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 >> CODE POWER: A TEEN PROGRAMMER’S GUIDE
Titles In This Series

GETTING TO KNOW Alice

GETTING TO KNOW Arduino
GETTING TO KNOW Hackety Hack
GETTING TO KNOW Lego Mindstorms
GETTING TO KNOW

the Raspberry Pi

GETTING TO KNOW
GETTING TO KNOW

GETTING TO KNOW Ruby

Python
GETTING TO KNOW Scratch

PAYMENT
ROSEN
Published in 2015 by The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.
29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010

Copyright © 2015 by The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.

First Edition

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without
permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Payment, Simone, author.

Getting to know Python/Simone Payment.—First edition.
pages cm.—(Code power: a teen programmer’s guide)
Audience: Grades 5 to 8.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4777-7717-6 (library bound)—ISBN 978-1-4777-7719-0
(pbk.)—ISBN 978-1-4777-7720-6 (6-pack)
1. Python (Computer program language)—Juvenile literature. 2. Computer
programming—Juvenile literature. I. Title.
QA76.73.P98P39 2015
005.13’3—dc23
2013046858

Manufactured in the United States of America

{CONTENTS
chapter 1
INTRODUCTION First Things First:
Computers and
Programming
4 8
chapter 2 chapter 3
Python: Why Use
The Basics Python?

18 25
chapter 4 chapter 5
A New Language How Does
Is Hatched Python Stack Up?

34 45
GLOSSARY 53

FOR MORE INFORMATION 55

FOR FURTHER READING 58

BIBLIOGRAPHY 60

INDEX 62

3
{INTROD
C omputer programs run cell phones, televisions,
cars, traffic signals, elevators, and kitchen appliances. And,
of course, they run computers. There are hundreds of thou-
sands of computer programs in use around the world and
many thousands of programmers writing them. Many of these
programmers use Python to write their programs. Python is
a simple programming language with many uses. Most pro-
grammers find it easy to learn and easy to use. This book
provides an overview of the many advantages of the Python
programming language.
Before deciding on a computer programming language to
learn, it might be logical to ask, “Why learn to write computer
programs?” One reason is that it can be a lot of fun. Programming
does take some practice. However, it is not just professional
computer programmers who write programs. Even beginners
can make a computer do something cool using just a few lines
of simple code. Once a programmer learns some general rules
and builds up some experience, programming becomes easier.
Then the fun can really begin. For example, even beginning

4
UCTION
INTRODUCTION

> > With a laptop and some programming skills,

anyone can design a website, create a game, or
build a phone app.

5
>> Getting to Know Python

programmers who are learning to program as a hobby can design

a game for their computer or smartphone, or write a program to
analyze baseball stats.
Learning to program is also practical: programmers can write
a program that makes a computer or other device do something
no one else has asked it to do. Programmers do not have to
be stuck only doing things with a computer that some other
programmer thought someone might want to do. This allows
a programmer to design something original and personalize a
program to suit his or her needs. A programmer could write a
computer program to create a database of DVDs or model cars,
for example. Or a programmer might design a website dedicated
to a favorite singer.
Another reason to learn computer programming is to under-
stand more about computers and how they “think.” Although
programming is based on rules, there is also a great deal of
creativity involved in thinking like a computer and solving prob-
lems. Computer programmers often take a complex goal and
break it down into smaller building blocks in order to reach that
objective. Breaking down the goal requires clear thinking and
good problem-solving skills.
Yet another reason learning to program is beneficial is that it
can help people get a job. Nearly every profession uses comput-
ers. Therefore, programmers are relied on to adapt programs to
a profession’s particular needs. Many companies are looking for
skilled, creative programmers who know how to write good code.
After deciding to learn to program, the next decision is
what programming language to learn. People choose to use
a particular programming language for many reasons. Some

6
 INTRODUCTION

reasons are personal. For example, some programmers might

want to learn a programming language quickly. Others might
want to be challenged by a more difficult language. Some
programmers choose a language based on what they want to
program. Some programming languages are designed for spe-
cific purposes, such as web programming. Others are more
flexible and have many uses.
Python is an excellent choice as a programmer’s first lan-
guage for many reasons. The main reasons are that Python is
easy to learn, is simple to use, and is a multipurpose language.
Python can be learned quickly, and there are plenty of books,
websites (including the official Python site at http://python.org,
which offers tutorials and modules, among other resources), and
other Python users that can help new programmers get started.

