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A Rising China and Security in East Asia

This volume provides a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of the security

discourse of Chinese policy elites on the major powers in East Asia, namely the
United States, Japan and Russia, in relation to China’s self-perception as a rising
power. It is the first book-length study that utilizes International Relations theories
systematically to analyze Chinese perceptions of the three countries’ global and
Asia-Pacific security strategy in the post-Cold War era, and the debate among
Chinese international relations specialists on how China should respond to the
perceived challenge from the major powers to its rise to a global status.
Rex Li argues that the security discourse of Chinese policy analysts is closely
linked to their conception of China’s identity and their desire and endeavour to
construct a great power identity for China. Drawing on extensive and up-to-date
Chinese-language sources, this study demonstrates that Chinese elites perceive the
power, aspirations and security strategies of other East Asian powers primarily in
terms of their implications for China’s pursuit of a great power status in the twenty-
first century. This new work will contribute significantly to the on-going academic
and policy debate on the nature and repercussions of China’s rise.
A Rising China and Security in East Asia will be essential reading for under-
graduate and postgraduate students and scholars of Asian security, China’s foreign
relations, security studies and international relations.

Rex Li is Senior Lecturer in International Relations at Liverpool John Moores

University, UK. He has served as an Associate Editor of Security Dialogue,
International Peace Research Institute, Oslo, and has published widely on Asia-
Pacific security issues and China’s international relations.
Politics in Asia series
Formerly edited by Michael Leifer
London School of Economics

1 ASEAN and the Security of 8 Politics in Indonesia

South-East Asia Democracy, Islam and the
Michael Leifer ideology of tolerance
Douglas E. Ramage
2 China’s Policy towards
Territorial Disputes 9 Communitarian Ideology and
The case of the South China Sea Democracy in Singapore
Islands Beng-Huat Chua
Chi-kin Lo
10 The Challenge of Democracy in
3 India and Southeast Asia Nepal
Indian perceptions and policies Louise Brown
Mohammed Ayoob
11 Japan’s Asia Policy
4 Gorbachev and Southeast Asia Wolf Mendl
Leszek Buszynski
12 The International Politics of the
5 Indonesian Politics under Asia-Pacific, 1945–1995
Suharto Michael Yahuda
Order, development and pressure
for change 13 Political Change in Southeast
Michael R. J. Vatikiotis Asia
Trimming the Banyan tree
6 The State and Ethnic Politics in Michael R. J. Vatikiotis
Southeast Asia
David Brown 14 Hong Kong
China’s challenge
7 The Politics of Nation Building Michael Yahuda
and Citizenship in Singapore
Michael Hill and Lian Kwen Fee 15 Korea versus Korea
A case of contested legitimacy
B. K. Gills
16 Taiwan and Chinese Nationalism 25 Singapore’s Foreign Policy
National identity and status in Coping with vulnerability
international society Michael Leifer
Christopher Hughes
26 Philippine Politics and Society in
17 Managing Political Change in the Twentieth Century
Singapore Colonial legacies, post-colonial
The elected presidency trajectories
Kevin Y. L. Tan and Lam Peng Er Eva-Lotta E. Hedman and John T.
Sidel
18 Islam in Malaysian Foreign
Policy 27 Constructing a Security
Shanti Nair Community in Southeast Asia
ASEAN and the problem of
19 Political Change in Thailand regional order
Democracy and participation Amitav Acharya
Kevin Hewison
28 Monarchy in South East Asia
20 The Politics of NGOs in The faces of tradition in transition
Southeast Asia Roger Kershaw
Participation and protest in the
Philippines 29 Korea After the Crash
Gerard Clarke The politics of economic recovery
Brian Bridges
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Mahathir 30 The Future of North Korea
R. S. Milne and Diane K. Mauzy Edited by Tsuneo Akaha

22 Indonesia and China 31 The International Relations of

The politics of a troubled Japan and South East Asia
relationship Forging a new regionalism
Rizal Sukma Sueo Sudo

23 Arming the Two Koreas 31 Power and Change in Central

State, capital and military power Asia
Taik-young Hamm Edited by Sally N. Cummings

24 Engaging China 32 The Politics of Human Rights in

The management of an emerging Southeast Asia
power Philip Eldridge
Edited by Alastair Iain Johnston
and Robert S. Ross 33 Political Business in East Asia
Edited by Edmund Terence Gomez
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People’s Action Party Edited by Chua Beng Huat
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44 East Timor, Australia and
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Asia Intervention and its aftermath in
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James Cotton
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Edited by Jennifer Amyx and Peter Bargaining and China’s
Drysdale Territorial Disputes
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Politics of the Digital Leap 46 Democratic Development in East
Forward Asia
Edited by Christopher R. Hughes Becky Shelley
and Gudrun Wacker
47 International Politics of the Asia-
38 Challenging Authoritarianism in Pacific since 1945
Southeast Asia Michael Yahuda
Comparing Indonesia and
Malaysia 48 Asian States
Edited by Ariel Heryanto and Beyond the Developmental
Sumit K. Mandal Perspective
Edited by Richard Boyd and Tak-
39 Cooperative Security and the Wing Ngo
Balance of Power in ASEAN and
the ARF 49 Civil Life, Globalization, and
Ralf Emmers Political Change in Asia
Organizing between family and
40 Islam in Indonesian Foreign state
Policy Edited by Robert P. Weller
Rizal Sukma
50 Realism and Interdependence in
41 Media, War and Terrorism Singapore’s Foreign Policy
Responses from the Middle East Narayanan Ganesan
and Asia
Edited by Peter Van der Veer and 51 Party Politics in Taiwan
Shoma Munshi Party change and the democratic
evolution of Taiwan, 1991–2004
42 China, Arms Control and Dafydd Fell
Nonproliferation
Wendy Frieman
52 State Terrorism and Political 61 Indonesia’s War over Aceh
Identity in Indonesia Last Stand on Mecca’s Porch
Fatally Belonging Matthew N. Davies
Ariel Heryanto
62 Advancing East Asian
53 China’s Rise, Taiwan’s Regionalism
Dilemmas and International Edited by Melissa G. Curley and
Peace Nicholas Thomas
Edited by Edward Friedman
63 Political Cultures in Asia and
54 Japan and China in the World Europe
Political Economy Citizens, States and Societal
Edited by Saadia M. Pekkanen and Values
Kellee S. Tsai Jean Blondel and Takashi
Inoguchi
55 Order and Security in Southeast
Asia 64 Rethinking Injustice and
Essays in Memory of Michael Reconciliation in Northeast Asia
Leifer The Korean Experience
Edited by Joseph Chinyong Liow Edited by Gi-Wook Shin, Soon-
and Ralf Emmers Won Park and Daqing Yang

