation (3) we will get

Now, putting the value of v from the equation (1) in the equation (3) we will get

Where Xc = 1/ωC is the opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by a pure capacitor
and is called Capacitive Reactance.
From the above current and voltage expressions, it is clear that the current leads the voltage by
90°.

Therefore, in pure inductive circuit current is in quadrature with the voltage as shown in
waveforms of the above figure.

Fig: (a) Vector representation (b) Phasor representation

Problem:

A 318μF capacitor is connected across a 230V, 50 Hz system. Find (i) the capacitive
reactance (ii)rms value of current and (iii) equations for voltage and current.

Given:
V=230 V, f=50 Hz
𝜔=2πf=2*π*50=314
C=318μF

(i) Xc=(1/2πfC)=(1/2*π*50*318μ) = 10Ω

(ii) i=(V/ Xc) =(230/ 10) =23 A

(iii)

𝑣𝑚=√2 V=√2*230=325.27 V

i𝑚=√2 i=√2*23=32.52 A

Therefore 𝑣=𝑣𝑚sin(𝜔𝑡) = 325.27 sin(𝜔𝑡) = 325.27 sin(314𝑡)

i=imsin(𝜔𝑡+ π/2)= 32.52 sin(314𝑡+ π/2)

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R-L Series Circuit:

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and an inductance L connected in series as shown in

the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡).
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR and that across the
inductor is VL
VR=IR is in phase with I
VL=IXL leads current by 90 degrees

With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown.

The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and the voltage
VL leads the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in the figure. From
the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage leads the current by an angle Φ or in other words
the current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ.

The waveform and equations for an RL series circuit can be drawn as below.

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚sin (𝜔𝑡 −∅)
From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle Φ can be
derived as follows.
𝑉𝑅=𝐼𝑅

𝑉𝐿=𝐼X𝐿

𝑉=√(𝐼𝑅)2+(𝐼X𝐿)2
𝑉=𝐼√𝑅2+X𝐿2
𝑉=𝐼𝑍
wℎe𝑟e𝑍=√𝑅2+X𝐿2

R-L-C Series circuit:

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R, an inductance L and a capacitance C connected in

series
as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by
𝑣=𝑣𝑚sin(𝜔𝑡)…………….(1)
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR, the voltage across
the
inductor is VL and that across the capacitor is VC.

VR=IR is in phase with I

VL=IXL leads the current by 90 degrees
VC=IXC lags behind the current by 90 degrees

With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown.
The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I, the voltage VL
leads the current by 90⁰and the voltage VC lags behind the current by 90⁰.
There are two cases that can occur VL>VC and VL<VC depending on the values of XL and XC.
And hence there are two possible phasor diagrams.
The phasor VL-VC or VC-VL is drawn and then the resultant voltage V is drawn.

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From the phasor diagram we observe that when VL>VC , the voltage leads the current by an
angle Φ or in other words the current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ.

When VL<VC ,the voltage lags behind the current by an angle Φ or in other words the current
leads the voltage by an angleΦ.
From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle _ can be derived
as follows.
From the expression for phase angle, we can derive the following three cases
Case (i): When XL>XC
The phase angle Φis positive and the circuit is inductive. The circuit behaves like a series RL
circuit.
Case (ii): When XL<XC
The phase angle Φis negative and the circuit is capacitive. The circuit behaves like a series
RC
circuit.
Case (iii): When XL=XC
The phase angle Φ= 0 and the circuit is purely resistive. The circuit behaves like a pure
resistive
circuit.

The voltage and the current can be represented by the following equations. The angle _ is positive or
negative depending on the circuit elements.

Hence the power in an RLC series circuit is consumed only in the resistance. The inductance and the
capacitance do not consume any power.

PROBLEM:
A 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply is applied to a coil of 0.06 H inductance and 2.5 _ resistance
connected in series with a 6.8 μF capacitor. Calculate (i) Impedance (ii) Current (iii) Phase
angle between current and voltage (iv) power factor (v) power consumed

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Generation of sinusoidal AC voltage:

Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field as shown in the figure.
The
coil is rotating in the anticlockwise direction at an uniform angular velocity of ꞷ rad/sec.

• When the coil is in the vertical position, the flux linking the coil is zero because the plane
of the coil is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. Hence at this position, the emf
induced in the coil is zero.
• When the coil moves by some angle in the anticlockwise direction, there is a rate of
change of flux linking the coil and hence an emf is induced in the coil.
• When the coil reaches the horizontal position, the flux linking the coil is maximum, and
hence the emf induced is also maximum.
• When the coil further moves in the anticlockwise direction, the emf induced in the coil
reduces.
• Next when the coil comes to the vertical position, the emf induced becomes zero.
• After that the same cycle repeats and the emf is induced in the opposite direction. When
the coil completes one complete revolution, one cycle of AC voltage is generated.

The generation of sinusoidal AC voltage can also be explained using mathematical equations.
Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field in the position shown
in the
figure. The maximum flux linking the coil is in the downward direction as shown in the figure.

