International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

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International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ichmt

Comprehensive review, categorization, and practical insights on heat

recovery from hot air and exhaust gas in engineering applications
Mohammad Hodroj a,b, Ahmad Al Takash b,c , Jalal Faraj b,c , Rani Taher d, Thierry Lemenand a ,
Mahmoud Khaled b,c,*
a
LARIS EA 7315, Polytech Angers, University of Angers, Angers, France
b
Energy and Thermo-Fluid Group, Lebanese International University, LIU, Bekaa, P.O. Box 146404, Lebanon
c
Energy and Thermo-Fluid Group, The International University of Beirut BIU, Beirut, P.O. Box 146404, Lebanon
d
College of Engineering and Technology, American University of the Middle East, Kuwait

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In recent years, there has been a significant focus on energy management on a worldwide scale, with particular
Energy management attention given to the development of waste heat recovery (WHR) technologies. These systems aim to capture
Comprehensive review and use the waste heat energy found in hot fluids produced by many engineering applications, such as exhaust
Categorization
gases, hot air, cooling water, and radiative heat. These applications can be categorized into four primary areas,
Practical insights
WHR
namely iron and steel industries, energy, and power generation, automotive and transportation, and building and
Engineering applications construction. While prior literature has examined many facets of WHR, this study presents an innovative
methodology by offering an extensive and comprehensive analysis that focuses on WHR systems linked to
exhaust emissions and hot air inside these industries. This study classifies the subdomains within each sector and
conducts an in-depth examination of the processes and results associated with the integration of WHR technology
into these sectors. Analytical schematics resulting from the reviewed results are given, together with tabulated
summaries of WHR systems for each subdomain. It highlights significant advancements in exhaust gas recovery
and air conditioning technologies, showcasing innovations such as thermoelectric generators (TEGs), organic
Rankine cycles (ORCs), advanced heat exchangers, and environmentally friendly refrigerants. Furthermore, the
paper proposes a comprehensive analysis of the data to improve understanding of the efficacy and improvements
of WHR systems. Finally, the present manuscript constitutes a useful reference guide for researchers, policy-
makers, and industry stakeholders in the energy management field, particularly heat recovery (HR).

1. Introduction conservation. WHR technologies present a potentially effective

approach to reduce fuel consumption, improve performance efficiency,
The rapid increase in economic activity, as seen by the constant rise and minimize the impact on the ecological systems of our world
in Gross Domestic Product (GDP), has become strongly associated with [16–21].
the global population growth. This increase has led to a significant rise To address the environmental challenges posed by increased energy
in the demand for diverse energy sources to meet the needs of enter- demand and related pollutants, it is crucial to explore and implement
prises, infrastructure, and homes [1–9]. Nevertheless, the exponential effective WHR technologies. In this context, Farhat et al. [22] conducted
utilization of energy resources has given birth to a variety of environ- a thorough examination, evaluative assessment, and provided prospec-
mental issues, with the most significant being the concerning increase in tive suggestions regarding WHR technologies in various engineering
worldwide temperatures (global warming) and the widespread release applications. The authors examined several types of WHR systems,
of harmful exhaust pollutants [10–15]. In this regard, it becomes pro- including heat exchangers (HEs), Rankine cycles (RCs), and TEGs.
gressively essential to explore feasible strategies for reducing the envi- Additionally, they specifically addressed applications in the automotive,
ronmental impacts associated with our highly energy-intensive ways of residential, and industrial sectors. Furthermore, there is a brief investi-
living. The concept of WHR systems is important to the goal of gation of applications related to WHR hybrid systems. Based on 127

* Corresponding author at: Energy and Thermo-Fluid Group, Lebanese International University, LIU, Bekaa, P.O. Box 146404, Lebanon.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Khaled).

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

publications analyzed in [22], the findings indicate that regarding HEs, systems for enhancing energy efficiency and WHR. Heat Pump and
plate-fin HE demonstrates superior performance due to their notable Refrigeration Cycles are effective in converting low-grade waste heat
compactness factor, while thermal wheel heat exchangers exhibit the into useful forms, achieving optimal thermal and exergy efficiencies of
maximum thermal efficiency, exceeding 80 %, which is considered 25.4 % and 69.2 %, respectively, with a payback period of 1 year. The
optimal for both type and flow arrangement. The authors found that ORC, widely used across industries for WHR, demonstrates energy and
working fluids of RCs such as water is optimal for high temperature exergy efficiencies of 52.8 % and 60.0 %, respectively, and is prominent
mediums because it offers a high-power output and thermal efficiency, in the automotive sector. The Brayton Cycle excels in the automobile
however, it is important to consider its high freezing point and the need industry with a thermal efficiency of 23 %, and offers sustainable so-
for superheating, while for R245fa fluid, it demonstrates superior per- lutions for high-temperature applications in the glass industry. Ther-
formance, but it falls short in economic domains. Coming to TEGs the moelectric Cycles address medium-grade waste heat, presenting
efficiency is optimized by enhancing the electric conductivity, thermal promising research opportunities. Cogeneration Systems efficiently
resistivity, and Seebeck coefficient of the material. Moreover, the power manage various heat sources, converting waste heat into regional energy
of a thermoelectric generator (TEG) is influenced by the temperature and improving overall efficiency. Cascade Recycling effectively utilizes
disparity and the physical characteristics of the fluids. The WHR systems high-grade waste heat, achieving peak thermal and exergy efficiencies of
discussed in [22] can be integrated into many applications, which can be 23.3 % and 63.6 %, respectively. Finally, Multistage ORC Systems are
classified into the following categories: (a) Engine systems: encompass crucial for WHR with efficiencies of 19.0 % and 60.0 %. Collectively,
two main components (a1) internal combustion engines, which consist these cycles and systems significantly enhance efficiency, support en-
of compression ignition systems, spark ignition systems and power ergy conservation, and contribute to emission reduction across multiple
generators (a2) gas turbine engines. (b) Residential systems: consist of sectors.
three main components (b1) drain water system (b2) HR from exhaust According to the aforementioned review, the main factors that affect
gases (b3) HVAC systems. (c) Industrial systems. Separately they indi- the choice of suitable WHR systems for certain domains are the tem-
cated that hybrid heat HR systems (HHRS) are designed to serve many perature and flow rate of the waste heat source (WHS) that in terms can
purposes, encompassing electricity generation, heating, cooling, and be hot liquids, steam, heat from solid surfaces, exhaust gases, hot air,
energy storage for future utilization. Finally, according to the re- cooling systems, waste water, radiant heat and solar heat etc… In this
searchers in [22], spray dryers equipped with HHRS with 80 % recir- paper the primary area of interest will be WHSs originating from exhaust
culation have the greatest potential for thermal energy savings (74 %) gases and hot air, which are commonly found in various sectors. This
when compared to both direct and indirect HR devices. study stands out by offering a thorough review of current developments
While Farhat et al. [22] provided a detailed assessment of WHR in air conditioning and exhaust gas recovery technologies. It focuses on
technologies across various engineering applications, Jouhara et al. [23] the most recent new materials and processes that have not been
established a comprehensive examination of WHR approaches and comprehensively covered in previous reviews. The article offers an
innovative technologies employed in industrial processes. Their study original perspective on the utility and practicality of these technologies
specifically focused on the potential for HR to enhance energy optimi- by combining research from many sectors, including the automobile and
zation in many sectors, including steel and iron, food, and ceramics. In power generation industries. This originality highlights the paper’s
this paper, the authors examined various WHR systems and their utili- contribution to mechanical engineering knowledge, particularly energy
zation. The main findings presented in [23] can be summarized as fol- management and efficiency.
lows: (1) The regenerative and recuperative burners can enhance energy In Section 2 a theoretical background on equations of heat transfer
efficiency by utilizing hot flue gas waste heat generated during com- concerning exhaust gases and hot air is elaborated, it also includes
bustion. (2) Economizers are mostly employed for the purpose of heating equations linked to the effectiveness of heat transfer and other charac-
liquids. (3) Waste heat boilers can be employed for the extraction of heat teristics. The novelty of this paper rests in its thorough categorization of
from exhaust gases at medium to high temperatures for the purpose of these sectors into four main categories: manufacturing and heavy in-
generating steam, which may be utilized for power generation or energy dustries, energy, and power generation, automotive and transportation,
recovery. (4) Air preheaters, including recuperators, regenerators, ro- and residential and commercial sectors, which will be presented in
tary heat wheels, and run around coils, are valuable for applications Section 3, afterwards in Sections 4, 5, 6 and 7, subcategories are
involving low to medium temperatures. (5) Plate HEs and heat pipe HEs identified within each sector, enabling a thorough examination of WHR
are particularly useful in situations where the prevention of cross systems and processes incorporated to them. Subsequently, an in-depth
contamination is imperative. (6) Heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) investigation of WHR units and technologies is carried out to cover their
utilizes a thermodynamic cycle to increase the efficiency of a power or efficiencies, economic implications, and environmental impacts through
manufacturing facility. These thermodynamic cycles, such as ORCs, critical analysis and comprehensive discussion. Finally, closures are
were shown to be competitive when the amount of heat recovered fell provided in Section 8, along with the main findings and potential im-
within the low-medium range, while Kalina cycles (KCs) yielded supe- plications for future prospects.
rior results when the recovered heat was of medium to high grade. (7)
Heat pumps can fall to low temperature grade due to their potential of 2. Theoretical background
elevating the temperature and quality of the waste heat. Moreover, the
authors in [23] stated that electrical conversion devices, such as ther- In engineering, the search for efficiency and resource optimization in
moelectric, piezoelectric, thermionic, and thermo-photovoltaic (TPV), various sectors mentioned in Section 1 is one of the main ideas that
have the capability to produce electrical energy directly, rather than drives growth and novel concepts. A big part of this effort is the idea of
turning heat into mechanical energy and then to electrical energy as two HR, which is basically a method for using thermal energy that would be
steps of conversion. otherwise wasted in different ways. HR not only cuts down on energy
Building on the comprehensive analysis of WHR systems in industrial loss, but it also offers a real chance to improve operational performance,
processes by Jouhara et al. [23], Zixiang et al. [24] classified twelve reduce environmental impacts and make the business more profitable.
typical industries into three categories according to the waste-energy Since this study focuses on HR from hot air and exhaust gas, it is worth to
grade: low-grade (less than 230 ◦ C), medium-grade (between 230 ◦ C briefly discuss the equations that determine the energy content of both
and 650 ◦ C), and high-grade (more than 650 ◦ C). From the perspective of the primary side (hot air and exhaust gas) and the secondary side (which
typical WHSs, WHR potentials of various technologies are analyzed and can be a fluid or air medium), moreover the effectiveness equation that
discussed in terms of thermal performance, economic benefits, and quantifies the efficiency of the HR process which is crucial for evaluating
environmental benefits. The authors in [24] assesses various cycles and the performance and optimizing the design of HR systems in engineering

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

applications.
ΔT1 = Tair− − Twater−
The modeling of HR systems typically based on energy balance and in in

heat transfer mechanisms that take into consideration all modes of heat
ΔT2 = Tair− out − Twater− out (6)
transfer equations [18,21], Eq. (1) and (2) presents basically the heat
rate of conduction and convection heat transfer. The fouling thermal The two methods mentioned in Eqs. (2) and (3) are different ap-
resistance and radiation effect in these equations are considered proaches useful when analyzing the performance of a heat exchanger
negligible. based on its design parameters and operating conditions. To understand
the heat transfer characteristics of the fluid itself, rather than the overall
k AΔTmaterial surface
Qconduction = (1) heat transfer performance of the HE, Eq. (7) is proposed below.
d
Q = ṁ Cp ΔT (7)
Qconvection = h AΔTf− s (2)
where Q is the amount of heat transferred per unit time (W), ṁ is the
In Eq. (1), Qconduction represents the amount of heat transfer through
mass flow rate of the fluid (kg⋅s− 1), Cp is the specific heat capacity of the
conduction (expressed in Watt, W), k is the thermal conductivity of the
fluid at constant pressure (J⋅kg− 1⋅◦ C− 1), ΔT is the change in temperature
material (W⋅m− 1⋅K− 1), A is the cross-sectional area through which heat
of the fluid across the heat transfer process across the HE (◦ C). Repre-
is transferred (m2), ΔTmaterial surface is the temperature difference across the
senting the principle of conservation of energy applied to a HE (first law
material (K), i.e. Tinlet-surface - Texit-surface, and d is the thickness of the
of thermodynamics), it is stated that the rate of heat transfer on one side
material (m).
of the heat exchanger (e.g., the air side) is equal to the rate of heat
In Eq. (2), Qconvection represents the amount of heat transferred
transfer on the other side (e.g., the liquid side), assuming steady-state
through convection (W), h is the convective heat transfer coefficient
conditions and neglecting any losses. Eq. (8) is provided to analyze
(W⋅m− 2⋅K− 1), A is the surface area of the object in contact with the fluid
and design HEs, helping to determine factors such as required surface
(in square meters, m2), and ΔTf− s is the temperature difference between
area, flow rates, or temperature differences to achieve a desired heat
the fluid and the surface (K), i.e. Thot-fluid - Tcontact-surface, mainly in HEs
transfer rate.
Tcontact-surface can be considered the tube surface temperature which is
approximately assumed equal to the fluid flowing inside it. This method ṁair Cp− air ΔTair = ṁliq Cp− liq ΔTliq (8)
is appropriate for scenarios in which convective heat transfer is the main
The effectiveness of a HE is also an important parameter used in
factor in the overall heat transfer process and where the resistance to
performance evaluation, optimization, design and energy efficiency of
heat transfer within the solid material can be neglected.
WHR systems: it can be calculated using various theoretical equations,
A more comprehensive approach that accounts for all modes of heat
depending on the type of heat exchanger and the assumptions made
transfer in HEs where exhaust gases exchange heat with another fluid (e.
about its behavior. One commonly used method presented in Eq. (9) is
g., air or water), can be calculated using the most applied theories which
based on the concept of the effectiveness-NTU (Number of Transfer
are Log Mean Temperature difference (LMTD) or ε-NTU methods. These
Units) method, which is applicable to both parallel-flow and counter-
theories are used for an important objective which is the design of HE’s.
flow HEs.
Eq. (3) which helps in complexity of analysis.
( )
Qoverall = U AΔTlm (3) 1 − e− NTU(1− Cr )
ε= (9)
(1 − Cr e− NTU(1− Cr ) )
where Qoverall is the heat transfer amount (W), U is the overall heat
transfer coefficient (W⋅m− 2⋅K− 1), A is the surface area available for heat where ε represents the effectiveness of the heat exchanger (ratio of
transfer (m2), and ΔTlm is the Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference actual heat transfer rate to maximum heat transfer rate), NTU is a
(LMTD) (K). The LMTD is calculated using Eq. (4), in which values of Δ dimensionless parameter calculated according to Eq. (10), representing
T1 and ΔT2 are different for parallel flow and counterflow HE. A theo- the number of transfer units for counter and parallel flow HEs, U is the
retical calculation of LMTD is proposed below assuming hot-air to cold- overall heat transfer coefficient, A is the heat transfer area, Cr is the ratio
water HE unit for more understanding of this important parameter in between minimum and maximum heat capacity rate (Cmin and Cmax ) of
calculating over all heat transfer rate in HEs. the two fluid streams which can be determined according to Eq. (11).
UA
LMTD =
ΔT1 − ΔT2
(4) NTU = (10)
( ) Cmin
ln ΔT 1
ΔT2
Cmin
Cr = (11)
Assumptions of air and water, inlet and outlet temperatures values: Cmax )