56 State Making in Asia 65 Foreign Policy Making in

Edited by Richard Boyd and Tak- Taiwan
Wing Ngo From Principle to Pragmatism
Dennis Van Vranken Hickey
57 US-China Relations in the 21st
Century 66 The Balance of Power in Asia-
Power Transition and Peace Pacific Security
Zhiqun Zhu US-China Policies on Regional
Order
58 Empire and Neoliberalism in Liselotte Odgaard
Asia
Edited by Vedi R. Hadiz 67 Taiwan in the 21st Century
Aspects and limitations of a
59 South Korean Engagement development model
Policies and North Korea Edited by Robert Ash and J.
Identities, Norms and the Sunshine Megan Green
Policy
Son Key-young 68 Elections as Popular Culture in
Asia
60 Chinese Nationalism in the Edited by Chua Beng Huat
Global Era
Christopher R. Hughes
69 Security and Migration in Asia 71 Torture Truth and Justice
The dynamics of securitisation The case of Timor-Leste
Edited by Melissa G. Curley & Elizabeth Stanley
Wong Siu-lun
72 A Rising China and Security in
70 Political Transitions in East Asia
Dominant Party Systems Identity construction and security
Learning to lose discourse
Edited by Edward Friedman and Rex Li
Joseph Wong
A Rising China and Security in
East Asia
Identity construction and security discourse

Rex Li
First published 2009
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

© 2009 Rex Li
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Li, Rex.
A rising China and security in east Asia: identity construction and security
discourse / Rex Li.
p. cm.
1. China—Foreign relations—East Asia. 2. East Asia—Foreign
relations—China. 3. China—Foreign relations—1976– 4. East Asia—
Politics and government. 5. East Asia—Foreign relations. 6. Elite (Social
sciences)—China—Attitudes. I. Title.
DS518.15.L5 2008
355’.03305—dc22 2008023450

ISBN 0-203-88694-1 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0-415-44940-5 (hbk)

ISBN10: 0-415-44941-3 (pbk)
ISBN10: 0-203-88694-1 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978-0-415-44940-3 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978-0-415-44941-0 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978-0-203-88694-6 (ebk)
For Shirley, Sonia and Sylvia
Contents

List of illustrations xii

Preface xiii
List of abbreviations xvi

1 A rising China, international relations theories and Chinese

security discourse of East Asian powers 1

2 Hegemonic aspirations in a unipolar world: US security

strategy under the George Bush Snr and Bill Clinton
presidencies 47

3 September 11, pre-emption and the Bush Doctrine: US

security strategy under the George W. Bush administration 78

4 Security, identity and strategic choice: Japan’s quest for a

great power status 113

5 A key player in an emerging multipolar world: Russia and East

Asian security 143

6 China’s response to the security challenge of the major powers

in East Asia: identity construction and great power aspirations 171

7 Conclusion: Chinese security discourse and its implications for

the debate on the rise of China 209

Appendix 228
Notes 232
Bibliography 235
Name index 281
Subject index 289
Illustrations

Maps
1 The Pacific Rim xvi
2 China and East Asia xvii
3 China and Central and South Asia xviii

Figures
1.1 China’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in RMB 1993–2007 228
1.2 China’s Gross Domestic Product Growth Rate 1993–2007 228
1.3 China’s World Trade (US$bn) 1993–2007 229
1.4 China’s Utilized FDI Inflows 229
1.5 China’s Defence Expenditure (US$bn) 1990–2006 230
4.1 Japan’s ODA Disbursements to China 1999–2005 230
6.1 Comparative Defence Spending of the Great Powers in East Asia 231
6.2 China’s Trade with Other East Asian Powers 2007 231
Preface

