MODERN PHYSICS

BLACKBODY RADIATION
"Blackbody radiation" or "cavity radiation" refers to an object
or system which absorbs all radiation incident upon it and re-
radiates energy which is characteristic of this radiating system
only, not dependent upon the type of radiation which is incident
upon it.

The radiated energy can be considered to be produced by

standing wave or resonant modes of the cavity which is
radiating.
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CONTINUE…
The amount of radiation emitted in a given frequency range
should be proportional to the number of modes in that range.

The best of classical physics suggested that all modes had an

equal chance of being produced, and that the number of modes
went up proportional to the square of the frequency.

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 Cavity Modes
A mode for an electromagnetic wave in a cavity must satisfy the
condition of zero electric field at the wall. If the mode is of
shorter wavelength, there are more ways you can fit it into the
cavity to meet that condition.

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Continue…
In order for a node to occur at each wall, the path
length from wall to wall, in any direction, must be an
integral j of half wavelength.

2L
jx   1,2,3,...  number of halfwavelength in x direction

2L
jy   1,2,3,...  number of halfwavelength in y direction

2L
jz   1,2,3,...  number of halfwavelength in z direction

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Continue…
For a standing wave in any arbitrary direction, it must be true
that,
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Standing waves 2 2 2  2L 
jx  j y  jz   
in a Cube cavity   
To count the number of standing waves g(λ)dλ within the cavity
whose wavelength lie between λ and λ+dλ, what we have to do
is count the number of permissible sets of jx, jy and jz values that
yield wavelengths in this interval.

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 Continue…
Figure shows part od jx-jy,
plane of such a space.
Each point in the j space
corresponds to a permissible
of jx, jy and jz values and thus
to a standing waves.
If j is a vector from the
origin to particular point jx, jy
and jz, its magnitude is
Each points in j space
corresponds to a possible j j x2  j 2y  j z2
standing waves. 7
Continue…
The coordinates in j space
are jx, jy and jz.
The number of j states
available to a particle with
a j whose magnitude is
between j and j+dj is
proportional to the volume
of a spherical shell in j
space of radius j and
thickness dj.

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 Continue…
We are only interested in the octant of this shell that includes
non negative values jx, jy and jz

Also, for each standing wave counted in this way, there are two
perpendicular directions polarization.

Hence the number of independent standing waves in the cavity

is,

Number of
Standing Waves
1
 
g  j  dj   2    4 j 2 dj   j 2 dj
8
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 Continue…
What we really want is the number of standing waves in the
cavity as function of their frequency ν instead of function j.
2L 2L 2L
j   c =   , dj  d
 c c

2
Number of
 2L  2L 8 L 3
Standing Waves g  v  dv     d   d
2
 c  c c 3

Density of
1 8 2
Standing Waves in G  v  dv  g  v  dv  d
a cavity 3 3
L c
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 Continue…

Density of 1 8 2
Standing Waves in G  v  dv  g  v  dv  d
3 3
a cavity L c

This equation is independent of the shape of the cavity.

The higher the frequency, the shorter wavelength and greater the
number of standing waves.

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Continue…
The next step is to find the average energy per standing wave.
According to the classical theorem of equipartion energy,
average energy per degree of freedom is 0.5 kT.

Each standing wave in radiation filled cavity corresponds to two

degree of freedom, for total ε = kT, because each waves
originates in oscillator in the cavity wall.

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 Continue…
The energy u(ν)dν per unit volume in the cavity in the frequency
interval from ν and ν+dν is,

Rayleigh-Jeans u   d   G   d  kT G   d
Formula
8 2 kT
 d
c3

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Continue…

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Planck radiation law
Planck found that he had to assume that the oscillators in the
cavity walls were limited to energies of εn= n h ν. Where n=0,
1, 2, 3…

He then used Maxwell-Boltzman distribution law to find that the

number of oscillators with energy εn is proportional to e- εn/kT at
the temperature T.

In this case the average energy per oscillator is,

h
 
eh / kT  1 15
 Continue…
The energy u(ν)dν per unit volume in the cavity in the frequency
interval from ν and ν+dν is,

Planck radiation
8 h  d
3
formula u   d   G   d 
3 h / kT
c e 1
h is planck constant whose value is 6.626 x 10-34 J s

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 Continue…
8 h  3 d
Planck radiation
u   d   G   d 
formula c3 eh / kT  1

At high frequencies, hν >> kT and ehν/kT→ α, which means

u(ν)dν →0.

At lower frequencies, planck formula becomes Rayleigh-Jean

formula.

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Continue…

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 Wien’s displacement law
At interesting features of the blackbody spectrum at a given
temperature is the wavelength λmax for which the energy density
is greatest.

To find λmax, we must express in terms wavelength and solve

du(λ)/dλ=0, for λ = λmax . We obtain in this way,
hc
 4.965
max kT
Wien’s displacement hc
law maxT   2.898 x 10 3 m  K
4.965k
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Stefan-Boltzmann law
Another results we can obtain this Planck formula is the total
energy density u of the radiation in a cavity.

This is the integral of the energy density overall frequencies,

 8 5 k 4 4
u u   d  T  aT 4
0 15c 3h3
Where a is universal constant. The total energy density is
proportional to the forth power of the absolute temperature of
the cavity wall.