Thisflux can be divided into two components, one component acting along the plane of the coil
Φmaxsin ꞷt
and another component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil Φmaxcosꞷt.

The component of flux acting along the plane of the coil does not induce any flux in the coil. Only
the component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil ieΦmaxcosꞷtinduces an emf in the coil.
Φ= Φmaxcosꞷt

e= -N (dΦ/dt)
e= -N (dΦmaxcosꞷt/dt)
e=N Φmax ꞷSin ꞷt
e=Em Sin ꞷt
Hence the emf induced in the coil is a sinusoidal emf. This will induce a sinusoidal current in the
circuit given by i=Im Sin ꞷt

An alternating quantity changes continuously in magnitude and alternates in direction at

regularintervals of time. Important terms associated with an alternating quantity are defined
below.
1. Amplitude

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It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity. Also called as maximum or
peakvalue.

2. Time Period (T)

It is the Time Taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity.

3. Instantaneous Value
It is the value of the quantity at any instant

4. Frequency (f)
It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. The unit for frequency is Hz or cycles/sec.

The relationship between frequency and time period can be derived as follows.
Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 second
Time taken to complete 1 cycle = 1/f second
T=1/f second
Advantages of AC system over DC system
1. AC voltages can be efficiently stepped up/down using transformer
2. AC motors are cheaper and simpler in construction than DC motors
3. Switchgear for AC system is simpler than DC system

PROBLEM:
An alternating current i is given byi = 141.4 sin 314t
Find i) The maximum value
ii) Frequency
iii) Time Period
iv) The instantaneous value when t=3ms
Solution:
Given i = 141.4 sin 314t
Comparing it with the sinusoidal current equation i = i𝑚sin 𝜔𝑡
i) The maximum valuei𝑚= 141.4 A
ii) Since ꞷ=314 rad/sec;
Frequency f=ꞷ/2π= 50 Hz
(iii) Time Period T=1/f=1/50=0.02 Sec
(iv) The instantaneous value iwhen t=3ms;
i=141.4 sin (314x0.003) = 114.35A
THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS:

A three phase supply is a set of three alternating quantities displaced from each other by an angle
of
120⁰. A three phase voltage is shown in the figure. It consists of three phases- phase A, phase B
and
phase C. Phase A waveform starts at 0⁰. Phase B waveform stars at 120⁰and phase C waveform
at
240⁰.

(a) Three phase (A-B-C phases) (b) Single phase

The three phase voltage can be represented by a set of three equations as shown below.

eA= EmSin ꞷt
eB= EmSin (ꞷt-120°)
eC= EmSin (ꞷt-240°) =EmSin (ꞷt+120°)

The sum of the three phase voltages at any instant is equal to zero.

eA+ eB+ eC=0

The phasor representation of three phase voltages is as shown.

The phase A voltage is taken as the reference and is drawn along the x-axis.

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The phase B voltage lags behind the phase A voltage by 120⁰.
The phase C voltage lags behind the phase A voltage by 240⁰ and phase B voltage by 120⁰.

Generation of Three Phase Voltage:

Three Phase voltage can be generated by placing three rectangular coils displaced in space by
120⁰ in
a uniform magnetic field. When these coils rotate with a uniform angular velocity of ꞷ rad/sec,
a sinusoidal emf displaced by 120⁰ is induced in these coils.

Necessity and advantages of three phase systems:

• 3Φ power has a constant magnitude whereas 1Φ power pulsates from zero to peak value
at twice the supply frequency.
• A 3Φ system can set up a rotating magnetic field in stationary windings. This is not
possible with a 1Φ supply.
• For the same rating 3Φ machines are smaller, simpler in construction and have better
operating characteristics than 1Φ machines.
• To transmit the same amount of power over a fixed distance at a given voltage, the 3Φ
system requires only 3/4th the weight of copper that is required by the 1Φ system.
• The voltage regulation of a 3Φ transmission line is better than that of 1Φ line.

Phase Sequence
The order in which the voltages in the three phases reach their maximum value.

For the waveform shown in figure, phase A reaches the maximum value first, followed by phase
B
and then by phase C. hence the phase sequence is A-B-C.

Balanced Supply
A supply is said to be balanced if all three voltages are equal in magnitude and displaced by
120⁰.
A three-phase supply can be connected in two ways - Either in Delta connection or in
Starconnection as shown in the figure.

Balanced Load
A load is said to be balanced if the impedances in all three phases are equal in magnitude and
phase
A three-phase load can be connected in two ways - Either in Delta connection or in
Starconnection as shown in the figure.

Balanced Star Connected Load and Phase -Line value relation:

A balanced star connected load is shown in the figure.

A phase voltage is defined as voltage acrossany phase of the three-phase load. The phase
voltages shown in figure are EA, EBand EC.
A linevoltage is defined as the voltage between any two lines. The line voltages shown in the
figure areEAB, EBC and ECA.