• Hot air inlet temperature Tair− in 3. Waste heat source classification

• Hot air outlet temperature Tair− out
• Cold water inlet temperature Twater− in In this section, a comprehensive examination is undertaken to
• Cold water outlet temperature Twater− out explore various sources responsible for generating waste heat via
exhaust gases or hot air. These sources are categorically classified into
For counter flow HE, the temperature differences ΔT1 and ΔT2 are four principal domains: manufacturing and heavy industries, energy
calculated according to Eq. (5) which represents the temperature dif- production and power generation, automotive and transportation, and
ferences at the inlet and outlet of the fluids relatively. building and construction. The first category encompasses a diverse
range of manufacturing and heavy industries including iron and steel
ΔT1 = Tair− in − Twater− out
industry, cement industry, ceramic industry, and glass industry, which
ΔT2 = Tair− − Twater− (5) will be elaborated upon in Section 4. The second category defines
out in
sources that contribute to energy production and power generation such
For parallel flow HE, the temperature differences ΔT1 and ΔT2 are as gas turbines, biomass power plants, diesel/gas engine power and coal-
calculated according to Eq. (6) which represents the temperature dif- fired power plants expounded upon in Section 5. The third category is
ferences at the inlet and outlet of the fluids respectively centered around ships and aircraft engines covered in Section 6, while

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Fig. 1. Classification of sources that generate waste heat through exhaust gases or hot air as they process.

Fig. 2. Primary flow processes diagram in iron and steel making [31].

the final category pertains to waste heat generated from commercial and % enhancements relative to the initial levels [28]. Targeting this
residential HVAC systems in restaurants and households in Section 7. approach WHR systems is proposed for promoting manufacture and
Fig. 1 shows a schematic of primary sectors classified via their subsectors heavy industry domain, such systems not only improve energy effi-
that generate a significant amount of waste heat energy through exhaust ciencies but also mitigate environmental consequences and optimize
gases or hot air, which have high potential for integrating various WHR resource allocation in many subdomains including iron and steel
systems. manufacturing, cement industry, glass production, aluminum smelting,
textile mills, and paper pulp mills, through the recovery of thermal
4. Manufacturing and heavy industries energy derived from exhaust emissions and hot air resulting as a
byproduct from their processes. The subsequent sections will present a
The world bank has noted a consistent increase in the global GDP, comprehensive and analytical review of the latest WHR systems inte-
resulting to a growth of 30.7 % over the past decade. China has suc- grated into industrial manufacturing subdomains processes.
cessfully shifted from an agrarian to an industrial economy, with an
impressive annual GDP growth rate of 9.8 % [1]. China’s position as the
second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP has been well estab- 4.1. Iron and steel industry
lished, with only the United States exceeding it [2]. Therefore, a rapid
increase in GDP significantly contributes to the improvement of econ- Approximately two-thirds of the world’s steel is created through the
omy in developed countries. The manufacturing and heavy industries conversion of iron ore, which is referred to as oxygen steelmaking. The
domain plays a substantial role in GDP by providing essential goods and remaining one-third of steel is generated using metal scrap, which is
materials to diverse sectors, however this domain consumed 54 % of referred to as electric steelmaking [31]. Both processes are responsible
global delivered energy in 2012, and its energy consumption grows by for the manufacturing of steel. In accordance with the information
an average of 1.2 %/year from 2012 to 2040 in the IEO2016 reference provided from Odenthal et al. [31], Fig. 2 depicts the primary processes
case [3,4,25–30], consequently causing environmental obstacles, that are involved in the transformation of raw materials into the final
particularly in terms of greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. steel product. Within the global iron and steel manufacturing, the two
The European Union (EU) has established high energy efficiency primary production pathways that are most utilized are: (1) The primary
objectives for 2020 and 2030, achieving a minimum of 20.0 % and 32.5 approach, which involves the utilization of iron ores and scrap as the
primary raw materials. This path is referred to as the Blast Furnace-Basic

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Table 1
Investigation of WHR systems integrated into iron and steel industry, main processes (EAF – IRF - BF).
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology Main Findings and Conclusions Type of Study
Temperature and Reference
(◦ C)

• Size of steam generator, and turbine

reduced by about 41 %.
• Increase in electric power production by
The evaporator acts as a heat exchanger, transferring heat PCM-Coupled Steam
(Off-gas) 22 %.
from the PCM (Al-12 % Si) to the working fluid, Generator Primarily focused on
400 ◦ C to • Electrical energy generation of 48,2
generating superheated steam for a steam turbine to (PCMCSG) modeling.
1000 ◦ C. MWh/year when EAF operates 7500 h/
produce power. [36]
year.
• Waste heat to power system availability is
75 %.
Heat from the batch operation in a steel furnace is • Maximum energy can be stored is 1.05
supplied. An off-gas/air heat exchanger prevents direct (Exhaust gases) Thermal Energy MWhth.
Experimental validation
contact with the TES material due to the unclean 700 ◦ C to Storage (TES). • Efficiency values are 65 % and 85 % that
of CFD model.
characteristics of the off-gas. Steel slag is used as filler 1200 ◦ C. [37] could be achieved considering the power
material in the TES. production as final application.
• Net ORC electrical power output: 6925
kW.
The ORC system converts the heat energy from EAF
• Cyclopentane is used as the organic fluid Experimental and
exhaust gases into power, using an evaporator to (Exhaust gases) ORC.
for ORC. operational
transfer heat from the exhaust gases to the working 205 ◦ C. [38]
• Three locations for WHR analyzed with comprehensive study.
fluid.
ORC integration to EAF exhaust gas for
power generation.
• The overall useful efficiency was
The classical burner is modified to a recuperative burner Self-Recuperative improved from 32.6 %–48.5 %.
(Flue gases)
to preheat combustion air based on the flue gas Burners (S-RB). • Fuel consumption was reduced by 31.3 %. Numerical analysis.
24 ◦ C to 696 ◦ C.
temperature and air mass flow in the IRF. [39] • The production of the furnace increased
by 51.3 %.
• Laboratory tests show efficiencies up to
62.7 %.
HPHE and an evaporator convert the energy from IRF Heat Pipe Heat Environmental and
(Exhaust gases) • potentially covering up to 65 % of steam
combustion fumes into steam by using exhaust gases to Exchanger (HPHE). techno-economic
300 ◦ C to 500 ◦ C. demand in real plants.
vaporize the fluid. [40] assessment.
• reducing reliance on external steam
suppliers.
ORC with cyclohexane:

• Net power 491 kW.

A comparison of toluene and cyclohexane as ORC
• Energy efficiency 36.6 %.
working fluids for IRF WHR is conducted. The WHR (Exhaust gases) ORC Comprehensive
• Exergy efficiency 16.6 %.
system generates electricity by using an evaporator to 400 ◦ C. [41] thermodynamic analysis.
ORC with toluene:
transfer heat from exhaust gases to produce steam.
• Net power: 458 kW.
• Energy efficiency 32.0 %.
• Exergy efficiency 17.1 %.
• Maximum power: 51.5 kW at a
compressor pressure ratio of 4.29 and a
Dry Slag Granulation (DSG) is a process where molten BF
Air Brayton Cycle compressor inlet relative pressure drop of
slag is atomized and cooled using air. WHR from this (Hot air) Thermodynamic analysis
(ABC). 0.023.
hot air is used to generate power with an ABC, while an 594 ◦ C. and optimization.
[42] • Maximum HR efficiency: 12 %.
air-to-air heat exchanger recovers the heat energy.
• Corresponding thermal efficiency: 20.7
%.
• 77 % of fuel combustion energy is waste
WHR from flue gases of a Cupola furnace is achieved
WHR Boiler heat in flue gases.
using a WHRB, which converts lost energy into steam. (Exhaust gases)
(WHRB). • With 21.1 % recovered by the proposed Experimental study.
Mild steel pipes in the boiler transfer heat from the 850 ◦ C.
[43] WHRB.
waste gases to water, generating steam.
• Steam is generated at 200 ◦ C and 345 kPa.

Oxygen Furnace (BF-BOF) route, and it is responsible for 71 % of the significant waste heat energy potentials through their byproduct pro-
total steel production worldwide. (2) Secondary route: this route in- cesses, namely exhaust gases or hot air. This critical consideration un-
volves the manufacturing of steel from recycled steel waste. This route is derscores the imperative to concentrate the review efforts on WHR
referred to as the Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) route, and is responsible for systems integrated into these processes. Such integration aims to
29 % of the total steel production worldwide [32]. enhance efficiency, mitigate environmental impacts, and optimize eco-
After the two main routes, the produced steel stock undergoes pro- nomic costs. Table 1 presents the outcomes of various existing systems,
cessing in hot rolling mills in Industrial Reheating Furnaces (IRFs) that focusing on temperature ranges of wasted exhaust gases generated by
are used to heat the steel stock (slabs, blooms, or billets) to high tem- these processes and the specific units utilized for recovering this wasted
peratures, around 1200 ◦ C, which are enough for the hot rolling process heat energy.
[33]. The temperature of the stock to be maintained, depends on the According to the mentioned findings, it is noted that the recovery of
rolling process’s needs, which include the stock’s size, speed, and the exhaust gasses in the iron and steel sector commonly takes place at
type of steel used [34,35]. temperatures above 300 ◦ C. These WHR techniques can be classified as
Electric Arc Furnaces (EAFs), Industrial Reheating Furnaces (IRFs), belonging to the medium to high temperature range. Moreover, it is well
and Blast Furnace-Basic Oxygen Furnace (BF-BOF) systems exhibit acknowledged that the considerable waste potentials associated with

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Fig. 3. Cement manufacturing processes.

these exhaust emissions and hot air may be effectively utilized for the power outputs and efficiencies based on their methodologies and heat
purpose of steam generation using ORC, hence facilitating the produc- sources. The KC generates 2.4 MW from rotary kiln exhaust gases at
tion of electricity. Furthermore, the HR efficiency was 12 % in the ABC, 390 ◦ C, with notable thermal and exergetic efficiencies of 23.3 % and
while with S-RB the overall useful efficiency was improved from 32.6 % 47.8 %, respectively. In contrast, the ABC produces 1.07 MW from
to 48.5 %, moreover efficiencies up to 62.7 % were obtained with the preheater exhaust gases at 382 ◦ C, demonstrating lower power output
HPHE in laboratory tests. compared to KC. The SRC shows significant potential by generating 5.2
MWh of electrical energy from grate cooler and preheater cyclones, with
a payback period of about 6.7 years. The Conventional Steam Cycle
4.2. Cement industry
(CSC) also performs well, producing 5.26 MW and resulting in annual
savings of approximately $536,222. When compared to ORC, the SRC
One of the most crucial areas for a nation’s development is cement
proves more beneficial with a shorter payback period of 3.4 years and
manufacture. China reached 2.38 billion metric tons of production in
higher electricity generation of 9.14 MW, compared to the ORC’s 6.56
2017, USA has a large cement production with 120.5 Mt./yr in 2017
MW and a longer payback period of 5.1 years. Cogeneration systems
[44–46]. In 2016, up to 7.5 % of the total energy consumption in China
utilizing KC, particularly the KCA system, are highlighted for their ef-
is consumed by cement production, which in turn produced about 15 %
ficiency, achieving a thermal efficiency of 22.2 % and a net electrical
of total CO2 emissions in the whole country, consequently there are five
capacity of 2565 kWe. The Low-Temperature ORC, employing R134a,
types of measures to promote green transition and sustainable energy
generates around 1 MW from hot air and exhaust gases at 200 ◦ C,
development in the cement industry: (1) improving energy efficiency,
indicating a more specialized application with lower power output.
(2) reducing the ratio of clinker to cement, (3) implementing carbon
Overall, these WHR systems demonstrate varying degrees of effective-
capture and carbon storage (CCS), (4) switching to alternative fuels, and
ness in energy recovery and cost savings. The SRC and CSC offer higher
(5) using alternative raw materials for cements [47,48]. Among them,
power outputs and shorter payback periods, while the KC and ORC
improving energy efficiency is the basic strategy, which reduces the
provide specialized benefits with different efficiencies and operational
energy intensity and CO2 emissions by deploying advanced WHR tech-
characteristics.
nologies. Fig. 3 below depicts the basic phases of cement manufacture,
offering a simple understanding of the key processes involved in con-
verting raw materials into finished cement products. 4.3. Ceramic industry
In the cement industry, there are three main stages that generate
substantial quantities of exhaust gases and hot air throughout their Ceramics are used in a broad variety of applications, including
operations: the rotary kiln process, clinker cooling process, and pre- building, interior design, and a variety of industrial uses. The ceramic
heating process. These exhaust emissions include significant amounts of industry is a varied sector that encompasses the manufacture of several
waste energy that may be effectively utilized in WHR systems. Table 2 types of ceramic items. There are many different manufacturing
presents a concise summary of the investigated systems, including methods that are utilized within the ceramic industry to generate
valuable information on their individual results, exhaust gas and hot air various kinds of ceramic goods. These procedures contribute to the
temperature ranges, WHR units employed, and the objectives of each production of masonry bricks, glazed ceramic tiles, and porcelain
WHR system. stoneware tiles, among other industries. The intensive energy con-
The investigation revealed that in the cement industry the WHR sumption in a ceramic production plant is related to processes of firing,
systems mainly operate within the medium temperature range, which drying and spray drying. The firing process is operated in ceramic kilns,
can vary from 230 ◦ C to 650 ◦ C, moreover it exhibits varied thermal including tunnel kilns [56], rotary kilns [57], roller kilns [58] and

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Table 2
Investigation of WHR systems integrated into cement industry processes including (preheating, rotary kilns, and clinker cooler).
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology and Main Findings and Conclusions Type of Study
Temperature Reference
(◦ C)

• Power generation of 2.4 MW.