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 Continue…
Energy R radiated by an object per second per unit area is also
proportional to T4, a conclusion embodies in the stefan-
Boltzmann law.
Stefan-Boltzmann law R  e  T4

The value of stefan’s constant σ is 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4

ac
Stefan' s constant =
4
The emissivity e depends on the nature of the radiating surfaces
and ranges from 0 to 1. ( for black body it is e = 1) 21
Applications of the Planck Radiation Formula

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 Quantum Mechanics
At the turn of the last century, there were several
experimental observations which could not be
explained by the established laws of classical physics
and called for a radically different way of thinking

This led to the development of Quantum Mechanics

which is today regarded as the fundamental theory of
Nature

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 Some key events/observations that led to
the development of quantum mechanics…
Black body radiation spectrum (Planck, 1901)

Photoelectric effect (Einstein, 1905)

Model of the atom (Rutherford, 1911)

Quantum Theory of Spectra (Bohr, 1913)

Scattering of photons of electrons (Compton, 1922)

Exclusion Principle (Pauli, 1922)

Matter Waves (de Broglie 1925)

Experimental test of matter waves (Davisson and Germer,

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 Quantum Mechanics
Matter and radiation have a dual nature – of both wave
and particle. The matter wave associated with a
h
particle has a de Broglie wavelength given by   p

The wave corresponding to a quantum system is

described by a wave function or state vector 
Quantum Mechanics is the most accurate and complete
description of the physical world

It also forms a basis for the understanding of quantum

information 25
 Wave–particle duality
The idea of duality originated in a debate over the nature of
light and matter that dates back to the 17th century, when
competing theories of light were proposed by Christiaan
Huygens and Isaac Newton: light was thought either to consist
of waves (Huygens) or of particles (Newton).

Through the work of Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Louis de

Broglie, Arthur Compton, Niels Bohr, and many others, current
scientific theory holds that all particles also have a wave
nature (and vice versa).This phenomenon has been verified not
only for elementary particles, but also for compound particles
like atoms and even molecules. 26
 Light as a Particle (Photon)
Light propagates as quanta of energy called photons

Photons
– move with speed of light
– have no mass
– are electrically neutral

Energy of a photon or electromagnetic wave:

E = hf = h c/ λ
Where h = Planck’s constant, f = frequency of a light wave -
number of crests passing a fixed point in 1 second, c = velocity of
light, λ = wavelength of a light wave distance between successive
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 Light as a Wave
Remember: Light is a vibration in an electromagnetic field
through which energy is transported.

So electrons can be manipulated by light. Electrons wiggle

up and down as light passes by. It is a transverse wave -
the vibration of particles is perpendicular to the
propagation of the wave. 28
 Photoelectric effect
If you direct a beam of light of short enough
wavelength onto a clean metal surface, the light will
cause electrons to leave that surface (the light will
eject the electrons from the surface).

This photoelectric effect is used in many devices,

including TV cameras, camcorders, and night vision
viewers. Einstein supported his photon concept by using
it to explain this effect, which simply cannot be
understood without quantum physics. 29
 Experimental Setup
An apparatus used to study the
photoelectric effect.
The incident light shines on
target T, ejecting electrons,
which are collected by collector
cup C. The electrons move in
the circuit in a direction
opposite the conventional
current arrows. The batteries
and the variable resistor are
used to produce and adjust the
electric potential difference
between T and C.
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Continue…
Let us analyze two basic photoelectric experiments,
each using the apparatus of Fig. 1, in which light of
frequency f is directed onto target T and ejects
electrons from it.

A potential difference V is maintained between target

T and collector cup C to sweep up these electrons, said
to be photoelectrons.

This collection produces a photoelectric current i that

is measured with meter A. 31
Continue…
We adjust the potential difference V by moving the sliding
contact in Fig. 1 that collector C is slightly negative with respect
to target T.

This potential difference acts to slow down the ejected

electrons. We then vary V until it reaches a certain value, called
the stopping potential Vstop, at which point the reading of meter
A has just dropped to zero. When V=Vstop, the most energetic
ejected electrons are turned back just before reaching the
collector.
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Continue…
Now we vary the frequency f of the incident light and measure
the associated stopping potential Vstop.

Note that the photoelectric effect does not occur if the frequency
is below a certain cutoff frequency f0, or, equivalently, if the
wavelength is greater than the corresponding cutoff wavelength
λ=c/f0.

To just escape from the target, an electron must pick up a certain

minimum energy Φ, where Φ is a property of the target material
called its work function. 33
Continue…
Now we vary the frequency f of the incident light and measure
the associated stopping potential Vstop.

Note that the photoelectric effect does not occur if the frequency
is below a certain cutoff frequency f0, or, equivalently, if the
wavelength is greater than the corresponding cutoff wavelength
λ=c/f0.

To just escape from the target, an electron must pick up a certain

minimum energy Φ, where Φ is a property of the target material
called its work function. 34
 References
1. Arthur Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics, Mc. Graw Hill,
2009

2. Halliday, Resnik, Krane, Fundamental of Physics, John Wiley

& Sons (2007)

3. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html

4. http://www.howstuffworks.com/

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