7
chapter First Things First:
1 Computers and
Programming

B efore learning about programming languages in gen-

eral, or Python specifically, it’s important to know a little about
computers and how they work.

The Basic Parts

Computers have both external and internal parts. External parts
are accessories such as a keyboard, mouse, and monitor (or
screen). Other external parts might include ports for power cords
or printer cords. Computers also have data ports for thumb drives
or other external storage devices.
Some of the external parts are known as “input” devices.
These allow a user to give information to a computer. An exam-
ple of an input device might be a mouse or keyboard. Other
devices are “output” devices. These accessories allow the com-
puter to provide information to the user. A screen or monitor is
an example of an output device.
Internal parts include a hard drive and a processor. The
hard drive is where data is stored. The computer has different
types of memory. Some “memories” are used by the computer

8
 First Things First: Computers and Programming

> > Cell phones, laptops, and other computers have

ports that allow users to plug in external devices
to extract or store data.

when it is running but disappear when the computer shuts

down. Other types of memories are stored in the hard drive.
These types of memories can be accessed again and again by
the processor.
The processor is the “brain” of the computer. It is usually
called a CPU, which stands for central processing unit. The CPU
stores and retrieves information from the memory in the hard
drive. It also does math. The CPU’s other job is to carry out the
instructions given by a computer program.

9
>> Getting to Know Python

> > It’s not just computers that use binary code:
Braille and Morse code also use a binary (on/off)
system to convey information.

Although the CPU is known as the brain of the computer,

it isn’t necessarily smart. It is just a machine that responds to
what is known as binary code. “Binary” means on or off, and all
computer code is made up of strings of just two numbers: 1 and
0. To the computer, 1 means “on,” and 0 means “off.” The CPU
is made up of electrical circuits that are either on or off. The 1s
and 0s of computer code tell the circuits what to do—whether
to turn on or off.

10
 First Things First: Computers and Programming

>> The BASICs

Computer users were on their own in the early days of computers.
There were no word processing programs, no graphics programs, no
spreadsheets, and no web browsers. (In fact, the Internet did not yet
exist.) There were not many computers in existence. Those who had
access to them were usually scientists or researchers at universities
or large companies. These users had to write their own programs in
order for the computer to do any task. Many users programmed in
a language called BASIC, which stands for Beginner’s All-purpose
Symbolic Instruction Code. Mathematicians at Dartmouth College
created BASIC in 1964. Home computer users began using it in the
1970s. A modified form of BASIC is still in use today.

> > This UNIVAC 11 computer from 1962 was the first
commercial computer made in the United States. In
the background are rolls of magnetic tape on which
data was stored.

11
>> Getting to Know Python

Communicating with the

“Brain”
Humans obviously don’t communicate easily in 1s and 0s.
That’s why computer programs are needed. They “translate” our
human language into a language the computer can understand
with its 1/0, on/off brain. Therefore, computers need computer
programs in order to function and follow human commands.
Computer programs are a set of instructions to the computer.
These instructions, also called commands or statements, are
written line by line. For example, a simple command to a com-
puter looks like this:

print (“Hello, World!”)