WHR from exhaust gases of a rotary kiln’s cyclonic Waste heat to power
• Reducing costs in the cement
preheater in a cement factory with a 2100-ton daily generation unit.
(Exhaust gases) manufacturing process.
clinker capacity is used for electricity generation in a (WHRPGU) Parametric analysis.
390 ◦ C. • The values of thermal and exergetic
KC. An organic fluid (water and ammonia) is heated Using KC.
efficiencies are 23.3 % and 47.8 %
in the economizer and evaporated in the cycle. [49]
respectively.
HR from the preheater tower exhaust gases is used to
generate electricity. This process involves an ABC (WHRPGU)
• Electricity in this cement plant can be
system where increasing the temperature and (Exhaust gases) Using Air Bottoming
covered by generating an amount of Numerical analysis.
pressure of air allows it to expand in a turbine, 382 ◦ C. Cycle (ABC).
power that can achieve 1.07 MW.
producing electricity. An exhaust-gas to air heat [50]
exchanger facilitates this cycle.
In a Portland cement plant, power is generated using a
• Electrical energy production
steam turbine in a Rankine cycle. Steam is produced (Hot air and (WHRPGU)
potential: 5.2 MWh from exhaust Comprehensive analysis
by recovering heat from exhaust gases and hot air in Exhaust gases) Using Steam Rankine
gases and grate cooler. including economic feasibility
the preheater cyclones and grate cooler processes. 320 ◦ C to Cycle (SRC).
• Estimated payback period for HR and energy balance analysis.
This heat exchange occurs in the after quenching 350 ◦ C. [51]
system: approximately 6.7 years
chamber (AQC) boilers and preheater boiler.
• The proposed WHRSG can produce a
A WHR steam generator (WHRSG) can be connected to
gross power of 5.26 MW if the kiln is
two heat sources. Steam from both sources is mixed (WHRPGU)
(Hot air and in operation.
in a chamber before being directed to a single Using Conventional Modeling and design of a case
Exhaust gases) • The company can save up to 536,222
turbine. Heat exchange occurs in cooler boilers for Steam Cycle. study.
above 250 ◦ C. USD per year due to the production of
cooling process exhaust gases and in a preheater [52]
clinkers using their own power
boiler for exhaust gases from the kiln.
source.
SRC with water:
HR at Mazandaran cement plant involves using hot air
and exhaust gases from two processes to produce
• Payback period 3.4 years.
steam. Two Rankine Cycles are then compared based (Hot air and
(WHRPGU) • Electricity production 9.14 MW.
on payback period, power production, and CO2 Exhaust gases)
(ORC) vs (SRC). • CO2 reduction 5.36 × 104 tons/year. Comprehensive design model.
emissions. Air Quenching Coolers (AQCs) recover 290 ◦ C to
[53] ORC with toluene:
heat from the Grate Cooler process, while Suspension 305 ◦ C.
• Payback period 5.1 years.
Preheaters (SPs) handle exhaust gases from rotary
• Electricity production 6.56 MW.
kilns.
• CO2 reduction 3.81 × 104 tons/year.
Residual heat from cement kiln exhaust gases is KCA system:
recovered to generate electricity and provide heat
for offices and residential areas. The thermal • Thermal efficiency 22.2 %.
performance of various cogeneration plant (Hot air and • Exergy efficiency 45.1 %.
Cogeneration System
configurations (KCA, KCB, and KCC) using the KC is Exhaust gases) • Net electrical capacity 2565 kWe. Modeling and parametric
via (KC).
compared. Exit gases from the rotary kiln and 250 ◦ C to • Excess heat flux removed 7368 kW. analysis.
[54]
cooling process are sent to a Super Heater, while 300 ◦ C. KCB system:
gases from the cyclone tower are exchanged in an • Excess heat flux removed 7422 kW.
air-to-air heat exchanger before entering the KCC system:
refrigerant cycle. • Excess heat flux removed 8094 kW.
A design methodology for a low-temperature ORC • The R134a working fluid was chosen
(Hot air and Low-temperature
recovers heat from hot air and exhaust gases in a for the design.
Exhaust gases) ORCs. Mathematical modeling.
cement industry to generate power. The heat • Consequently approximately 1 MW
200 ◦ C. [55]
exchange process occurs in the evaporator. power can be generated using an ORC.

intermittent kilns [59]. Tunnel kilns are continuous kilns, in which the that energy sources used in the ceramic process are natural gas and
products to be fired are transported in kiln cars, being normally open at electricity, with 80 % of the energy consumption credited to gas. Firing
the inlet and the outlet while heating occurs at the center [56]. Roller is responsible for 53 % of the thermal consumption, followed by spray
kilns are constituted by a refractory roller conveyor for the trans- drying (35 %) and drying (10 %), where heat streams holding high
portation of products through a hot tunnel, enabling fast firing in rapid potential energy for HR are discharged to the environment.
cycles [58]. The drying process may also occur in several types of dryers, In Table 3, three common WHR systems are presented, which are
which include vertical and horizontal dryers [60]. The tunnel dryer is an designed to recover waste heat energy from exhaust gases and hot air.
example of a horizontal dryer with a continuous operation [61]. In These systems are developed from the operations described above in the
vertical dryers, the product is transported vertically within the dryer and ceramic industry. The recovered heat in the first system is directed to-
is shaped by the press as it is placed into beds [62]. ward the pre-kiln dryer, which maintains operations by circulating a
European Commission 2018 [63] stated that ceramic industry is an significant amount of hot air at around 100 ◦ C. The second technique
energy intensive sector, similar to the steel, cement, and glass industries. involves the extraction of heat from exhaust gases released by a ceramic
The thermal energy consumption in a ceramic production plant for furnace using a collector heat exchanger. This heat is then directed into
processes of firing, drying and spray drying is 55 %, 9 % and 36 % an ORC for the purpose of power production, finally resulting in the
respectively [56]. The firing process is at the highest energy consump- conversion of heat into electricity. In the third case, the main objective is
tion level, due to the high annual operational times of the kilns and preheating combustion air, to maximum temperatures ranging from
consequent high operational temperatures [64]. Analyzing the potential 500 ◦ C to 850 ◦ C in order to maximize the efficiency of combustion and
for waste heat in ceramic tile manufacturing sector, in [65] it was found reduce reliance on fossil fuels.

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Table 3
Investigation of WHR systems integrated into ceramic industry.
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology and Main Findings and Conclusions Type of Study
Temperature (◦ C) Reference

The High-Performance Heat Exchanger (HPHE) is designed

to recover heat from hot air in a cooling stack, where • Thermal energy recovered 863 MWh using
fresh air is used to cool tiles. This recovered heat is then (Hot air) HPHE heat pipes-based heat exchanger. Numerical analysis
utilized in the pre-kiln dryer, which requires a large hot 204 ◦ C [66] • Avoided fuel cost 22,120 €/year. and modeling.
air flow at 100 ◦ C. The HPHE functions as an air-to-air • Avoided CO2 emissions 164 tons/year.
heat exchanger for recovering waste heat from flue gases.
• The payback of the ORC is around 4–5 years.
Heat from exhaust gases of a ceramic furnace is captured by • This ORC could save around 237 MWh of
a collector heat exchanger and transferred to an ORC (Hot air) primary energy.
ORC.
system for power production and electricity generation. Between 120 ◦ C • The results show an energy production for Experimental study.
[67]
The collector recuperator heat exchanger serves as the and 287 ◦ C. the whole year of more than 115 MWh.
WHR unit. • 31 tons per year of atmospheric CO2
emission is avoided.
A proposed PCM-based HR system absorbs wasted heat • A PCM-TES system with a storage capacity
Phase Change
from the exhaust gases of ceramic plant furnaces. This (Exhaust gases) of 227 MJ would involve 13.5 m3 of volume
Material (PCM)- Comprehensive
system raises the temperature of preheated combustion 750 ◦ C to and 1188 kg of H885 (Molten salts) PCM.
based HR system. analysis.
air to around 500–850 ◦ C using a shell and double 1100 ◦ C. • Improve combustion efficiency and reduce
[68]
concentric tubes PCM-TES design. fossil fuel consumption.

Fig. 4. Representation of the main steps of the glass-production process [70].

The comparison of WHR systems implemented in the ceramic in- to provide the high temperatures necessary to melt the raw materials to
dustry reveals distinct advantages and challenges associated with each be used. The glass industry is extremely diverse and can be divided up
approach. The HPHE system, operating with kiln flue gases at 300 ◦ C, into different sub- sectors, such as container glass, flat glass, special
demonstrates substantial energy recovery, saving over 863 MWh glass, or glass fibers, which cover different glass products with different
annually and reducing CO2 emissions by 164 tons. Its economic impact requirements in terms of energy consumption, product quality, and
is notable, with annual fuel savings of €22,120, as determined through various process options [69]. The world’s glass production is about 100
numerical analysis and modeling. In contrast, the ORC system, which million tons per year. Breakdown of glass-production process into four
operates with lower inlet temperatures of 120–170 ◦ C, offers a relatively macro-phases as shown in Fig. 4.
longer payback period of 4–5 years. Despite this, it efficiently saves 237 In glass industry melting furnaces, annealing ovens and tempering
MWh of primary energy and produces over 115 MWh annually, while furnaces are used to process raw material into different types of glass
reducing CO2 emissions by 31 tons. The PCM-based system, designed for (flat, container, fiber, and others more specialized glass types), where
high-temperature exhaust gases between 750 and 1100 ◦ C, enhances the main source of waste heat energy are exhaust gases. Nowadays
combustion efficiency and reduces fossil fuel consumption with a stor- modern glass plants can use regenerative and recuperative furnaces to
age capacity of 227 MJ. This system, supported by a comprehensive achieve high efficiency, which can reduce the available rate of waste
analysis, shows promise for significantly improving energy efficiency. heat for power generation. Recuperation allows exhaust gases to cool
down to 982 ◦ C and regeneration even to the range from 316 ◦ C to
4.4. Glass industry 593 ◦ C. Without any WHR process, the temperature of flue gases from
furnace can exceed 1315 ◦ C [71,72]. The process of melting the glass
In the production of glass, most of the energy consumed is required accounts indeed for more than 75 % of the overall energy consumption,

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Table 4
Investigation of WHR systems integrated into glass industry.
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology and Main Findings and Conclusions Type of Study
Temperature Reference
(◦ C)

Two working modes for the ORC system are

• Highest ORC electric output 368 kW (toluene,
assessed: power generation and cogeneration.
cogeneration mode).
In cogeneration mode, the cooling tower is off,
ORC with Regenerator and • Turbine efficiency 83.8 % (toluene,
and the heat removed in the condenser is (Flue gas)
Intermediate Oil Loop. cogeneration mode). Numerical analysis.
repurposed for heating within the industrial 400 ◦ C.
[75] • ORC unit efficiency (including heat recovered
plant. The economizer serves as the primary
from condenser) > 99 % (relative to heat
heat exchanger, with exhaust gas exiting at
harvested in economizer).
120 ◦ C.
The proposed system is an externally heated OL- • Proposed system can replace an electric
BC using air, where part of the compressed air compressor with a power rating of 218–281
is used as a product, and the rest is heated by kW.
Thermally driven air Technical feasibility
exhaust gases from a glass furnace before • Gross equivalent electric efficiency 11.9 % to
(Exhaust gases) compressor, open loop study involves
processing in the Expander. A downward 15.4 %.
560 ◦ C. Brayton Cycle (OL-BC). numerical and
vertical shell-and-tube heat exchanger, • Net electric efficiency 10.3 % to 13.7 %.
[76] modeling.
resistant to temperatures up to 650 ◦ C and • Hot air from low-pressure expander can be
equipped with a floating head for thermal used as preheated combustion air at 246 ◦ C in
expansion, is used for HR. the glass melting furnace.
In the float-glass production process, waste heat
from exhaust gases is transferred to an ORC
• Net electricity production of 8910 kWh/year,
system using thermal oil and a heat exchanger (Exhaust gases)
ORC Turbogenerator. a PBP of 8.2 years, an NPV of 500,000 € for 10 Comprehensive review
(HE) to produce electricity. The HR system Greater than
[74] years, and an IRR of 11 % for 10 years. on case studies.
specifically utilizes a heat exchanger that 180 ◦ C.
• Avoided CO2 emissions of 5.6 ton/y.
transfers heat from exhaust gases to the
thermal oil fluid.
In the glass melting process, WHR is targeted at
Optimally designed thermoelectric module:
four key locations using TEGs: the crown
ceiling, sidewalls of the melt pool, fire ports,
• Electricity generation 55.6 kW from 500 tons/
and during the melt glass cooling in the
day of glass production.
preforming process. The fire ports are
(Hot gases) • Additional cost 1–2 $/W.
identified as the most cost-effective locations TEGs Modeling and analytical
Can reach If implemented in all U.S. glass processing
for high-temperature WHR of hot gases. This [77] study.
1500 ◦ C. factories:
involves direct contact between the hot gases
• Electricity recovery up to 1.37 × 109 kWh/
and the TEG unit’s hot side, which consists of a
year.
refractory layer made of Alumina (Al2O3),
• Annual savings $112 million.
Zirconia (ZrO2), and Silica (SiO2) with a
• CO2 emissions reduction 7.71 × 106 kg/year.
thickness of less than 54 cm.
The study focuses on utilizing exhaust gas waste
heat to preheat the batch and cullet mixture • In the case where flue gases are cooled down
before it enters a small end-fired regenerative from 460 ◦ C to 220 ◦ C using the preheater
Batch and cullet preheating
container glass furnace, eliminating the need heat exchanger, the specific energy 3-dimensional
(Flue gases) based on regenerative
for additional heating. This process uses a consumption at the furnace is reduced by computational
460 ◦ C. container glass furnace.
Nienburger-type preheater, a direct contact 13.3 %, the efficiency of the preheater is 53.9 simulating model.
[78]
heat exchanger that transfers heat directly %.
from the exhaust gas to the batch and cullet • CO2 emissions are reduced by 8.9 %.
mixture.
A prototype was developed for transporting and
• The air flux will go through the oven at a
recovering thermal energy from the ovens of a (Flue gases)
Steel Pipe Heat Exchanger. temperature of 800 ◦ C, to then go out of the Experimental
traditional glass industry. It uses a 4-m-long Between 600 ◦ C
[79] tempering process at a temperature between Study.
steel pipe heat exchanger made of ferritic and and 800 ◦ C.
250 ◦ C and 300 ◦ C.
austenitic alloys.