In a recent article published in Newsweek, Fareed Zakaria (2007/2008: 21–22),

the editor of the US magazine, stated that the ‘advent of China as a global power
is no longer a forecast but a reality’. While his judgement may not be shared by
everyone, few would dispute that China is rising rapidly, whether this is measured
by its economic growth, military capability or political influence. Some view the
ascendancy of China with great interest and enthusiasm. Others are troubled by
the augmentation of Chinese power, fearing that it might bring about unpredictable
repercussions in the East Asian region and the wider world.
Indeed, the management of the rise of China presents an enormous challenge
for the international community. Zakaria (2007/2008: 21) argues that 2008 should
be ‘the year we craft a serious long-term China policy’. But a long-term policy
towards China cannot be based entirely on the assessment of China’s material
power. Why do Chinese leaders and elites aspire to establish a great power status
for their country? What path are they likely to take in achieving their national
goals? How would they exercise their newfound power in the coming years? These
are also important questions that the outside world should think about.
Like individuals, states have their distinctive identities, and their interests are
often shaped by the identities they have enacted. The way states define and form
their identities is also related to their perceptions of and interactions with other
actors. Of all the countries in the world, the United States, Japan and Russia are
arguably the most significant ‘others’ with whom China interacts intensely and
regularly. A thorough understanding of Chinese security discourse of the three
great powers in East Asia is crucial to the understanding of China’s self-perception
and aspirations, and thus the formulation of a sound China policy.
However, the outside world knows little about the security perceptions of
China’s policy elites and the internal debate among them. To be sure, there is
some interesting and valuable work on China’s perceptions of other great powers,
but the linkage between this body of literature and the debate on China’s rise
remains insufficiently explored. Much of the current debate focuses on external
perceptions of the consequences of growing Chinese power without taking into
account China’s self-identity and how this is related to its perceptions of other
significant actors. In addition, despite the vibrancy and sophistication in the
development of International Relations (IR) theories, few researchers have drawn
xiv Preface
on the rich theoretical insights of the discipline in their analysis of Chinese
security perceptions.
This is the first book-length study that systematically utilizes various IR
theories, including Realism, Liberalism, Constructivism and Postmodernism, to
analyze Chinese perceptions of the East Asian powers’ global and Asia-Pacific
security strategy in the post-Cold War era. Based on a wide range of Chinese-
language sources and Western academic literature, the study argues that the
security discourse of Chinese policy analysts is closely linked to their conception of
China’s identity and their desire and endeavour to construct a great power identity
for China. It also examines the debate among Chinese policy elites on how China
should respond to the perceived challenge from the three major powers to its rise
to a global status.
By offering an in-depth and theoretically grounded analysis of China’s security
discourse of the US, Japan and Russia in relation to the process of its identity
formation, this volume seeks to contribute to the on-going academic and policy
debate on the nature and implications of an ascendant China. In a sense, the book
can be seen as an attempt to bridge the traditional divide between area studies and
the IR discipline.
As such, this study should be of interest to scholars and researchers of Asian
security and Chinese foreign policy, as well as international relations and
security specialists. I have tried to write the book in an accessible style so that
undergraduate and postgraduate students will find it useful in helping them gain
a better understanding of China’s international relations, and its security relations
with other great powers in particular. Given the significance of the topic, it is hoped
that professionals who are involved in foreign policy-making or dealing with China
and Asia-Pacific security issues on a regular basis, such as government officials,
diplomats and international journalists, will benefit from reading this book.
The research for this project began as part of a wider project on the Pacific
Rim that was funded by the UK Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC).
Further funding was provided by the Higher Education Funding Council for
England at various stages of my research. The University, Faculty and School
Research Committees of Liverpool John Moores University have also provided
me with funding for research leave and other research expenses. I am grateful to
these funding bodies and my own institution for their financial support, which has
enabled me to develop the project.
At Liverpool John Moores University, I have had the pleasure of collaborating
with Professor Ian Cook, Dr Nick White and other colleagues on an ESRC-
funded project on the Pacific Rim. This has facilitated the development of many
projects including the one on which this book is based. Dr Frank McDonough,
who is a distinguished scholar of international history, has given me consistent
encouragement and I have benefited considerably from his knowledge and
expertise. During the early stages of this project, Professor David McEvoy provided
invaluable financial assistance and I am very grateful for his help. I would also
like to thank Phil Cubbin, who has kindly used his excellent cartographic skills
to produce the maps for this book. Special thanks must go to Professor Chris
 Preface xv
Frost, who has provided me with tremendous support and encouragement over
the past few years. His appreciation of the value and significance of my research
is gratefully acknowledged.
The research ideas and findings of this project have been presented in different
forms at a variety of international conferences, seminars and track-II meetings. I
have benefited greatly from the questions and comments from numerous scholars,
officials and diplomats who attended these meetings. A number of friends and
colleagues have kindly invited me to give presentations relating to my research
at seminars and conferences they have organized. I would like to thank Professor
Gerald Chan, Professor Hugo de Burgh, Professor Phil Deans, Dr Christopher
Dent, Dr Christopher R. Hughes, Dr Tim Huxley, Professor Marika Vicziany and
Dr Steve Tsang for their invitation, funding and hospitality.
I am also grateful to Professor Shaun Breslin, Professor Mary Buckley, Professor
Gerald Chan, Professor Stephen Chan, Dr Christopher Dent, Professor Reinhard
Drifte, Dr Tim Huxley, Professor Robert Singh, Dr Harumi Yoshino and Professor
Suisheng Zhao for their encouragement and comments on my earlier work from
which several chapters derive. I am particularly grateful to Professor Glenn
Hook, Dr Robert Taylor and Dr Peter Ferdinand for reading a previous version
of all the chapters. Their constructive comments have helped me enormously in
improving the book. Thanks also go to the three anonymous reviewers for the
publisher who have offered some thoughtful and valuable comments. Despite the
helpful suggestions and comments from many colleagues and friends, I am solely
responsible for any mistakes and misinterpretations in this book.
Moreover, I am indebted to many Chinese international relations scholars and
think-tanks specialists with whom I have met during my research visits and at
academic conferences and track-II meetings over the past decade and a half. The
formal and informal discussions with this group of policy analysts on issues related
to the project have certainly helped enhance my understanding of the complexity
of Chinese security discourse.
Furthermore, I wish to thank Routledge’s publisher Craig Fowlie who first
suggested that I write a book on China’s international relations. I would also like
to thank Stephanie Rogers, the commissioning editor at Routledge, who has shown
a great deal of interest in and commitment to this project since its inception. It is
also a pleasure to have worked with Sonja van Leeuwen, the acting editor, and
Leanne Hinves, editorial assistant, Stewart Pether, production editor, Camille
Lowe, project manager at Pindar NZ, and Beth Gordon, copy editor. Their advice
and patience are very much appreciated.
Last but not least, I owe a profound debt of gratitude to my wife Shirley and
two daughters Sonia and Sylvia, who have been incredibly supportive throughout
the research and writing process of this project. They endured so much when I
was preoccupied with this work, both physically and mentally, and was away
from home for research trips and other related activities. Their understanding and
sustained support have given me immense strength, without which the project
would not have been completed. With love this book is dedicated to them.
Abbreviations