The line currents are IA, IB and IC. For a star connected load, the phase currents aresame as the
line currents.

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Using Kirchoff’s voltage law, the line voltages can be written in terms of the phase voltages as
shown below.

EAB= EA - EB
EBC = EB - EC
ECA = EC - EA

The phasor diagram shows the three phase voltages and the line voltage EAB drawn from EA
and –EB
phasors. The phasor for current IA is also shown. It is assumed that the load is inductive.

From the phasor diagram we see that the line voltage EAB leads the phase voltage EA by 30⁰.
The
magnitude of the two voltages can be related as follows.

EAB= 2EACos 30° =√3 EA

Hence for a balanced star connected load we can make the following conclusions.
EL =√3 Eph or VL=√3 Vph

i.e., In 3Φ STAR connected system Line voltage EL is √3 times the phase voltage Eph.

IL =Iph

i.e., In 3Φ STAR connected system Line CurrentIL is same as phase current valueIph.

Three phase Power

In a single-phase circuit, the power is given by VIcosΦ
It can also be written as VphIphcosΦ.
The power in a three circuit will be three times the power in a single-phase circuit.
P= 3 VphIphcosΦ

Or
P= √3 VLILcosΦ

Balanced Delta Connected Load:

A balanced delta connected load is shown in the figure.

The phase currents are IAB, IBC and ICA.
The line currents are IA, IB and IC.

For a delta connected load, the phase voltages are same as the line voltages given by EAB, EBC
and ECA.

Using Kirchoff’s current law, the line currents can be written in terms of the phase currents as
shown
below.

IA= IAB -ICA

IB = IBC -IAB
IC = ICA -IBC

The phasor diagram shows the three voltages EAB, EBC and ECA and the three phase currents
IAB, IBC
and ICA lagging behind the respective phase voltages by an angle Φ.
This is drawn by assuming that the load is inductive.
From the phase currents IAB and –ICA, the line current IA is drawn as shown in the figure.
From the phasor diagram we see that the line current IA lags behind the phase phase current IAB
by30⁰.
The magnitude of the two currents can be related as follows.

IA= 2IAB Cos 30° = √3 IAB

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Hence for a balanced delta connected load we can make the following conclusions.

IL = √3 IPh

EL = Eph

Three phase Power

The three-phase power for a delta connected load can be derived in the same way as that for a
star
connected load.

P= 3 EphIphcosΦ

Or
P= √3 ELILcosΦ

Basis For
Single Phase Three Phase
Comparison
The power supply through one The power supply through three
Definition
conductor. conductors.

Wave Shape

Require two wires for completing Requires four wires for completing the
Number of wire.
the circuit. circuit. (Minimum 3 wires)
Voltage Carry 230V Carry 415V
Power Transfer
Minimum Maximum
Capability
Network Simple Complicated
Loss Maximum Minimum

Power Supply
Connection

Efficiency Less High

Economical Less More
In large industries and for running heavy
Uses For home appliances.
loads.
 Star Connection vs Delta Connection
Sl.No Content Star Connection Delta Connection

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 In a three-phase AC connection, one
In a three-phase AC
terminal from each winding is
connection, all the terminals
[Definition] What are connected to a common point, and the
of each winding is connected
01 the star and delta remaining three terminals are
to each other. This
connections? connected to the external circuit. This
connection is called as
connection is called as ‘Star
‘Delta connection’.
connection’.
Sometimes, it is called as a ‘Wye It is also called as a ‘Mesh
02 Called as
connection’. connection’.
Representation of star Star connection is represented by the Delta connection is
03
& delta connections ‘Y’. represented by the ‘Δ’.
The common point occurs in star
Common point does not
Common Point connection or wiring. Sometimes, this
04 occur in delta connection or
connection point is called a ‘Neutral point’(N) or
wiring.
‘Star point’.
How many wires are It requires a three-wire three-phase
It requires a three-wire
05 in a three phase AC system and a four-wire three-
three-phase AC system.
system? phase AC system.
Line voltage is equal to root three Line voltage is equal to the
What is the relation
times of the phase voltage. phase voltage.
06 between phase and
linevoltage?
Represent as, VL = √3 VPh. Represent as, VL = VPh.
Line current is equal to root
Line current is equal to the phase
What is the relation three times of the phase
current.
07 between phase and current.
linecurrent?
Represent as, IL = IPh.
Represent as, IL = √3 IPh.
Which type of
connection is used in In the transmission and
Only in the distribution system, a star
08 transmission and distribution system, delta
connection is used.
distribution power connection is used.
lines?

Each winding receives 220V or 230V Each winding receives 414V

09 Required voltage for
in star connection. or 415V in delta connection.
star and delta wiring
For the short-distance, the star For thelong-distance, the
10 Distance
network is used. delta network is used.
It requires the less number
11 Number of turns It requires alarge number of turns.
of turn.
12 Insulation More insulation is required. Less insulation is required.