from the raw material to the final product. Moreover, the exhausts from output (368 kW) and turbine efficiency (83.8 %), leading to an overall
a typical fossil-fired melting furnace are dissipated at 450–550 ◦ C ORC efficiency exceeding 99 % when HR is included. This contrasts with
wasting as much as 25–35 % of the energy consumption for melting that the Thermally Driven Air Compressor, which, although less efficient
glass [73]. On average, about 30 % of the total energy supply during with a gross electric efficiency of 11.9 % to 15.4 %, offers the advantage
production is dispersed in the exhaust gases. Assuming that only half of of reusing hot air from the expander in the glass melting furnace,
the thermal power available is recoverable, and assuming conversion potentially offsetting the need for electric compressors. Further, the ORC
efficiencies of 20 %, the amount of electricity produced is in the order of Turbogenerator demonstrates moderate success, producing 8910 kWh/
30 to 55 kWh per ton of glass [74]. In this context, Table 4 proposed to year of electricity and a payback period of 8.2 years, along with avoiding
examine various techniques employed in WHR systems within the glass 5.6 tons of CO2 emissions annually. TEGs stand out for their high po-
industry sector. Such systems have certain roles, such as improving the tential, with the ability to generate 55.6 kW from high-temperature
efficiency of units used in these operations, producing more power from gases (up to 1500 ◦ C), potentially leading to substantial energy cost
the same energy source, and heating up materials to decrease fuel usage. savings ($112 million annually) if broadly adopted in U.S. factories.
An analysis of WHR systems in the glass sector indicates that they are In comparison, Batch and Cullet Preheating offers significant energy
compatible with temperatures ranging from medium to high, between and environmental benefits, reducing specific energy consumption by
230 ◦ C and 640 ◦ C, it also reveals diverse strategies for enhancing energy 13.3 % and CO2 emissions by 8.9 % through the use of exhaust gases at
efficiency and reducing emissions. The ORC systems show versatility, 460 ◦ C. The Steel Pipe Heat Exchanger prototype, operating with flue
with cogeneration mode using toluene achieving the highest electric gases at 600–800 ◦ C, efficiently transfers heat to air, showcasing its

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

5.1. Gas turbine power plants

Gas turbines are widely used in electricity production, either in

standalone mode or as a combined cycle with steam generator (cogen-
eration). The first electric utility gas turbine was developed by the
General Electric (GE) Company as a part of a Combined Cycle Gas
Turbine (CCGT) plant in Oklahoma (USA) with power rating of about
3.5 MW but had extremely low efficiency and reliability [80,81]. The
low efficiency of gas turbine plants is mainly due to operating model.
Oyegoke et al. [82] theoretically analyzed operating conditions of a
Afam gas power plant in Nigeria, mass and energy conservation laws
were applied to each component of modern gas turbine power plant and
the results revealed that efficiency determined by the shaft work per-
centage fraction to the ideal work was 23.8 %, while the power plant
efficiency was also reported as 33.2 % which indicate a relatively low
efficiency, with significant energy losses occurring within the gas tur-
bine system.
Regarding the efficiency of gas turbine (GT), it is essential to un-
derstand the three types of GT cycles, as represented in Fig. 5. In case 1
(open cycle), air at high pressure and temperature enters the turbine that
in terms produce power. Part of this power is utilized in driving the
compressor and other accessories and the remaining is obtained as
output power. In case 2 (closed cycle) operation is remarkably like open
cycle, the only difference is that the expanded air by the turbine is again
used by the compressor instead of being released to ambient. This cycle,
however, has no practical application but can be modified to enhance
efficiency of open cycle turbine. In case 3 (combined cycle) the
expanded air in the primary cycle is deployed in a bottoming cycle
consisting HRSG, Rankine cycle steam turbine, and the auxiliary
components.
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of (1) Open cycle, (2) Closed cycle, (3) Combined Several WHR systems have been proposed in response to the sub-
cycle power plant [80].
stantial waste of heat energy that occurs in the gas turbine cycle
mentioned previously [83,84]. A concise summary of these systems,
effectiveness in traditional glass ovens. Overall, while each WHR system including their outcomes and the temperature ranges of the exhaust
presents unique advantages, TEGs and ORC systems, particularly in gases and hot air generated by these cycles, will be presented in Table 5.
cogeneration mode, offer the most significant potential for energy sav- In addition, a clear outline of the objectives for each system is provided.
ings and emission reductions, making them the most promising tech- The turbine, compressor, and combustion chamber are the main
nologies for large-scale implementation in the glass industry. However, components responsible for expelling waste heat energy through flue
their cost-effectiveness and integration into existing processes remain gases in gas turbine power plants. The primary emphasis of WHR sys-
critical factors for widespread adoption. tems in this context is on heat-to-power generation, resulting in the
production of electricity. In this subsector, WHR systems typically
5. Energy production and power generation operate within the medium temperature range of 230 ◦ C to 650 ◦ C.
Notably, the Supercritical CO2 Cycle and ORC demonstrated significant
The energy and power production sector comprises various sub- thermal power recovery, with the former recovering 1500 kW and the
sectors, such as gas turbine power plants (GTPP), coal-fired power plants latter achieving 16.8 % of the turbine’s nominal power. The TEGs, while
(CFPP), biomass power plants (BPP), and engines powered by gasoline having a lower power output of 10.5 kW, still contribute to efficiency
and natural gas. Each subsector mentioned utilize specific processes that improvements. The CHP system with TEGs showed a substantial in-
result in the generation of waste heat energy in the form of exhaust gases crease in energy efficiency from 24.6 % to 41.5 %, indicating the
and hot air. Gas turbine power plants employ combustion turbines for effectiveness of integrating WHR technologies in improving overall
the purpose of electricity generation, resulting in the emission of high- system performance.
temperature exhaust gases. Coal-fired power plants utilize the combus-
tion of coal to generate heat, which in turn leads to the release of sub- 5.2. Coal-fired power plants
stantial amounts of waste heat. Biomass power plants are designed to
convert organic materials into energy through the process of combus- The conversion of coal to the end goal of electricity is a multi-faceted
tion. This combustion process also produces waste heat as a byproduct. process which can be described in four main stages. First stage is coal
In addition, engines fueled by gasoline and natural gas emit exhaust delivery, modern coal plants are mine mouths that means the plant was
gases and hot air as byproducts of the combustion process. The focus of put where the coal mine is, so the coal does not need to be transported by
investigative efforts has been on the integration of WHR systems into train, once unloaded, the coal is then pulverized into a fine powder by a
these subsectors, with the goal of enhancing efficiency and reducing large grinder in the second stage. This ensures complete burning of the
environmental impacts. This section aims to present an overview of the coal to maximize the heat given off and to minimize pollutants. In the
processes involved in each subsector and analyze the potential waste third stage the pulverized coal is fed to a boiler, where combustion oc-
heat energy that they can offer. Subsequently, a comprehensive over- curs providing heat energy to the power plant. This heat is transferred to
view of the WHR systems examined in these subsectors will be provided, pipes containing high pressured water, which is converted to steam.
followed by an examination of the findings derived from each section Finally, in fourth stage, the steam then travels through a turbine, causing
related to these recovery systems. it to rotate extremely fast which in turn spins a generator, producing
electricity. The electricity can then be input to the electrical grid for use

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Table 5
Investigation of WHR systems integrated into gas turbine power plants (Compressor, combustion chamber and turbine processes).
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology and Main Findings and Conclusions Type of Study
Temperature Reference
(◦ C)

• A reduction in the isentropic efficiency of the

The study explored using a single heated sCO2
high-temperature turbine (HTT) results in a
cycle as bottoming cycle for a 5 MW-class gas
decrease in net electric power.
turbine to recover waste heat from the
Supercritical CO2 (sCO2) • Higher effectiveness values of recuperators result
turbine’s exhaust gases. Heat is absorbed (Exhaust gas)
Cycle. in higher electric power production. Parametric analysis.
sequentially in a low-temperature recuperator 511 ◦ C.
[85] • 1500 kW of net electric power can be recovered.
(LTR) and a high-temperature recuperator
• The specific cost of this technology is around
(HTR) before expansion through a low-
$2000 per kW, which is lower compared to the
temperature turbine (LTT).
specific cost of the ORC.
The study investigates using a bottoming ORC to • Five organic working fluids were compared.
convert exhaust flue gases from a 5.75 MW • Toluene exhibited the best performance with net
Solar Taurus gas turbine at Covenant power outputs of 533 kW at full load and 413 kW
(Flue gases)
University (Nigeria) into power. The heat ORC. at partial load of 75 %, while at 50 % partial load,
Between 363 ◦ C Modeling study.
recovery unit (HRU), or evaporator, is divided [86] R245fa has the highest net power output of 469
and 520 ◦ C.
into three series-connected sections: a kW.
preheater (economizer), a boiler (evaporator), • WHR technologies can generate 16.8 % of the
and a superheater. nominal power of a gas turbine power plant.
• TE with 50 % fill factor and 6 mm leg thickness
The theoretical investigation explored using
made of state-of-the-art Bi2Te3 alloys, achieve a
solid-state TEGs for a Heat-to-Power WHR Theoretical research
(Flue gases) TEGs power output of 10.5 kW with system efficiency
approach by recovering waste heat from a gas based on several
500 ◦ C. [87] of 5 % and material cost of 0.23 $/W.
turbine power plant’s exhaust. The TEGs are assumptions.
• The exergy efficiency of the TE system can reach
mounted on the turbine’s exhaust duct.
8 % with an improvement potential of 85 %.
A combined heat and power system with a hot
water system and thermoelectric generator
• System I indicate the conventional system
(TEG) unit is proposed to enhance
includes intercooled gas turbine without hot
thermodynamic and exergo-economic
water system and TEG module.
performance, optimize multi-criteria, and
• System II stands for CHP-TEG system.
improve system sustainability for an Mathematical
Combined heat and power • Thermodynamic modeling indicates an
intercooled gas turbine. The system features simulation and
– Thermoelectric improvement of about 613.3 kW, 8.2 kW, and
two vapor generators: one for heat exchange (Flue gases) numerical modeling.
Generator (CHP-TEG) 12.3 kW obtained in the gas turbine, KC, and
between turbine flue gases and Toluene for the 227.8 ◦ C. Thermodyna-mic and
system. regenerative ORC subsystems.
Organic Rankine Cycle (RORC), and another exergo-economic
[88] • The GT unit energy efficiency increases from
for heat exchange with NH3-H2O for the KC. analysis.
24.6 % for system I to 41.5 % in system II.
The TEG unit, positioned on the condenser,
• The energy efficiency, total exergy destruction
recovers heat from hot water. Additionally,
rate and electricity cost rate are 53.9 %, 2392 kW
heat generated by the two-stage compressor is
and 52.3 $/h, respectively.
exchanged with a water stream to supply
domestic hot water.

by society [89]. Coal fired power plants (CFPP) follow the Rankine cycle (0.5 %), while there is growth in India (3.6 %) and Southeast Asia (4.4
to complete this process, so they require plenty of water to be circulated %) [91], justified since CFPPs accounts for high percentage of fossil fuel
in this cycle, thus they need to be located near a body of water. The plants for electricity generation [92–95]. According to power statistics
process of CFPP can be seen in Fig. 6. in China (2017), the average net efficiency of CFPPs attains 39.8 %.
Coal’s share in primary energy demand is in EU (3.7 %) and in China Regarding environmental impacts, India’s electricity high emissions
intensity reflects the large fraction of Indian electricity generated from
coal. However, coal and fossil fuel are still heavily utilized in electricity
production in developing economies and this trend will continue until
2035 because of their vast reserve, despite having a huge impact on
environment, health, and safety implications [96–98].
Considering the substantial role that CFPPs play in meeting the pri-
mary energy demand and the environmental consequences they involve,
it is essential to explore the integration of WHR systems in these facil-
ities. The objective of such systems is to improve their operational ef-
ficiencies and reduce the environmental impacts that are linked to their
activities. Table 6 presents a concise overview of specific WHR systems
integrated to this type of power plant, providing valuable information
on their potential benefits among a wide range of available choices.
After conducting an analysis of the WHR systems under investiga-
tion, it is apparent that the boiler, which is fueled by coal and facilitates
combustion, is the main unit that experiences energy loss in this power
Fig. 6. The process of a coal fired power plant to convert coal into elec- plant. The primary cause of energy loss is the discharge of flue gases
tricity [90]. from the boiler at temperatures below 230 ◦ C, which classifies it as low-

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Table 6
Investigation of WHR systems integrated into coal-fired power plants.
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology and Main Findings and Conclusions Type of Study
Temperature Reference
(◦ C)