ABM Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty

APEC Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
ARF ASEAN Regional Forum
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ASEM Asia-Europe Meeting
CASS Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
CBM Confidence-building measures
CCP Chinese Communist Party
CICIR China Institute of Contemporary International Relations
CIIS China Institute of International Studies
CIS Commonwealth of Independent States
CSCAP Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia-Pacific
DPP Democratic Progressive Party
DPRK Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
EAS East Asia Summit
EU European Union
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
G7 Group of Seven
G8 Group of Eight
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDP Gross Domestic Product
IAPS Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies
IAS Institute of American Studies
ICBM Intercontinental-range ballistic missile
IISS International Institute of Strategic Studies
IJS Institute of Japanese Studies
IMF International Monetary Fund
IR International Relations
IRBM Intermediate-range ballistic missile
IRCAEES Institute of Russian, Central Asian and East European Studies
LDP Liberal Democratic Party
LGNS Leading Group on National Security
 Abbreviations xvii
MFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs
NAFTA North American Free Trade Area
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NMD National Missile Defence
NPC National People’s Congress
NPT Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
NSC New security concept
NSS National Security Strategy
ODA Official Development Assistance
OSCE Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe
PLA People’s Liberation Army
PRC People’s Republic of China
RMB Renminbi (Chinese currency)
SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organization
SDF Self-Defence Forces
SRBM Short-range ballistic missile
TMD Theatre Missile Defence
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNSC United Nations Security Council
US United States
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
WMD Weapons of mass destruction
WTO World Trade Organization
 RUSSIA USA
(PART OF)

CANADA

USA
JAPAN
CHINA

AUSTRALIA

NEW ZEALAND

Map 1 The Pacific Rim.

 Russia
(Part of)

Ulan Bator

M on gol i a
The
Sea Of
Pyongyang N. Korea Japan
Beijing

Seoul
Japan
S. Korea
C h i n a Tokyo

East
China
Sea

Taipei Okinawa

Hanoi Taiwan
Myanmar
Laos The Taiwan Strait
Viangchan
Rangoon
Thailand
Manila Philippines
Bangkok Kampuchea Guam
Phnom Penh Vietnam
South
China Sea
Brunei
Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
Singapore

Indonesia

Jakarta

East Timor

Map 2 China and East Asia.

 RUSSIA
(Part of)

ULAN BATOR
K A Z A K H S T A N
MONGOLIA
UZBE
K IST
A N KYRGYZSTAN
TURKM XINJIANG
ENIS BEIJING
TAN TAJIKIST
AN

XIZANG CHINA
AFGHANISTAN
(TIBET)
PAKISTAN
IND
IA

Map 3 China and Central and South Asia.

1 A rising China, international
relations theories and Chinese
security discourse of East Asian
powers

The rise of China as a key player on the global stage is undoubtedly a significant
phenomenon in international relations (Shambaugh 2005; Wang 2004). Much of
the debate among Western scholars and analysts focuses on the questions of how
Chinese leaders will use their growing power to pursue their national interest
and how the world should respond to an increasingly powerful China. These
are no doubt important questions, but they cannot be fully answered without
taking into account Chinese security perceptions. How do Chinese leaders and
policy elites view the structure of the post-Cold War international system? How
do they perceive China’s interests and its role in the changing security environ-
ment? How are these issues related to China’s domestic political and economic
agenda?
This book aims to analyze China’s security perceptions, focusing in particular
on its perceptions of the major powers1 in East Asia – the United States, Japan
and Russia – since 1989 (see Map 1). Ever since the establishment of the People’s
Republic of China (PRC), Chinese leaders have attached tremendous importance
to great power politics in their security considerations and strategic calculations. In
recent years, China has actively developed various types of ‘strategic partnerships’
with the major powers and actors around the world. There is no doubt that China
has global aspirations but, for historical and geographical reasons, East Asia
remains China’s primary focus (see Map 2).
In terms of economic development and security concerns, East Asia is regarded
by PRC leaders as the most important region. It is a region on which Chinese
trade and economic activities depend substantially; it is a region where China has
vital security interests as well as unresolved territorial disputes which may lead
to military conflict in future. Not surprisingly, Chinese leaders have paid more
attention to the intentions and strategies of the great powers in this region. After
all, two of the East Asian powers – America and Russia – are also global powers,
nuclear weapons states and permanent members of the United Nations Security
Council. Japan, despite its somewhat limited security role, is widely known as an
economic superpower with an expanding global profile.
For analytical clarity, East Asia is taken to encompass the countries in South
East Asia and North East Asia (see Map 2). The book thus excludes systematic
analyses of Chinese security perceptions of India, a major power in South Asia
2 A rising China and Chinese security discourse
(see Map 3). This is not to suggest that India is not important and unworthy of
consideration. On the contrary, India has immense economic potential and is a
significant strategic player in the Asia-Pacific region. Indeed, it has gained greater
prominence in Chinese strategic considerations in the past decade, especially
since New Delhi’s nuclear tests in 1998 and the events of September 11, 2001.
Nevertheless, India is not a great power in East Asia, which is the geographical
focus of this study. Moreover, India is not usually characterized by PRC elites
and security analysts as a ‘pole’ or power centre in their conceptualization of a
multipolar system. Inevitably, the discussion may cover issues relating to other
countries within the Asia-Pacific, including Australia and South and Central Asian
states (see Map 1 and Map 3).
The starting point for this study is 1989, which is a significant year when China
had to face a series of unprecedented challenges both domestically and externally.
Never had the PRC government had to deal with such an immense challenge to its
authority as the Tiananmen democracy movement (Cheng 1990; Nathan and Link
2002). The crackdown of the student demonstrations in 1989 seriously undermined
the legitimacy of the Chinese communist regime in the eyes of the international
community leading to strong reactions and sanctions from the West.
Internationally, China became even more isolated following the downfall of
the communist regimes in Eastern Europe towards the end of 1989. At the same
time, the Cold War conflict between the United States and the former Soviet Union
ended peacefully. The collapse of the bipolar system which had lasted for over
forty years, together with the demise of communism in Eastern Europe and the
political change in the Soviet Union under Gorbachev, brought huge uncertainties
for China. The rapidly changing international landscape forced Chinese leaders
to reassess their country’s new security environment, especially the foreign
policies of the major East Asian powers, and to respond to the challenge of a
unipolar world.
The key argument of this book is that Chinese perceptions of the security
strategy of the major powers in East Asia are extremely important in shaping
China’s foreign policy and its policy towards the region in particular. In addition,
the book argues that Chinese security discourse on the three East Asian powers
should be understood as part of a process of identity formation through which
China seeks to construct and maintain a great power identity. As far as the level
of analysis is concerned, the study focuses on the perceptions of PRC policy elites
and international affairs analysts who are actively engaged in the articulation of
Chinese security perceptions and have regularly published their work in specialist
and policy-oriented journals.
There are five sections in this chapter. The first section highlights the signifi-
cance of the research topic and provides the context within which the research
problem emerges. The second critically reviews the current debate and the extant
literature relevant to the concerns and arguments of the book. This is followed by
a section on the research problem, including the aims and objectives of the study.
The fourth section considers the chosen research methods and the related meth-
odological issues with some discussion on the sources and data that are collected
 A rising China and Chinese security discourse 3
and used in this project. The final section explains the scope of the book and how
it is organized.

Context of research
The re-emergence of China as a great power is arguably the single most important
development in the post-Cold War world. The rapid economic growth of the PRC
over the past decade, coupled with its high level of defence spending, has stimulated