The project focuses on improving coal • When the boiler exhaust heat is recovered
consumption savings and investment from 122 to 90 ◦ C, the net coal savings,
economics for a 600 MW hard-coal-fired ultra- initial capital cost, and payoff period of HAR
(Exhaust gases) Hot Air Recirculation
supercritical power unit in China. It are 3.49 g/kWh, $1.473 million, and 1.34 Experimental tests and
120 ◦ C to (HAR).
emphasizes safe and reliable operation years, respectively. numerical simulation.
170 ◦ C. [99]
through effective thermo- and techno- • For conventional bypass flue (CBF) process
economic performance, with exhaust gas HR the results are 2.98 g/(kWh), $2.528
achieved using a rotary air preheater. million, and 3.04 years, respectively.
In coal-fired power plants, a de-aerator removes
• TEG had the highest voltage and power
O2 and dissolved gases from water and
output, 2.48 V and 5.1 W.
increases its temperature through heat
• To get more power, arranging arrays of TEG
exchange between steam and water. A (Exhaust gases) Thermoelectric generator
can be the solution in throughout exhaust
proposal suggests recovering waste heat from Between 145 ◦ C (TEG). Experimental study.
pipe or design box with arrays TEG.
the de-aerator’s exhaust gases using and 170 ◦ C. [100]
• Developing maximum power point tracker
thermoelectric generator (TEG) technology,
(MPPT) is needed to maximize TEG
with ceramic plates facilitating indirect
performance.
contact with the hot gases.
• Additional net power output: 5362 kW.
• Electricity revenue: $1220 k (409 kW and
The Organic Fluid LPE (OLPE) WHR system $127 k greater than LPE)
improves efficiency by converting recovered ORC with High • Annual coal savings: 5699 tons, saving
(Exhaust gases)
heat using an organic fluid cycle that Temperature Heat Pump $855 k.
Between 131 ◦ C Modeling and simulation.
integrates ORC with HTHP. Finned tubes are (HTHP). • Maximum HR efficiency: 17 %
and 109 ◦ C.
used for the evaporators in both the HTHP and [101] • Efficiency improvement compared to LPE:
ORC systems to enhance heat exchange. 3.5 %.
• Payback period: 5.1 years (electricity
revenue), 10.5 years (coal savings).
A thermodynamic analysis of a 500 MW thermal
• Method 2 generates an extra 27 MW and
coal-fired power plant investigates two
improves plant efficiency by 2.0 %.
proposed flue gas HR systems to minimize
• Method 1 increases efficiency by 1.8 %. Thermodynamic analysis
heat losses. The systems include air preheaters (Flue gases) Air Preheaters (APHs).
• Flue gas waste energy recovery: 58.0 ◦ C involves mathematical
positioned between the boiler and heater 1, as 318 ◦ C. [102]
(method 1), 61.4 ◦ C (method 2). modeling and calculations.
well as an additional air preheater after heater
• Reduction in harmful effects of global
1. The flue gas from the boiler enters the air
warming.
preheaters to preheat ambient air.
A thermo-economic analysis proposes
• Biggest exergy destruction: 22.0 % in APH.
integrating an S-CO2 cycle and Low-Pressure
• Electric power output: 3.73 MW, with SCCR
Economizer (LPE) into a 600 MW pulverized
reduction of 1.76 g/kWh.
coal-fired power plant (CFPP). The new
Supercritical CO2 (S-CO2) • Splitting boiler flue-gas reduces SCCR by
system design involves splitting the boiler flue (Exhaust flue Thermodynamic modeling
Cycle with Low Pressure 3.8 g/kWh with S-CO2 power cycle.
gas into two flows: one for heating air in an air gases) includes energetic, exergetic
Economizer (LPE). • Integration with S-CO2 and LPE reduces
preheater (APH) and the other for driving the 148 ◦ C. and economic analyses.
[103] SCCR by 5.2 g/kWh, and exergy loss drops
S-CO2 power cycle. Heat exchange occurs
from 17.8 MW to 3.9 MW.
across multiple units, including the APH, LPE,
• Payback period for capital investment: 3.1
and an air-to-air heat exchanger that preheats
years.
compressor inlet air.

grade waste heat. The overview of various WHR systems integrated into offers a payback period of 3.1 years, making it a competitive option for
coal-fired power plants reveals their effectiveness in improving effi- long-term efficiency gains. This system, while requiring a moderate
ciency and reducing coal consumption. The HAR system achieves a coal capital investment, contributes notably to reducing coal usage and
savings of 3.49 g per kilowatt-hour (g/kWh) with a relatively quick improving thermal power efficiency. Overall, these WHR systems
payback period of 1.34 years, making it a cost-effective option for demonstrate varied benefits in terms of efficiency improvement and coal
enhancing fuel efficiency. In contrast, the TEG system, while useful, savings. The ORC with HTHP and APHs are particularly effective in
generates only 5.1 watts with a maximum voltage of 2.48 V, suggesting enhancing power output, while HAR and the S-CO2 cycle provide sig-
that its performance could be significantly improved with optimized nificant coal savings with favorable payback periods. The choice of WHR
array arrangements. ORC combined with a HTHP stands out by pro- system depends on specific plant needs, budget constraints, and desired
ducing an additional 536 kW (kW) of power and saving 5699 tons of coal efficiency outcomes.
annually, although with a longer payback period of 5.1 years. This
system demonstrates substantial power enhancement and fuel savings 5.3. Biomass power plants
but requires a more extended investment recovery time compared to
HAR. APHs improve plant efficiency by up to 2.0 % and generate an Biomass power plants (BPP) utilize the energy contained inside
additional 27 MW (MW) of power, highlighting their significant role in organic substances to produce electricity using several technical
boosting power output and overall efficiency through effective flue gas methods. The four primary categories are direct combustion plants,
HR. gasification plants, anaerobic digestion plants, and pyrolysis plants. (i)
S-CO2 Cycle with LPE reduces coal consumption by 5.2 g/kWh and Direct combustion plants utilize the process of burning biomass directly

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

projects (BPGP) that have been put into operation from 2016 to 2020
increased from 620 to 1390 respectively, while the installed biomass
capacity reached 29,520 MW and the power generation reached 13,260
GWh in 2020 [106,108]. In Portugal there are more than 20 solid BPP
delivering more than 600 MW to the national power grid General Di-
rection of Energy and Geology [109]. Primadita et al. [110] proposed an
article that reviews the biomass and electricity generation imple-
mentation in Indonesia to get insights on the development of the
biomass for power generation. Moreover, the Indonesian National En-
ergy Policy stated that from 2011 to 2019, the installed capacity of BPP
reached 1857 MW or 33.8 % of the target of 5500 MW in 2025. U.S
Fig. 7. Total biomass installed capacity from 2012 to 2020 globally [106]. Energy Information Administration, in an independent statistics and
analysis, stated that in 2022 biomass accounted for 5 % of U.S. energy
to generate steam, which in turn powers turbines to produce electricity. consumption [111]. Germany electricity production based on biomass
(ii) Gasification facilities transform solid biomass into syngas, which is was about 43.8 TWh in 2016 (excluding the biogenic share of waste),
subsequently utilized for power generation or biofuel production. (iii) contributing 23 % to gross electricity production from renewable en-
Anaerobic digestion facilities employ microorganisms to decompose ergies [112]. Biomass plants represent 8 % of the total electrical energy
organic waste, resulting in the production of biogas, which is then used generated by thermoelectric plants in the state of Paraná in Brazil [113].
to fuel generators. (iv) Pyrolysis BPP heat biomass materials in the The preceding review proves that BPP are a specific type of renew-
absence of oxygen to produce bio-oil, syngas, and biochar. Every tech- able energy resource that makes up a small portion of the overall global
nique has distinct benefits and difficulties, which collectively shape the electricity generation demand, these systems have complex processes
varied panorama of biomass energy generation. that result in significant waste heat energy potentials which refers to
Biomass energy is the fourth largest energy source that comes after exhaust air or flue smoke. When this heat energy is recovered, it makes a
coal, oil, and natural gas [104]. Among the utilization methods of significant contribution to improving plant efficiencies and reducing
biomass energy, biomass power generation is one of the most common environmental impacts. Table 7 displays an analysis of three WHR sys-
and effective ways to utilize biomass. According to the latest Interna- tems that have been previously suggested. These systems were chosen
tional Energy Agency market forecast results, between 2018 and 2023, from a larger set of options and are all important in furthering the
biomass energy will lead the continued growth of renewable energy, strategic objective.
accounting for 40 % of global energy consumption growth. According to Upon examination of WHR systems, it is evident that BPP primarily
the data released by International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) in function within the medium temperature range of waste heat, typically
2019 [105], the global biomass installed capacity exceeds 120 GW. The ranging from 230 ◦ C to 650 ◦ C. In addition, GSHP system, utilizing flue
total global biomass installed capacity from 2012 to 2020 is shown in gases at 213 ◦ C, demonstrates a highly efficient recovery method for
Fig. 7 [106]. Moreover, the use of biomass energy constitutes around 10 space heating, achieving up to 100 % WHR and significantly reducing
% of the world’s primary energy production, equivalent to 1277 Gt of oil CO2 emissions by nearly 1 ton per day compared to conventional natural
or with 53.47 exajoule (EJ) of primary energy consumption of total gas heating. In contrast, ORC system, which harnesses exhaust air at
biomass in 2012 [107]. 237 ◦ C from aerobic/anaerobic waste treatment, is optimized for elec-
More than 80 % of biomass raw materials are used for power gen- tricity production, converting approximately 20 % of biogas energy into
eration in China according to the China Renewable Energy Industry electrical power. This showcases the ORC’s potential for enhancing
Development Report 2021.The number of biomass power generation energy efficiency in waste treatment facilities. On the other hand, TCM

Table 7
Investigation of WHR systems integrated into biomass power plants.
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology and Main Findings and Conclusions Type of Study
Temperature Reference
(◦ C)

The combustion system transfers heat from biomass • WHR: 30 % to 100 % for a 1 MW combustion
combustion to water via heat exchangers (HEs), system, used for space heating.
with some heat lost through flue gases. This waste • Average heat storage rate: 83.2 W/m (60 ◦ C), 75.8
Ground Source Heat
heat can be stored in the ground and recovered using (Flue gases) W/m (50 ◦ C), 70.4 W/m (40 ◦ C). Numerical
Pump (GSHP).
a GSHP system during cold seasons. The effects of 213 ◦ C. • 60 ◦ C storage temperature extracts 23.7 % more modeling
[114]
waste heat storage on GSHP performance are heat.
investigated using four U-tube ground heat • Recovered heat saves nearly 1 ton of CO2
exchangers (GHEs). emissions per day at a 65 % recovery rate.
• An increase in the ORC size from about 0.05 to 1
An ORC system powered by heat from aerobic/
W/ton/year.
anaerobic treatment of organic waste is analyzed for Theoretical
(Exhaust air) ORC. • In these conditions, by using a micro-ORC system
electricity production. The evaporator, the main investigation and
237 ◦ C. [115] (i.e. <15 kW), it was possible to convert about 20
unit, transfers heat from exhaust air to the working simulation
% of the energy content of biogas into electrical
fluid, R123a.
energy.
In 2005, Japan first used a practical Stirling engine • The heat dissipating side was about 18 ◦ C, giving a
with woody biomass fuels. A unique cogeneration difference in heat of ΔT = 72 ◦ C and maximum
Thermoelectric
system is proposed, where 43 % of input energy is power generation of about 6 W.
(Exhaust gases) Conversion Module
lost as exhaust heat. This waste heat is captured by a • For attaching 71 of the water-cooled WHRSs that Experimental study
500 ◦ C. (TCM).
Thermoelectric Conversion Module (TCM) were proposed in this study to the preexisting
[116]
integrated into the system, with heat exchanged via woody biomass fueled cogeneration system, it
a water-cooling heat sink in the WHRS prototype. would generate 426 W of electric energy.

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

engines, as shown in Fig. 9, such as diesel engines, use the heat gener-
ated during the compression process to auto-ignite the air fuel mixture
injected into the cylinder. Every engine type has unique benefits and
uses in generating power, meeting various energy demands and oper-
ating needs.
A study on the performance of an internal combustion engine con-
ducted at steady state conditions applying an energy and exergy analysis
using experimental testing results was presented in [118]. The tests were
performed on a four-cylinder, four-stroke Iran Khodro XU7 JPL3 1.8 L
spark-ignition engine of maximum power 69 kW. The engine speed
variation has been from speed of 1000 rpm to maximum speed of 6000
rpm in 500 rpm steps. The coolant inlet temperature has been set at
90 ◦ C. Experimental results showed that exhaust air mass flow rate and
temperature in manifolds before catalyst was varying between 0.023
and 0.089 kg/s and 571–776 ◦ C respectively, with the variation of en-
gine speed mentioned above. A significant fraction of the fuel exergy is
destroyed by irreversible processes in the engine, such as combustion,
heat transfer and friction. The results of this study have revealed that the
most important source of system inefficiency is the destruction of exergy
Fig. 8. Schematic of Spark ignition engine [117]. by irreversible processes, mostly by combustion.
Internal combustion engine efficiency attains maximum values
around 40 % for the most advanced spark ignition engines, with lower
values at part loads. With heat rejected into the exhaust gases and the
cooling system estimated to be 34–45 % of the initial fuel energy in case
of spark ignition (SI) engines [119,120].
Experimental investigation on energy and exergy balance of fuel
type; gasoline or natural gas engines was found in [121]. Thermal bal-
ance was in respect to output power, heat loss through the exhaust gases,
heat loss to the cooling and unaccounted losses. The thermal balance of
the engine operating on natural gas and gasoline fuels were established
at full load condition with the cooling fluid temperature set at 90 ◦ C. At
engine speed of 3500 rpm is taken as an example, for the case of com-
pressed natural gas (CNG) fuel, 31.6 % of total fuel energy converted
into the output power, 29.1 % and 28.2 % of fuel energy transferred to
heat through exhaust gases and cooling fluid, respectively. The rest of
the fuel energy (11.1 %) is lost in the form of unaccounted energy. For
the case of gasoline fuel, 26.7 % of total fuel converted to output power,
26.2 % and 23.2 % transferred out of the system in the form of heat to
exhaust gases and cooling fluid respectively. Comparative analysis
showed that throughout the engine speed range when engine was fed
with gasoline, the output power was higher than that of gaseous fuel by
4.2 kW, while thermal efficiency of the engine with natural gas was
Fig. 9. Schematic of Compression ignition engine [117]. higher than that of the gasoline by approximately 5.4 %, regarding the
destructed exergy of gasoline, it was higher than CNG by about 5.8 %,
system, operating at a higher temperature of 500 ◦ C from a Stirling averagely.
engine’s exhaust, focuses on electricity generation. Although each About 80 % of the total estimated waste heat is in the low temper-
module generates a modest 6 W, when combined, multiple modules can ature range (i.e., below 230 ◦ C) [122–124]. It is reported that diesel
produce a cumulative output of 426 W, underscoring the scalability of engines contribute maximum (around 58 %) waste heat among various
TCM technology despite its lower individual efficiency. Coming to a low-temperature WHSs [123]. Efficiently recovering waste heat from the
conclusion, while GSHP systems excel in thermal energy recovery with exhaust gas, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), coolant, and charge air
near complete efficiency, ORC systems offer a viable solution for elec- (CA) lead to significant improvement in the efficiency of engine, fuel
tricity generation from lower-grade heat sources, and TCM systems, economy, and emissions [125,126]. A diesel engine converts only
though less efficient per module, provide a scalable option for har- 25–40 % of total fuel energy into mechanical work, and 60–75 % of
nessing higher-temperature waste heat. The selection of an appropriate energy is lost as waste heat in different forms. Out of total waste heat,
WHR system should therefore be guided by the specific energy 20–45 % goes to exhaust gas, 10–35 % goes to cooling water, and 2–10
needs—thermal or electrical—and the temperature of the WHS. % is lost in the form of friction and other losses [127].
On average, the generation efficiency for many diesel power plants is
about 40 % excluding about 5 % lost in transmission which leads to 35 %
5.4. Internal combustion engines as the average total diesel engine power generation [128]. Internal
combustion engines are leading consumers of fossil fuels accounting for
Internal combustion engines are often used for power generated by about 60 % of fossil fuels consumption as prime movers in power gen-
combustion reaction of different hydrocarbon fuels, including natural eration, transport and other applications which leads to high greenhouse
gas, gasoline, and diesel engines. The engines are classified into two gas emissions [129,130]. WHR from the exhaust and cooling systems
main types: spark ignition and compression ignition. Spark ignition (SI) can save energy and increase output from power plants [131,132].
engines, as shown in Fig. 8, powered by gasoline or natural gas, ignite Both types of internal combustion engines possess considerable po-
the fuel-air mixture using spark plugs. Compression ignition (CI) tential for waste heat energy, which is concentrated in the exhaust gases