much interest and trepidation among policy-makers and analysts across the world.
Although the continued augmentation of Chinese power is not predetermined, the
profound effects of China’s growing process cannot be underestimated.
Since the late 1970s, Chinese leaders have introduced a wide-ranging programme
of economic modernization (Ash, Howe and Kueh 2003; Naughton 2006). In 2007,
the Chinese economy grew 11.4 per cent in reaching 24,661.9 billion RMB. Indeed,
between 1993 and 2007 the PRC enjoyed an average of 10 per cent GDP growth
(see Fig. 1.1 and Fig. 1.2). It is now the world’s fourth largest economy (Lardy
2006: 2). Meanwhile, China has gradually emerged as a major trading nation, and
its economic and trade relations with most countries have broadened considerably.
China has been actively involved in global economic activities and is fully
integrated into the Asia-Pacific economy. The PRC is a member of all the major
international and regional economic organizations, including the World Trade
Organization (WTO), the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF),
the Asian Development Bank, and the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
forum (Feeney 1994; Findlay 1995; Lanteigne 2005). Over 400 of the world’s top
500 multinational corporations have now invested in the country (Shi 2002).
As a result, there has been a huge growth in China’s foreign trade over the past
two decades. From 1978 to 2007 China’s exports grew from US$9.8 billion to
US$1218 billion, and its imports grew from US$10.9 billion to US$955.8 billion
(Lardy 1994: 30) (see Fig. 1.3). Between 1983 and 2007 actual Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) in China increased from US$916 million to US$74.8 billion
(Lardy 1994: 63) (see Fig. 1.4). Indeed, China has become the third largest trading
nation in the world (Lardy 2006: 2).
In addition, China has benefited from its involvement in a regional division
of labour and economic cooperation in East Asia (Dent 2006, 2008; Rimmer
1995). It is integrated into a number of subregional economic groupings, or
‘growth triangles’, such as the Hong Kong-Guangdong-Shenzhen triangle and the
Northeast China-Korea-Japan triangle. In addition, China is closely involved in
the development of two subregional groupings: the Yellow Sea Economic Zone,
including Liaoning and Shandong provinces, Japan and South Korea; and the
Tumen River project that seeks to promote economic cooperation among China,
Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Mongolia and Russia. Indeed, China has strong
bilateral and multilateral economic relations with all its Asian neighbours. At
the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) Plus Three summit in
November 2002 at Phnom Penh, the former Chinese Premier, Zhu Rongji, and
ASEAN leaders announced their decision to establish a China-ASEAN Free Trade
4 A rising China and Chinese security discourse
Area by 2010 which could become the world’s third largest trading bloc (Digital
Chosunilbo 2002; Cheng 2004).
Back in the 1990s, Western scholars had already predicted that China would
overtake Japan as an economic superpower (Salameh 1995–96: 142) and that it
might replace the United States as ‘the number one economy in the world’ (Kristof
1993: 59). To some observers, China will probably ‘catch up with American total
economic size … within a generation’ (Garnaut 2005: 516).
Apart from its growing economic strength, there has been significant progress
in China’s military modernization (Blasko 2005; Shambaugh 2002a). According
to the estimates of the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS), the PRC
has increased its defence spending from US$11.3 billion in 1990 to US$122 billion
in 2006 (IISS 2007; National Bureau of Asian Research 2008) (see Fig. 1.5). It
has been purchasing a variety of weapons from Russia, Israel and other countries
to upgrade its air and naval power. Beijing is reported to have spent an average
of £650 million on Russian fighter jets and warships each year (The Times 2003).
Over the past two decades, substantial improvement has been made in the People’s
Liberation Army (PLA) Navy’s surface combatants, destroyers, frigates and
submarine forces. Recent acquisitions from Russia include the well-known
Sovremenny-class destroyers. In 2002 China ordered 8 Project 636 Kilo-class
submarines from Russia (The Times 2003). The purchase of Russian aircraft such as
Su-27 and Su-30 and the development of indigenous fighters (e.g. Jian-10 fighter-
bomber) are further evidence of the PLA Air Force’s modernization efforts.
Strategic forces are also a very important part of China’s defence modernization.
A sustained effort has been made to improve the range and accuracy of its missile
force. In 1992 China had only eight intercontinental-range ballistic missiles
(ICBM); today it has over forty of them. Similarly, the number of China’s
intermediate-range ballistic missiles increased from 60 in 1992 to more than 150
in 2007. In addition, Beijing now possesses over 900 short-range ballistic missiles
(SRBM) (IISS 1992; US Department of Defense 2007). There are, of course, many
weaknesses in China’s military capabilities, but PRC leaders seem determined
to press ahead with their defence modernization. They have introduced serious
reforms in every aspect of their military forces, and if the reforms continue, in the
next two decades the PLA may well become a very powerful army with a capability
to project force beyond China’s borders.
Many believe that the size, population and resources of China, combined with
the enormous economic and military potential, make it almost inevitable that the
country will achieve a great-power status. Others are, however, somewhat more
sceptical about the prospects of a rising China. Indeed, following the collapse
of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, there
were speculations that China would follow the Soviet path of disintegration (see
Ferdinand 1992 for a critical consideration of these speculations). Some researchers
argued that Chinese provinces had gained much autonomy in economic decision-
making since the 1980s as a result of a greater emphasis on the market economy
and economic decentralization (Breslin 1996). They pointed out that regional au-
thorities had become more assertive in promoting and protecting their interests, and
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 The Black Cat
December
1895