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Table 8
Investigation of WHR systems integrated into internal combustion engines plants.
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology Main Findings and Conclusions Type of Study
Temperature and Reference
(◦ C)

A thermo-economic analysis compares a simple

• In the most frequent operating condition,
ORC (SORC), ORC with recuperator (RORC),
the outputs are mechanical engine power
and double-pressure ORC (DORC) integrated
(1759 kW), with an effective engine
with a 2 MW Jenbacher engine. These ORCs (Exhaust gases)
ORC. efficiency (38.6 %) and HR efficiency (40.8 Involves a dynamic model
improve the thermal efficiency of natural gas Between 580 ◦ C
[133] %). validated with experimental data.
engines, generating additional electricity and 650 ◦ C.
• Heat removed from exhaust gases is 515 kW.
without extra fuel. Heat is transferred from
• Toluene has been used as an organic
exhaust gases to a thermal oil circuit, then to
working fluid.
Toluene
• Maximum thermal efficiency of combined
Power performance and fuel efficiency of an IC
cycle: 53.1 %.
engine are improved by coupling it with a CSI
(Exhaust gases) Cylinder Steam • NG engine thermal efficiency improvement:
cycle at three full-load speeds. The WHR Numerical calculation,
Between 577 ◦ C Injection (CSI). 6.0 % to 6.6 % (at 2000 rpm) via CSI cycle.
system uses a preheater and heat exchanger theoretical analysis.
and 667 ◦ C. [134] • Maximum brake specific CO2 reduction: 96
to recover heat from the engine coolant and
g/kWh, with a decrease rate of 16.4 % due
exhaust, transferring it to water or steam.
to steam injection.
At 100 % load:
The Double loop ORC (DORC) is recommended
for recovering exhaust heat from a 1000 kW • Output power: 1123 kW.
natural gas engine, providing year-round • Efficiency: 41.1 % (engine alone: 1000 kW,
Dual-loop Organic
electricity. The high-temperature loop uses (Exhaust gases) 36.6 %).
Rankine Cycle Dynamic modeling and
an air-to-toluene heat exchanger, while the Between 520 ◦ C • Improvement: 12.5 %.
(DORC). simulation.
second loop, with R245fa as the working and 532 ◦ C. At 60 % load:
[135]
fluid, recovers heat from the first loop’s • Output power: 673 kW.
cooling water via an evaporator heat • Efficiency: 36.0 % (engine alone: 600 kW,
exchanger. 32.1 %).
• Improvement: 12.2 %.
Charging time reduction at 2000 rpm:

An air preheating system for engine intake air at

• 34.9 % (with 5 wt% SiO2 nanoparticles).
− 0.15 and − 5.15 ◦ C is numerically
• 30.2 % (Al2O3).
investigated. The exhaust WHR system stores Numerical investigation, involves
(Exhaust gases) Nano-enhanced • 25.6 % (CuO).
heat in an energy storage heat exchanger and comprehensive thermal model
Between 370 ◦ C PCMs (NEPCM). Discharge process:
preheats the combustion air inlet. A ribbed validated using experimental
and 390 ◦ C. [136] • Cold intake air heated from − 0.15 ◦ C to
plate heat exchanger with NEPCM, data.
28.7 ◦ C, and from − 5.15 ◦ C to 27.5 ◦ C in less
containing various nanoparticles and volume
than 1 min.
fractions, is used.
Prevention of pollutants due to reduced
misfiring and incomplete combustion.
• Suction air temperature without heat
exchanger: constant at 30 ◦ C.
An experimental investigation on a 3.67 kW, • With STHE at 50 %, 70 %, 100 %, and
water-cooled, four-stroke diesel engine shows overload conditions: suction air
Shell and Tube type
improved performance and reduced smoke (Exhaust gases) temperatures are 145 ◦ C, 152 ◦ C, 155 ◦ C,
Heat Exchanger
levels by using a specially designed shell-and- Between 220 ◦ C and 162 ◦ C, respectively. Experimental study.
(STHE).
tube heat exchanger (STHE). This STHE and 375 ◦ C. • At 80 % load, thermal efficiency increases
[137]
recovers exhaust heat to preheat the inlet air by about 5 % due to higher inlet air
to 150 ◦ C. temperature.
• Smoke level reduction with heat exchanger:
14 % at full load and 22 % at overload.
• Case 1: Maximum power output of ORC
A comprehensive review of WHR from diesel system is 165 kW using toluene at optimum
engines using ORC highlights low- operating conditions.
(Exhaust gases) Single loop ORC Comprehensive analysis
temperature WHR for direct electrical • Case 2: The maximum potential power
Between 420 ◦ C (SL-ORC) including modeling and
conversion. Exhaust gases are recovered in an output ability of R123 as 9.7 kW is obtained
and 473 ◦ C. [138] numerical analysis.
evaporator, serving as the HR vapor at 2000 rpm, 100 % load condition.
generator in the ORC. • Case 3: 5.7 % improvement in overall
engine brake thermal efficiency.
A proposed cogeneration Rankine cycle plant
• Recoverable exhaust heat for cogeneration:
uses a steam turbine powered by steam
HRSG, Rankine Cycle 9311 kWth, generating 8.5 MWe extra
generated from the exhaust gas HRSG of a (Exhaust gases) Comprehensive review with
(RC). electricity.
120 MWe power plant’s seven engines. The 360 ◦ C. discussion and recommendations.
[139] • Reduction in pollutants due to less misfiring
steam generator recovers exhaust heat and
and incomplete combustion.
converts it to steam for the Rankine cycle.
• Heat extracted at full load: 3.6 kW, higher
This study proposes a HR heat exchanger
than other load conditions due to the high
integrated with a 7.4 kW diesel engine and a
(Exhaust gases) Cascade TES system / heat release rate from the IC engine. Includes experimental,
cascade TES system using PCMs. The air-fluid
Between 150 ◦ C PCMs. • 15 % of fuel power is stored in the cascaded numerical, theoretical, and
heat exchanger transfers exhaust heat to
and 300 ◦ C. [140] TES system, available at both higher and review studies.
Castrol oil, which then stores the heat in a
lower temperatures for suitable
tank filled with D-sorbitol and paraffin.
applications.
(continued on next page)

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Table 8 (continued )
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology Main Findings and Conclusions Type of Study
Temperature and Reference
(◦ C)

• Superheated steam generation: 0.56 kg per

The economic efficiency of HR from diesel
kW of engine power.
power plants is evaluated, showing that
(Exhaust gases) Water Rankin Cycle • Additional electricity generation: 0.04 kW
steam-generating circuits (WRC) increase
Between 400 ◦ C (WRC). per kW of engine power. Comprehensive analysis.
electricity output. An air-air heat exchanger
and 420 ◦ C. [141] • Waste heat utilization for a 180 kW diesel
at the exhaust pipe heats air to generate
generator with turbocharging:
steam for the Rankine Cycle.
approximately 7.2 kWh.
Maximum thermal energy extraction rates:

• 6.0 kW at 1000 rpm.

HR from diesel engine exhaust gases is achieved • 8.1 kW at 1200 rpm.
using a porous medium-assisted • 9.1 kW at 1400 rpm.
thermoelectric generator (TEG) with Maximum power output: 98.3 W (lowest
(Exhaust gases) Thermoelectric
customized thermoelectric modules (TEMs). porosity 0.121, highest engine speed 1400
Between 279 ◦ C Generator (TEG). Experimental investigation.
The exhaust gases flow through a TEG with rpm).
and 291 ◦ C. [142]
finned structures to enhance heat transfer, Minimum power output: 59.7 W (highest
and 30 TEMs are arranged in a 3 × 5 pattern porosity 0.516, lowest engine speed 1000
on the channel surfaces. rpm).
Power output improvement with
perforated plates (porosity 0.121–0.516):
14.8 % to 44.5 % compared to base case.
• Sodium nitrate chosen as PCM with a 305 ◦ C
melting point.
A WHR system uses PCM to recover heat from • Charging time for PCM: 90 min at 11 kg
the exhaust of a 7.46 kW engine. The PCM, engine load; PCM stores 5.5 % of total
(Exhaust gases)
placed between outer and inner copper tubes, PCM. thermal energy from the exhaust. Experimental investigations and
Between 255 ◦ C
transfers heat from the exhaust gas to the [143] • Heat rejection to the atmosphere decreases setups.
and 390 ◦ C.
water, generating steam for various from 45.1 % to 39.5 % due to PCM use.
applications. • Discharging PCM takes 20 min: delivers 1.6
% of energy to water for steam generation,
with 3.6 % losses to surroundings.

produced during the combustion process. Given the widespread demand performance. The choice of WHR system depends on specific energy
for these engines in areas with limited access to electricity, it is crucial to needs, whether for electrical power, performance improvement, or heat
analyze and explain the WHR systems that are incorporated into these storage, highlighting the importance of selecting the appropriate tech-
engines as shown in Table 8, which focuses on the objective of these nology to meet different operational goals.
systems improving their operational efficiencies and generate surplus
electricity for utilization in specific locations. Moreover, they possess 6. Automotive and transportation
the capability to enable TES for future utilization, such as generating
steam or conducting tempering procedures. The automotive and transportation sector is crucial to the global
The examination of WHR systems demonstrates that waste heat from economy, since it supports trade, mobility, and improvements in society.
exhaust gases in internal combustion engines typically spans from The impact of transportation extends beyond its basic function,
230 ◦ C to 650 ◦ C. In addition, ORC systems, including cogeneration including urban design, energy consumption and environmental sus-
plants and different ORC configurations, notably improve thermal effi- tainability. This sector is also a large energy user, contributing signifi-
ciency and generate additional electricity without consuming extra fuel. cantly to the world energy demand. As urbanization progresses and
For instance, the cogeneration Rankine cycle plant uses steam from populations increase, the need for efficient and sustainable trans-
exhaust gas HR to power a steam turbine, enhancing overall engine ef- portation options becomes more crucial. It is important to address the
ficiency. Similarly, DORC system efficiently recovers exhaust heat from energy consumption concerns to achieve a more sustainable energy
a 1000 kW natural gas engine, utilizing both high-temperature and low- future. Automotive industry is moving steadily toward the adoption of
temperature loops with different working fluids to provide year-round new technologies because of the rapid depletion of fossil fuels and
electricity. In contrast, STHE used in diesel engines show improve- climate challenges caused by the transport sector, which accounts for
ments in performance and reductions in smoke levels by preheating inlet the 27 % of global energy consumption and for 33.7 % of pollutant
air with recovered exhaust heat. This approach effectively enhances emissions and greenhouse gas (GHG) [144]. Moreover, it was found by
engine operation but is more focused on performance optimization Vietnam’s road transport services that energy consumption and GHG
rather than electricity generation. TEG achieve notable efficiency with emissions will reach 11 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) and 32
extraction rates varying by engine speed and a maximum power output MtCO2e in 2030 as well as 37 Mtoe and 105 MtCO2e in 2050 in basic
of 98.3 W. The use of porous medium-assisted TEGs with customized scenario, respectively, with annual average growth rate reach 6.4 %
thermoelectric modules further improves heat transfer and recovery. [145].
PCM systems, integrated with heat exchangers and TES, demonstrate the It is reasonable to expect the automotive and transportation sector to
capability to store and utilize heat effectively from engine exhaust. have high levels of energy consumption and environmental conse-
In summary, while ORC and TEG systems excel in generating addi- quences because of hazardous emissions. This is because these sectors
tional electricity and enhancing overall engine efficiency, PCM and are dependent on a wide variety of engines such as Internal Combustion
STHE technologies focus on optimizing heat use and engine Engines (ICE), Electric Motors, Steam Engines, Gas Turbofan Engines,

16
M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Fig. 10. Vehicle-engines based classification.

Table 9
Investigation of WHR systems integrated into vehicles.
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology Main Findings and Conclusions Type of study
Temperature and Reference
(◦ C)

• For adding a multi-module TAE in series

fuel consumption reduction can reach
Comparison of four extended range electric vehicle
up to 7.6 %.
(EREV) configurations: (1) an ICE APU without
• Combined cycle (ICE-TAE) system
WHR, (2) an ICE n1-TAE APU, (3) an ICE n2-TAE
(Exhaust gases) Thermoacoustic efficiency for n1-TAE, n2-TAE and n3- Comprehensive analysis that
APU, and (4) an ICE n3-TAE APU. The goal is to
Between 500 ◦ C engine (TAE). TAE increased by 11.5 %, 14.3 % and involves modeling and
improve the efficiency of a combined cycle machine
and 570 ◦ C. [155] 15.5 % respectively. optimization.
featuring a reciprocating internal combustion engine
• The new optimal engine operating point
(ICE) and a thermoacoustic engine (TAE) for
with CA50 close to 15◦ is also found to
thermal-to-electric WHR.
be beneficial in avoiding knocking
problems.
• Fuel consumption reduction: 1.8–2.8 %.
• Emissions reduction: 15.7–34.9 gCO2/
This study presents a methodology for optimizing km.
thermoelectric generator systems in heavy-duty • Amortization period: less than 2 years
(Exhaust gases) Thermoelectric Experimental measurements,
vehicles (HDVs). The results are based on natural gas (minimum: 0.7 years).
Between 500 ◦ C Generator (TEGs). analytical calculations, and
HDVs, using segmented Bi2Te3 and SKD materials • Cost–benefit ratio: 344 €/%.
and 800 ◦ C. [156] numerical calculations.
for thermoelectric modules (TEMs). Numerical CFD • Cost–benefit ratio: 32 €/(gCO2/km).
analysis is employed to assess the system. • Gravimetric power density
improvement: up to 298 W/kg.
• Electrical output power: up to 2700 W.
• Maximum ORC cycle efficiency: 5.4 %,
The potential of ORC systems for hybrid vehicles is
with 2.0 kW of power recovered from
explored. Simulations were performed at steady-
waste heat.
state conditions across engine speeds from 1000 to
(Exhaust gases) ORC. Fuel economy improvement: Involves modeling and
5000 rpm and torques from 50 to 150 Nm. The
655 ◦ C. [157] • 1.0 % in New European Driving Cycle simulation.
chosen engine operating points were analyzed using
(NEDC).
the GT-SUITE software, with results compared to
• 1.2 % in Worldwide Harmonized Light
existing engine data.
Vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP).
• Recovery system sized for 40 % of
An ORC WHR system is designed to capture exhaust
maximum engine power.
heat for powering onboard electrical systems or
(Exhaust gases) • Average HR from exhaust gases: 6 %.
charging the battery pack in a hybrid vehicle. The ORC.
Ranges from • Working fluid: HFC R245fa. Modeling study.
system was modeled using GT-Power component [158]
397 ◦ C to 747 ◦ C. • Power delivery: 0.1 kW to 2.3 kW for
libraries, and tests were conducted by varying
engine power output ranging from 3 kW
vehicle speeds between 40 km/h and 100 km/h.
to 45 kW.