The Great Star Ruby.

Barnes MacGreggor.

The Interrupted Banquet.

René Bache.

The Archangel.
James Q. Hyatt.

Asleep at Lone Mountain.

H. D. Umbstaetter.

Kootchie.
Harold Kinsabby.

Frazer's Find.
Roberta Littlehale.

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No. 3. Copyright 1895 by The Shortstory Publishing Co.
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 The Black Cat (Vol. I, No. 3)
A Monthly Magazine of Original Short Stories.

No. 3. DECEMBER, 1895. 5 cents a copy.

50 cents a year.

Entered at the Post-Office at Boston, Mass., as second-class matter.

Copyright, 1895, by The Shortstory Publishing Company. All rights

reserved.

CONTENTS
Title Author Page
The Great Star Ruby. Barnes MacGreggor. 1
The Interrupted Banquet. René Bache. 11
The Archangel. James Q. Hyatt. 19
Asleep at Lone Mountain. H. D. Umbstaetter. 24
Kootchie. Harold Kinsabby. 37
Frazer's Find. Roberta Littlehale. 40
Advertisements. 47
 The Great Star Ruby.
BY BARNES MACGREGGOR.

IT was late in the evening of Melbourne Cup Day. In one of the

dining-rooms of the Victoria Club three men sat smoking and talking
earnestly together. Certainly the events of the last sixteen hours
furnished ample subject for conversation. Melbourne Cup Day
means to the Australian all that Derby Day does to the Englishman.
It means, also, many things that even the greatest sporting event of
the English year cannot mean to the inhabitants of the compact little
island, provided with so many other facilities for amusement and
intercourse. In this land of tremendous distances—where four million
people occupy an area equal to that of the United States,—in this
island continent of opposites—where Christmas comes in
midsummer and Fourth of July in midwinter, where swans are black
and birds are songless,—this is the one day when all classes and
conditions assemble at one place and take their pleasures as a unit.
From Victoria and New South Wales, from North, South, and West
Australia, from Queensland, even from Tasmania and the sister
colony of New Zealand, separated from the continent by miles of
water, visitors of all kind and degree had flocked by the thousands.
When the starting flag fell that morning there were assembled about
the track picturesque miners and rugged bushmen, self-made
capitalists, book-makers, and millionaire wool growers, charming
women and well-groomed men, to the number of almost a quarter of
a million. To all of these the occasion was one anticipated and
planned for during twelve months past. It was the occasion when
their long pent Anglo-Saxon sporting taste—for nine out of every ten
Australians are of English ancestry—intensified by the free, out-of-
door life, and by the absence of the outlets furnished in a more
concentrated state of civilization, found exuberant expression. To
each it carried, besides, some special significance, according to his
rank and occupation. To the betting man it meant that a single firm of
book-makers had on deposit in the banks of Melbourne and Sidney
wagers to the amount of over one hundred thousand pounds
sterling; for, like the English Derby, this is a "classical" event, upon
which bets are often made for the coming year the very day after the
preceding race has been run. Among the women it meant triumphs
of millinery, gowns that had been ordered from London and Paris
many months or even a year in advance, the fashionable display of
Goodwood, the Derby, and the Ascot all compressed into a single
day.
Among the mine owners and wool growers it meant journeys by rail,
boat, or private coach, extending over hundreds, sometimes
thousands of miles, and lasting for days and weeks, even months.
Australia has well been called "The Land of the Golden Fleece." Its
flocks of sheep are the largest, its gold mines and coal mines the
richest in the world. Its flocks are counted not merely by hundreds or
thousands, but by hundreds of thousands; and a single sheep station
often extends over a hundred thousand acres. But with this
immensity of interests there is linked the familiar loneliness of
grandeur. The greater a country gentleman's possessions, the
farther he is removed from society, until the largest proprietors are
often separated by forty or fifty miles from their nearest neighbors.
For this solitude the one outlet is the journey to Melbourne for the
annual cup races.
Upon this particular day the fashionable parade had eclipsed in size
and splendor that of any previous year. In addition to the races, there
had been the notable first night of the Grand Opera House, opened
now for the first time to the public; and the day had culminated in an
evening of such brilliancy and distinction that the three men who sat
talking at the Victoria Club found superlatives too weak to express
their enthusiasm.
"Rather than miss this day, I would have lost five years of my life,"
said one of the group. Then, turning to beckon the waiter, in order
that he might emphasize his words by some refreshment, he
observed a guest of the club—evidently a stranger—sitting alone at
an adjoining table. With the exuberant new-world hospitality of a man
who had evidently not been a loser in the day's exchange of wealth,
he stretched out a welcoming hand, with, "Stranger, won't you join
us?"
Without waiting for further formality, the solitary man strode up to the
group and seated himself at their table.
"Gentlemen," he began, "I couldn't help overhearing what you said. I,
too, would have given a good deal to have been a spectator. In fact, I
had been looking forward to this event for a whole year, and, as luck
would have it, missed it by the delay of an hour. If the steamer from
Calcutta had reached Sydney half an hour before sundown
yesterday, instead of half an hour after, I should have been in
Melbourne early this morning, instead of late to-night. As it is, I
arrived only ten minutes ago, and, having a card to your club from
the Wanderer's in London, I came here to take the edge off my
disappointment. The next best thing to being on the scene of action
is to hear about it from an eye-witness. So I depend upon you to give
me an account of the affair. At any rate, I only hope the races aren't
finished."
"Oh, of course there will be more races," said the spokesman of the
party; "but such a sight as the opening of the Opera House
Melbourne isn't likely to see again. There were stars, of course, but
no one noticed what was going on on the stage, you understand; the
real show was in the house, which was simply packed. Such women!
Such stunning gowns! And the jewels—why, it looked as though half
the kingdoms of Europe had lent their crown jewels for the occasion.
"In all that gorgeousness it was mighty hard to pick out the
handsomest face or the finest ornaments. But of course there was
one woman here, just as there is everywhere, who carried off the
palm. It wasn't only that she was beautiful, though in her dark, stately
fashion she was far and away the handsomest woman present; and
it wasn't only that she sat where she did in the front of the stage box,
with her solitary escort in the background, when every other box in
the theater was crammed; but upon the bodice of her gown—it was a
gorgeous gold and white brocaded and lace-trimmed affair, so I
heard it whispered among the women—she wore the most striking
and gorgeous ornament in the entire audience. This was a jockey-
cap made entirely of precious stones; the peak was a solid mass of
diamonds, the band a row of sapphires, while the crown consisted of
an enormous ruby. 'Twas rather showy, of course, but so appropriate
for this particular race night that no woman could have resisted
wearing it. Of course it stood out wonderfully—it was as big as a
half-crown piece, you understand,—and it wasn't long before every
glass in the house was fixed upon that pin and the beautiful woman
that wore it.
"I turned my glass on it with the rest," he added, laughing, "and that's
how I got such a good photograph of it."
"Speaking of precious stones," said the stranger, who so far had
listened without comment, "reminds me of a fifty-thousand-pound
ruby that once involved a daring young Englishman in a series of
strange adventures."
"Give us the adventures," said the spokesman of the party, scenting
at once a stirring tale that would make a fitting wind-up to the day's
varied excitements. "A jewel always serves as a magnet for
romance, especially if the jewel is a fifty-thousand-pound ruby."
"To begin with," said the strange man, apparently unmoved by his
host's last remarks, "you must understand that, while there are
millions of rubies mined every year, a really first-class stone is one of
the rarest as well as the most valuable gems in the world. In Ceylon,
where some of the largest ruby mines in the world are located, the
Moormen, who have a monopoly of the gem trade, often bring down
from the north country bullock cartloads of uncut rubies, but probably
in handling ten million gems not one will be found of the desired
fineness and of flawless purity and luster. These Moormen are the
shrewdest, with a few exceptions the most unscrupulous, and always
the most wonderful judges of gems in the world, and they are without
exception rich. They have parceled out the gem-fields in the Tamil
districts, and the natives whom they hire to hunt gems along the river
bottoms, where the finest are found, are subjected to the most rigid
scrutiny and daily search; for, though the diggers are always naked,
they often attempt to conceal gems in their ears, nostrils, armpits, or
elsewhere, with the end in view of disposing of them to rival
Moormen. For, though these Moormen are openly fair dealers
among themselves, they cannot resist buying gems smuggled from
their neighbors' fields. Consequently, a complete detective service is
attached to each one of these diggings, and woe to the Tamil who is
caught attempting to smuggle gems across the lines! He simply
disappears, that's all. No one is ever called to account, and the awful
secrecy of his captors and the mystery surrounding his end appal his
fellows, keeping them in a subjection that is all but slavery, and in
some respects infinitely worse.
"But these Tamil diggers are very wise, and they know when they
happen upon a grand uncut gem. Perhaps they will bury it again and
spend a whole year maneuvering to get the jewel over the lines to
the rival buyers, finally giving it up, and turning it over to the owners
of the fields. As the really fine ones are rarely larger than a hazelnut,
and each is worth from twenty to one hundred times as much as a
diamond of the same size, it is worth the digger's while to make a
lifelong study of the relative values, and then profit thereby.
"Now, this young Englishman had a curious hobby. For years he had
desired to possess one of these almost priceless rubies, and it was
partly with the hope of obtaining one that he visited Ceylon, where
he had left orders with the Moormen gem dealers to reserve for him
the finest and largest stone that could be found.
"Meantime he headed an exploring party, whose way lay through the
jungles about a hundred miles north of Kandy, toward the ancient
Buddhist city Anarajapoora, the throne of the famous King Tissa, the
shrine of the oldest tree in the world,—the sacred Bo. It was a long
and tedious march. The travelers usually halted at mid-morning,
slept till the shadows cooled the air a little, then resumed the journey
as far into the night as possible, sometimes continuing till the next
mid-morning, when the sun's heat again brought them to a standstill.
On this particular daybreak they had halted beside a swift stream,
doubtful at which point to attempt to ford it. The leader had sent men
both up and down the stream to search for a suitable spot, and
wandered along its banks, more occupied with the glories of the
tropic sunrise, the sparkle of the dew on the giant spider-threads
stretched from limb to limb, the stir of rare birds and animals with
which the jungle was more than alive, than with the problem of
fording the stream. Upon reaching an inviting nook, he sat down to
roll a cigarette, first taking care to search for any jungle enemies in
ambush which might make him legitimate prey. Suddenly he heard a
great crashing of branches in the thicket on the opposite side of the
river. Then, like a flash of lightning, a naked Tamil, red with blood, a
look of desperation and hopeless despair on his face, plunged out of
the avalanche of green beyond, and, leaping headlong into the
water, struck out across the stream. The traveler had risen to his
feet, and stood watching amazedly the course of the swimmer, which
was aimless, like that of a desperate man wandering through a
totally unfamiliar country. His head was shaven closely, though the
natives usually wear their hair long. He swam with great effort.
Indeed, the watcher on the bank saw that it was ten to one against
the swimmer's success, and instinctively his heart went out in pity.
The unfortunate wretch was now being carried rapidly down stream
and toward the man on the bank, who could see the straining of
every fiber in the Tamil's body, even the look of despair in his
bloodshot eyes. Suddenly, just as success seemed assured, the
swimmer threw up his hands, uttered a strange moan, and went
down. The man on the bank rushed down the stream, stopped at a
point where a huge banyan tree spread its branches far over the
swollen waters, and climbed out on a thick limb. A moment later he
saw the body of the Tamil rise almost directly beneath him. Clinging
with one hand to the tree, he lowered himself over the treacherous
torrent, and with a mighty effort seized the drowning man by the
ankle and so dragged him to the shore.
"Back into ambush he half carried the poor wreck, and, laying him on
the sod, began the task of reviving him. In less than ten minutes the
Tamil opened his eyes, discharged a gallon of water, then gasped,
struggled up into a half-sitting posture, and looked about him. When
he saw the Englishman bending over him, and comprehended, he
uttered the most pitiful wails of gratitude imaginable, groveling in the
dust, kissing his preserver's feet. The water had washed the blood
from him, but he was a mass of wounds, scars, bruises, lash marks,
and bullet cuts. How he ever managed to go as far as he must have
gone, leaving a trail of blood behind him, was a mystery. But what
specially attracted the Englishman's attention was a blood-stained
bandage around the fugitive's leg, midway between the knee and
thigh, which was the only rag on the poor fellow's body. He was
about to question him, by signs and syllables, for his knowledge of
the Tamil patois was very limited, when he heard another great
crashing of the thicket across the stream, accompanied by the sound
of voices. Instantly, there flashed across the poor creature's face a
look of unspeakable terror, as he panted out in hoarse gutturals, 'Sa-
ya-ta! Sa-ya-ta!' an appeal for salvation which would have moved a
heart of stone. Motioning to him to remain quiet—an unnecessary
precaution, since he was scarcely able to lift his head from the
marshy ground—his preserver gave him brandy; then, by a
circuitous route, ran up stream, coming out directly opposite four
mounted Moormen who were ranting up and down the shore.
"Upon his appearance, the horsemen approached, and asked if he
had seen any one go by. They were on the track, they explained, of
a Tamil gem-digger, who was smuggling a ruby worth fifty thousand
pounds over the lines of the Bakook-Khan gem-fields, and with the
owner of the fields had chased him sixty miles. The man could be
recognized, they said, because his head was shaven, and he was
quite naked, except for a bandage tied around one leg, in which he
had cut a hole and buried the ruby.
"To all of this the Englishman answered that he had seen such a
man leap from the jungle and plunge into the river only a few
moments ago, adding that they would better wait until the flood went
down before searching the river bottom, as it would be impossible to
find even an elephant in that muddy water. At this the Moormen set
up a howl of rage, and, after an angry consultation, passed on down
the stream, scanning the river bank. The traveler was about to return
to the Tamil, realizing the man's immediate danger, when another
crowd burst through the jungle opposite, and at the sight of the
Englishman approached him with much the same story as had the
first, except that, according to their tale, the gem-digger had been
smuggling from the Sabat- Keel fields. To them he made the same
reply, adding that another party had just been there from the Bakook-