Inline Engines, Diesel Engines, and others. These engines produce a expelled to the environment through exhaust gases and engine cooling
significant amount of waste heat energy through exhaust gases and systems [146], particularly in a gasoline powered engine about 70 % of
cooling systems as byproducts of their processes. For vehicle engines, the fuel’s energy is dissipated as waste heat through exhaust gases
out of the total heat supplied in the form of fuel, approximately 30 to 40 [147]. It was projected that 43 % of the global waste heat will come from
% is converted into useful mechanical work; the remaining heat is the transport sector in 2030 [148]. Meanwhile it is essential to highlight

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Fig. 11. Aircraft-engines based classification.

Table 10
Investigation of WHR systems integrated into aircraft.
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology and Main Findings and Conclusions Type of study
Temperature Reference
(◦ C)

• sCO2 power system advantages:

component compactness.
A supercritical CO2 (sCO2) WHR power system is • Additional power from waste heat
designed for current and next-generation aircraft unit: 100–200 kW for a 9-kN engine
engines to recover heat from a real turbofan engine and during cruise operation.
generate power. The system is optimized with two (Hot air) Supercritical CO2 Brayton • sCO2 system weight: 364 kg. Optimization and
configurations: one with a primary heat exchanger Ranges from 569 Cycle (sCO2). WHR cycle thermal efficiency comparison of numerical
(PHX) and another with an additional recuperative to 533 ◦ C. [165] during cruise operation: or modeling approach.
heat exchanger (RHX). The detailed design includes • 17.1 % (without RHX).
calculations for weight and pressure drop of the heat • 33.5 % (with RHX)
exchangers. Heat acquisition:
• 370 kW with RHX.
• 722 kW without RHX.
• Working fluid for the proposed ORC:
A one-dimensional analysis method for the ORC WHR
R245fa.
system in turbofan engines has been proposed. This
• Lowest thrust specific fuel
method aims to balance fuel consumption and thrust ORC with regenerator
(Exhaust gases) consumption (TSFC) of the turbofan
force. The ORC cycle is compared with industrial WHR (ORC). Numerical model.
570 ◦ C. engine: 0.91 lbm/lbf⋅h at 7000 lbf
systems, and the numerical model is validated to [166]
thrust force.
predict the performance of turbofan engines integrated
• System installation results in a 2.0 %
with the ORC system.
reduction in fuel burn.
Recuperation-sCO2 cycle:

WHR technology for aircraft engines uses a recuperation- • Thermal efficiency: 42.5 %.
supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO2) cycle to reduce fuel • Network done: 2198 kW.
Basic and recuperative
consumption and expenses. Modeling and simulation (Exhaust gases) Basic Brayton cycle:
supercritical carbon Modeling and simulation
are performed with Aspen Plus software. A quantitative Between 400 ◦ C • Thermal efficiency: 18.5 %.
dioxide (sCO2) cycles. analysis.
analysis compares the modified recuperation sCO2 and 700 ◦ C. • Network done: 2556 kW.
[167]
cycle with the conventional Brayton-sCO2 cycle in Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption
terms of performance (TSFC) savings:
• Basic Brayton-sCO2 cycle: 13.9 %.
• Recuperation-sCO2 cycle: 7.1 %.

WHR systems in this sector, as they can improve the thermal efficiency Additionally, energy is lost through cooling systems and kinetic energy
of internal combustion engines, achieve fuel savings, reduce greenhouse resulting from the motion of these vehicles. TEGs can convert waste heat
gas emissions, and increase output power. In the following sections a from a car’s exhaust system and radiator into usable electrical energy,
tabular form is presented to investigate WHR systems applied to various potentially increasing engine efficiency [149]. Waste heat from internal
types of engines, primarily categorized into three major groups: vehi- combustion engines can be converted into useful mechanical work,
cles, aircraft, and ship engines. reducing environmental pollution and promoting cost reduction in
automotive vehicles [150,151]. ORC WHR can improve fuel economy
6.1. Vehicle engines and reduce emissions in hybrid electric vehicles, with maximum effi-
ciency achieved at 5.4 % [152], moreover it can improve automotive
Vehicles, including automobiles, trucks, and motorcycles, offer sig- engine efficiency by recovering 6 % of exhaust heat, increasing power by
nificant potential for WHR. A large portion of fuel energy is lost in 3.5 %, but increasing fuel consumption in each driving scenario [153].
exhaust gases from various types of internal combustion engines. One more type of WHRs is the thermal energy accumulators using PCMs

18
M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Fig. 12. Ship-engines based classification.

which can reduce electricity consumption by approximately 20 % in sustainability [159–162].

electric cars, promoting their industrial development [154]. Classifica- One potential approach to achieve this optimization involves the
tion of various types of vehicle-engines based is shown in Fig. 10. recovery of waste heat from different thermal sources within this sub-
A comprehensive analysis of several WHR technologies that are sector [163,164]. Fig. 11 presents a classification of different types of
incorporated into vehicle subsectors is shown in Table 9. Additionally, aircraft engines and their corresponding utilization regions. In addition
specific units used in recovery of exhaust gas and cooling system waste to this classification, Table 10 presents an analysis of several WHR
heat energy is identified. Moreover, temperature range of these WHSs is techniques that are incorporated into these engines. The table provides a
stated. concise overview of the findings, offering conclusions and presenting
Out of the different WHSs in vehicles, such as the Exhaust System, Air results that provide insight into the temperature of the WHS. This
Conditioning System, Transmission and Drivetrain, and Braking System, temperature is a critical factor that affects the effectiveness of WHR
the exhaust system is the main source with significant potential for systems. By focusing on the recovery of waste heat, we can utilize un-
WHR. This recovery procedure is classified as having a WHR capability used energy sources, improve engine efficiency, and decrease opera-
that falls within the medium to high-grade range. In summary TAE tional expenses, so enhancing the aircraft industry’s position as an
demonstrate notable improvements, achieving up to a 7.6 % reduction essential component of global economic progress.
in fuel consumption and enhancing combined cycle efficiency by 11.5 % WHR systems in aircraft applications often capture waste heat en-
to 15.5 %, depending on the configuration. This indicates that multi- ergy ranging from medium to high grades. The analysis of WHR systems
module TAE setups offer substantial gains in efficiency, making them for aircraft engines highlights significant advancements in improving
a promising technology for integrating into vehicle systems. In contrast, fuel efficiency and engine performance. The sCO2 WHR power system,
TEGs provide a more modest reduction in fuel consumption, between designed for turbofan engines, demonstrates substantial potential with
1.8 % and 2.8 %, but contribute significantly to emissions reductions, power generation between 100 and 200 kW and a thermal efficiency
lowering CO2 emissions by 15.7 to 34.9 g/km. TEGs also benefit from a increase from 17.1 % to 33.5 % when incorporating a recuperative heat
quick payback period of about 0.7 years and a high-power density of up exchanger (RHX). This indicates that integrating an RHX can greatly
to 298 W/kg, making them economically attractive and effective for enhance the system’s performance. In comparison ORC system, utilizing
various vehicle applications. The ORC systems achieve a maximum cycle R245fa as the working fluid, achieves a modest 2.0 % reduction in fuel
efficiency of 5.4 % and can recover up to 2.0 kW of power, improving burn and optimizes thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC) at 0.91 lbm/
fuel economy by 1.0 % to 1.2 % in standard driving cycles. While ORC lbf.h for 7000 lbf thrust. While effective, the improvements are less
systems show lower efficiency gains compared to TAE and TEG tech- pronounced than those observed with the sCO2 systems. Recuperative
nologies, they still contribute positively to overall fuel economy and sCO2 cycle stands out with its impressive thermal efficiency of 42.5 %
power recovery. (TAE) demonstrate notable improvements, achieving and a network output of 2198 kW, significantly outperforming the basic
up to a 7.6 % reduction in fuel consumption and enhancing combined Brayton cycle, which only achieves 18.5 % efficiency. This highlights the
cycle efficiency by 11.5 % to 15.5 %, depending on the configuration. superior performance of the recuperative sCO2 cycle compared to more
This indicates that multi-module TAE setups offer substantial gains in conventional systems. In conclusion, while all WHR technologies offer
efficiency, making them a promising technology for integrating into benefits, the recuperative sCO2 cycle and the enhanced sCO2 WHR
vehicle systems. Overall, WHR systems offer significant potential for system with an RHX provide the most substantial improvements in fuel
improving vehicle efficiency and reducing emissions. TAE systems lead efficiency and thermal performance. These findings emphasize the
in efficiency improvements, while TEGs provide effective emissions re- importance of advanced system designs and configurations in opti-
ductions and rapid financial returns. ORC systems, although less effi- mizing WHR technology for aircraft engines.
cient, still contribute valuable power recovery and fuel economy
benefits.
6.3. Ship engines

6.2. Aircraft engines The shipping sector contributes to the global economy by providing a
significant economic output, facilitating job creation, and playing a
The aircraft subsector, encompassing the automotive and trans- crucial role in global trade [168]. The shipping industry maintains in-
portation sector, has a crucial role in driving global economic growth. It ternational trade and employs over 1.5 million sailors representing
is important to improve the efficiency of aircraft engines and simulta- various nationalities [169]. Maritime transport requires significant fuel
neously decrease energy usage to manage operational costs. Addition- resources, and Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) accounts for 40 % of the
ally, there is also an environmental impact from this subsector, CO2 physical volume of world gas trade, increasing to 60 % by 2040 [170].
emissions from commercial passenger and freight operations totaled 918 International shipping accounts for around 2 % of global CO2 emis-
Mt. in 2018 (ICCT, 2019), or around 2.5 % of global energy-related CO2 sions and 3 % to greenhouse gas emissions and its future development
emissions. Addressing these challenges offers an opportunity to enhance depends on regional and sectoral trends [171,172]. Increasing the en-
the effectiveness of aircraft operations and promote economic ergy efficiency of a ship allows for fuel consumption reduction and lower

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Table 11
Investigation of WHR systems integrated into ships.
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology and Reference Main Findings and Conclusions Type of study
Temperature
(◦ C)

• Exhaust flue gases temperature

reduction: 200 ◦ C.
An experimental prototype HR system for small to • Refrigeration capacity range: 21 to 32
mid-sized maritime combustion engines (up to 250 kW.
kW) was validated. This system uses water jacket (Flue gases) • Coefficient of Performance (COP): 0.32
Prototype steam HR system. Experimental
cooling to generate thermal capacity for space and Between 437 ◦ C to 0.46 at chilled water conditions of 6/
[175] investigations.
tap water heating, as well as other marine and 478 ◦ C. 12 ◦ C.
applications. It features an innovative low-pressure For a 140 kW engine load:
steam indirect heat transfer subsystem. • Ejector refrigeration system consumes
75 kW of heat from flue gases.
• Produces 30 kW of refrigeration capacity.
Combined cycle system advantages over KC
system only:
A thermodynamic analysis was conducted on a low-
speed two-stroke diesel engine combined with a • Reduces energy efficiency design index
(Exhaust gases) Supercritical Brayton Cycle Modeling and
cycle system that integrates Supercritical Brayton factor by 16.6 %.
Between 270 ◦ C (SCBC) combined with KC. parametric
Cycle (SCBC) and KC for WHR. The mathematical • Reduces average annual fuel
and 448 ◦ C. [176] analysis.
model of this combined power generation system consumption by 15.0 %.
was developed using the MATLAB platform. Combined system improved recovery
rate by 5 % at 110 % load with an output
power of 2306 kW.
Heat pipe enhanced heat exchanger
designed to improve heat transfer for TEG
bottom cycle.
A waste heat cascade recovery system combining TEG-ORC combined cycle:
TEG and ORC is proposed to recover various ship
WHSs like flue gas and cylinder liner water. The Combined Thermoelectric power • Utilizes various types of ship waste heat.
TEG/ORC cycle ratio is determined based on the (Flue gases) generation (TEG) with ORC • Optimizes waste heat utilization. Experimental
flue gas waste heat utilized in each cycle. The 300 ◦ C. (TEG-ORC). • Enhances stability and safety of ORC study.
experimental setup includes a TEG unit, ORC unit, [177] bottom cycle.
preheater unit, data acquisition unit, and control TEG/ORC bottom cycle ratio: 0.615.
unit Output power of TEG-ORC combined
cycle: 134.5 W.
Thermal efficiency: 6.9 %.
Generation cost: $0.46/kWh.
• ETCRC can control outputs of cooling,
A WHR system for cruise ships is designed to meet on- heating and power in a broad range.
board energy needs for cooling, heating, and Combined system with • The maximum cooling effect and net
power. The system features a transcritical CO2 transcritical CO2 Rankine cycle power in Mode-S operation are 863 kW
(Exhaust gases) Parametric
Rankine cycle and an ejector refrigeration cycle, and ejector refrigeration cycle and 203 kW, respectively.
292 ◦ C. analysis.
utilizing waste heat from the main engines. It (ETCRC). • The maximum high temperature heating
operates in two modes: Mode-S for summer and [178] output and net power for Mode-SAW
Mode-SAW for spring, autumn, and winter operation are 961 kW and 273 kW,
respectively.
Steam and Organic Rankine Cycles (SORC) are
combined to convert waste heat from marine
• Proposed system improves engine
engine exhaust gases and jacket cooling water into
thermal efficiency by 4.4 % and reduces
mechanical energy. The jacket cooling water serves
fuel consumption by 9322 tons per year
as the working fluid for the steam Rankine cycle (Exhaust gases) Combined steam Rankine cycle
at 100 % engine load. Numerical
subsystem, optimizing heat utilization without Between 248 ◦ C (SRC) with ORC (SRC-ORC).
WHRS based on SSRC and DPORC: analysis.
adding extra weight to the ship. The performance and 287 ◦ C. [179]
• Increases thermal efficiency by 2.7 % and
of this combined system was simulated and
3.4 %, respectively, compared to the
compared to single steam Rankine cycle (SSRC)
proposed SORC system.
and dual pressure organic Rankine cycle (DPORC)
systems.

greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, thereby contributing positively to the WHR technologies, including combined supercritical Brayton cycles,
global economy and global warming [173]. International Maritime Or- KCs, and ejector refrigeration systems, that have been integrated into
ganization (IMO) is working to make the sector cleaner and more these engines. The purpose of these systems is to decrease fuel con-
environmentally friendly [174]. sumption, improve overall system efficiency, and eventually minimize
Although the shipping industry plays a key role in driving economic the environmental effect.
growth, it also has a considerable environmental footprint. These ships Within the ships subsector, WHR systems operate at medium degrees
are mainly equipped with powerful internal combustion engines that of temperature recovery typically utilize mixed cycles that consist of two
produce a significant amount of waste heat via their exhaust and cooling configurations of WHR technologies which reveals notable advance-
systems. Fig. 12 classifies the engines used in ships according to their ments in energy efficiency and fuel consumption reduction. The proto-
forms of energy consumption. Table 11 provides a summary of different type steam HR system effectively lowers exhaust flue gas temperatures

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Table 12
Investigation of WHR systems integrated into building and construction sector (commercial and construction HVAC systems, data centers, and restaurants and
commercial kitchens).
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology, Cycle Main Findings and Conclusions Type of study
Temperature Categorization and Reference
(◦ C)

• Effective thermal conductivities:

up to 10,000 W/m⋅K, suitable for
air-to-air heat exchange in HVAC
Oscillating Heat Pipes (OHPs) were experimentally
systems.
evaluated as passive heat transfer devices for air-to-
• Simple OHP design: recovers up to
air heat exchange in HVAC systems. They were used
240 W of heat from waste exhaust
to pre-heat or pre-cool air, thus reducing the load Oscillating heat pipes (OHPs).
(Hot air) air in the cold air stream.
on HVAC systems. The study compared the Vapor Compression Cycle (VCC). Experimental study.
38.2 ◦ C. • Aerodynamic design of OHP shows
performance of OHPs with an empty or evacuated [204]
significant potential for WHR in
state versus those filled with n-pentane at a 70 % fill
HVAC systems.
ratio, within HVAC systems of the same
• Heat transfer rate of OHP-HE with
dimensions.
70 % n-pentane is 2 times higher
than that of the empty/evacuated
one.
• Examined 8 WHR systems using
heat pumps (HPs) in data centers
(DCs) for direct or pre-heating of
To enhance energy efficiency in data centers (DCs) buildings.
and address environmental concerns, WHR systems • Air-Cooled DCs: Require an
are employed. These systems use WHR ventilation additional heat booster for
(Hot air) Heat Pumps (HPs) TES.
units to capture hot air from computer rooms and efficiency with temperatures below Comprehensive
Ranges from VCC
redistribute it to indoor spaces. The most effective 65 ◦ C. review.
25 ◦ C to 47 ◦ C. [205]
reuse of this waste heat includes supplying heating • 20 ◦ C increase in waste heat
to nearby buildings after pre-heating and temperature significantly boosts
supporting district heating (DH) networks. WHR and expander power output.
• Hot Water Cycles: Improve thermal
efficiency by representing waste
heat from server racks.
• 12 Heat Exchanger Networks
(HENs) were designed.
A dynamic pinch analysis is used to design integrated • Best-Performing Design: HEN5
heating, cooling, and ventilation systems for • Primary Energy Savings: 57 %
greenhouses, leading to substantial energy savings. Heat exchanger network consisting • Total Annual Cost (TAC): $15,720/
The HR system comprises an air handling unit of boiler, a heat pump, an air year
(AHU), borehole thermal storage (BTES), and a heat handling unit, and borehole heat • Payback Period (PBP): 9.5 years
(Hot air) Modeling and
pump (HP) to efficiently utilize waste heat from storage (HEN). • Ventilation Waste Heat
Between 21 ◦ C comprehensive
ventilation. A generic methodology for designing Cycles involved in this WHR: Integration:
and 45 ◦ C. analysis.
heat exchanger networks (HENs) ensures both Rankine Cycle (RC), Absorption • Allows for smaller Borehole
direct and indirect HR, with various HENs tailored Cycle (AC) and VCC. Thermal Energy Storage (BTES).
to typical daily conditions. A techno-economic [206] • Significantly improves greenhouse
analysis is then performed to select the most cost- energy efficiency.
effective HEN design. • Ventilation Heat Loss: Critical
factor in greenhouse energy
performance.
ORC-Based System:

• Highest performance across the

entire AC condensing temperature
range.
Four combined systems for air conditioning (AC)
• Coefficient of Performance (COP)
waste heat conversion have been proposed,
enhancement: 15 % to 30 %.
utilizing the ORC, Organic Flash Cycle (OFC), KC Power generation modules are
Exergy Analysis:
(KCS), and Transcritical CO2 Cycle (T-CO2). (Hot air) based on ORC, organic flash cycle
• KCS, OFC, and T-CO2-based Thermodynamic
Thermodynamic models were developed to assess Between 45 ◦ C (OFC), (KCS) and transcritical CO2
systems have lower performance modeling study.
the energy and exergy performances of these and 65 ◦ C. cycle (T-CO2).
due to higher irreversibility in the
systems. The analysis includes the effects of various [207]
evaporator.
operating parameters and the choice of working
Economic Analysis:
fluids.
• HR module becomes viable with a
system cooling capacity over 1000
kW.
• Expected payback period: less than
5 years.
A HR unit was proposed for a commercial kitchen to Heat Transfer Rates:
reclaim heat from exhaust air for water heating and
dish drying. The system’s performance was Kitchen exhaust air heat recovery • Water-heating: 7.2 kW (95 % of
(Hot air)
analyzed considering factors like terminal system (KEAHR). total).
Between 29 ◦ C Experimental study.
functions, cooking methods, exhaust air modes, and VCC. • Dish-drying: 0.4 kW (5 % of total).
and 40 ◦ C.
drying items. The KEAHR system includes an [208] Average Coefficient of
exhaust air system, a refrigerant loop (heat pump), Performance (COP): 2.7.
a hot water loop, and a dish drying unit. Latent Heat in Evaporator:
(continued on next page)

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Table 12 (continued )
Methodology, Objectives and WHR Unit WHS and WHR Technology, Cycle Main Findings and Conclusions Type of study
Temperature Categorization and Reference
(◦ C)

• Braising: 31.4 % of total heat

transfer rate, 8.7 kW.
• Frying: 12.3 % of total heat
transfer rate, 8.1 kW.

Fig. 13. Block flow diagram representing output classification of WHR of exhaust gases and hot air.

by 200 ◦ C, offering refrigeration capacities between 21 and 32 kW with a investigate WHR in this industry to encourage technological progress
coefficient of performance (COP) ranging from 0.32 to 0.46. The SCBC and environmental responsibility in the larger framework of sustainable
combined with the KC shows a significant 16.6 % increase in energy development. In the following sections a summary will be presented on
efficiency and a 15 % reduction in fuel consumption compared to the KC the economic and environmental effects linked to this industry. Subse-
alone, with a 5 % improvement in recovery rate under high loads. quently, a concise overview of statistical information regarding energy
Meanwhile, the TEG integrated with the ORC achieve a thermal effi- usage in the building and construction sector will be provided, empha-
ciency of 6.9 % and an output power of 134.5 W, optimizing HR from sizing the possibilities for implementing WHR systems. Ultimately, a
various sources. The combined transcritical CO2 Rankine Cycle and tabular form of WHR systems specifically designed for this industry will
Ejector Refrigeration Cycle, specifically designed for cruise ships, de- be presented. This table will clearly outline their individual goals and
livers substantial cooling and power outputs of 863 kW and 203 kW, summarize their discoveries, providing a thorough overview of the
respectively. Lastly, the combined SRC with ORC enhances thermal ef- integration and results of these systems.
ficiency by 4.4 %, demonstrating superior performance compared to
single and dual pressure ORC systems. Overall, these WHR systems
7.1. Economical-environmental impacts and energy consumption
highlight substantial improvements in energy utilization and opera-
tional cost reduction, with the SCBC-KC and transcritical CO2 Rankine
As circular economy (CE) strategies can have significant benefits for
Cycle systems offering particularly remarkable advancements in effi-
sustainability, resource efficiency, and long-term economic viability, it
ciency and output.
is widely integrated to the building and construction sector. Out of the
7005 documents collected from two databases (Scopus and Web of
7. Building and construction
Science) on CE related to this sector, 55.9 % (i.e. 3913) records were
journal articles, 14.6 % (1025) proceeding papers, 23.4 % (1639) con-
The building and construction sector, is the fourth and last sector
ference papers, and 6.1 % (428) reviews [180]. The building and con-
being studied in this paper. This field is a notable user of energy, typi-
struction sector is a key area that has significant impacts on the economy
cally leading to considerable waste heat generated by diverse processes,
and environment [181]. This sector contributes to the economy (about 9
such as HVAC systems, data centers, and restaurants-commercial
% of the EU’s GDP, provides direct and indirect job opportunities (18
kitchens. Utilizing this excess heat not only offers a chance to decrease
million direct jobs at the EU) and satisfies the people’s needs for
energy usage and related costs but also helps in environmental sus-
buildings and facilities [182,183]. Building construction industry of the
tainability by decreasing the release of greenhouse gases. Integrating
Indonesian infrastructure sector recorded a GDP value of 1.77 quadril-
WHR technologies and approaches in the building and construction in-
lion IDR (Indonesian rupiah) or 10.44 % of the total value of Indonesia’s
dustry can result in increased energy efficiency, higher operational
GDP which in 2021 reaches 16.97 quadrillion IDR based on a report
performance, and a friendlier built environment. Thus, it is essential to
issued by the Central Bureau of Statistics [184]. The largest industry in

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M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

Fig. 14. Classification of WHR systems and technologies via temperature range (a) High-temperature (b) Medium-temperature (c) Low-temperature.

America is construction, which accounts for 10 % of jobs and 10 % of the contributing to pollution, deforestation, and resource consumption
Growth National Products contributing over a trillion dollars annually [194–196].
[185,186]. In the economy, the GDP plays a vital role in balancing Moreover, this sector is one of the main consumers of resources:
various sectors. Overall, the construction sector accounts for 1.7 trillion about 50 % of the total use of raw materials, and 36 % of the final global
USD worldwide, and in most countries, it impacts 5–7 % of the total GDP energy use [197,198]. In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) during the
[187]. Moreover, the value of construction work in Malaysia increased period of 2007–2017 the consumption of electric energy per capita rate
annually by approximately 10 billion RM (Ringgit Malaysia) from 2012 increased from 6.9 MWh to 9.6 MWh with a residential share about 48 %
to 2018 [188]. in 2017 [199]. Overall, buildings are responsible for 40 % of the EU’s
Reduction in environmental pollution has always been an important total energy consumption as well as 36 % of its greenhouse gas emissions
issue in the development of the construction industry [189]. The [200]. Buildings in China consume over 30 % of the total energy, driven
building sector is responsible for the massive impact on the environment by economic growth and urban development, leading to a focus on en-
due to the consumption of natural resources and associated emissions. ergy efficiency projects in the building sector [201] however China’s
This sector consumes about 50 % of raw materials, 71 % of electricity, construction sector energy consumption is analyzed using population
16 % of water resources and, consequently, produces 40 % of waste models. By 2030, the target is 102 million ton of coal equivalent (Mtce),
going to landfill [190]. The European Union aims at net zero (emissions) with a goal to limit building stock to 70 billion m2 for energy savings
buildings by 2050 [191], however construction industry contributes to [202]. The energy demand of buildings accounts for about 31 % of the
36 % of the EU’s greenhouse gas emissions and efforts have been made global final energy demand and 23 % of global energy-related carbon
to enhance energy efficiency in this sector [192]. China’s construction emissions [203].
industry is the largest globally, contributing about 20 % of the country’s
carbon emissions [193]. In USA mitigation strategies such as Environ-
mental Impact Assessment (EIA), Green Building practices, Quantitative 7.2. WHR systems
Risk Assessment (QRA), and Environmental Management Systems
(EMS) are recommended to address environmental impacts, In Section 7.1, the brief literature highlights the significant role of
the building and construction sector in economic growth. However, it

23
M. Hodroj et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 159 (2024) 108165

also underscores its substantial contribution to CO2 emissions and global CRediT authorship contribution statement
warming, as well as its high energy consumption. These factors motivate
the exploration of WHR systems aimed at mitigating these challenges Mohammad Hodroj: Writing – original draft, Validation, Method-
and providing solutions. Table 12 presents a summary of some WHR ology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Ahmad Al Takash:
systems integrated into the building and construction sector, catego- Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Methodology, Investigation,
rizing them into three major subsectors: commercial and construction Formal analysis. Jalal Faraj: Writing – review & editing, Supervision,
HVAC systems, data centers, and restaurants and commercial kitchens. Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Rani
It is commonly recognized that the building and construction in- Taher: Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Formal analysis.
dustry is particularly suitable for implementing WHR systems that Thierry Lemenand: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Method-
operate at low temperatures, specifically below 230 ◦ C. Additionally, ology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Mahmoud
OHPs exhibit impressive performance in HVAC applications, achieving Khaled: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administra-
high thermal conductivities and effective HR with minimal pressure tion, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization.
drop, making them highly suitable for air-to-air heat exchange. In data
centers, the use of heat pumps to capture hot air for building heating
Declaration of competing interest
highlights the need for additional heat boosters to optimize efficiency,
especially when dealing with lower temperature levels. HENs for
None.
greenhouses, optimized using dynamic pinch analysis, achieved a
remarkable 57 % primary energy savings, underscoring their effective-
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