This line of code tells the computer to print the words “Hello,
World!” on the screen.
The commands are strung together into a group. As a group,
these instructions are called a program. A single program, or a group
of programs working together, is also known as software. The com-
puter carries out each individual command in the program. Then it
moves on to the next instruction in the program. For example, a pro-
gram to make a computer do some simple math would look like this:

print “10 + 8 is”, 10 + 8

print “5 * 5 is”, 5 * 5

The computer will print the words and numbers that are in
between the quotation marks, perform the calculation, and then

12
 First Things First: Computers and Programming

move on to the next line and do the same steps in that line.
When the program runs, the screen would look like this:

10 + 8 is 18
5 * 5 is 25

Computer programmers write instructions to a computer in

a language the computer can understand. These programs can
“teach” the computer to do tasks that might be difficult or time
consuming for humans. For example, a program can instruct a
computer to analyze a series of millions of numbers. For a human,
that task could take days. It would also take a lot of brainpower.
For a computer, once it has its instructions, the task is simple.
The instructions within a computer program have to be
exactly right or the computer won’t do what it is being asked
to do. Details are very important. This is why programs can’t be
written in everyday human language (such as English). Human
language isn’t clear and specific enough for computers. For
example, in many languages, some words have multiple mean-
ings. Computers aren’t able to figure out which definition of the
word is meant. In addition, arranging the same words in a differ-
ent order can mean something completely different. This could
also confuse the computer.

A Little About Operating

Systems
An operating system (or “OS”) is a type of computer software.
Microsoft Windows, Linux, and OS X (Macintosh) are three major

13
>> Getting to Know Python

> > Just as there are several different operating

systems for computers, there are different operating
systems for smartphones, called mobile operating
systems (or “mobile OS”). This Apple iPhone runs on
iOS.

14
 First Things First: Computers and Programming

operating systems. Smartphones also have an operating system,

such as Android or iOS. An operating system is the only type
of computer software that can “talk” directly to the two types
of computer hardware: the processor and the hard drive. Other
computer programs must “ask” the OS to do things that involve
the processor or hard drive. This is so that programs don’t have
to be written in different ways for each type of computer or
smartphone.
Some current programming languages, such as Python, Java,
or Visual Basic, have an interface between the program and the
hardware to run the program. The interface is called a virtual
machine or interpreter. These are like translators that are go-
betweens for the program and the operating system. An advantage
of using an interpreter is that it is more secure. Another advan-
tage is that it makes programs more flexible because they can
run on a wide variety of machines. There are many interpret-
ers available for Python. Some examples are Jython (used with
Java), CPython (used with C), and IronPython (used with C#).
An interpreter or virtual machine also needs a shell that
allows a user to interact with it. The virtual machine gets com-
mands from the keyboard and follows the instructions. Then it
shows the results on screen. A fancier version of this is called an
integrated development environment (IDE). An IDE is a graphi-
cal user interface (GUI) that has windows and menus on-screen
just like a browser or software like Microsoft Word.

Why So Many Languages?

Humans communicate with each other in many different lan-
guages, such as English, Spanish, Chinese, Hindi, or Arabic.

15
>> Getting to Know Python

Humans can also communicate with computers in many dif-

ferent languages. Different programming languages have
developed for various reasons. Some were created to serve a
specific purpose. For example, the JavaScript programming
language came about to do Web programming. SQL was devel-
oped to program databases.
Other languages came about because a programmer was
unhappy with how an existing program worked. Python is such a
language. Its creator, Guido Van Rossum, was dissatisfied with
the language he was using to do his job. He decided he could
do better. Van Rossum developed Python in his spare time, over
many years. He got lots of input from early users of the program.
Python continues to change and grow with feedback from thou-
sands of present-day users.

When Programming Goes

Wrong: Bugs
Errors in a computer program are called bugs. There are three
types of bugs: syntax, runtime, and semantic. Syntax bugs
break the “rules” of the program. If there are syntax errors
in a program, the program will not run at all. Runtime errors
are less serious errors. A program with a runtime error might
begin running but stop when the program comes across the
problem. A semantic error will also allow the program to run.
However, the program won’t do what the programmer intended
it to do.
Looking for and fixing bugs is called debugging. Debugging is
an important part of programming. To debug, programmers must

16
 First Things First: Computers and Programming

>> The First Bug Was

Actually a Moth
On September 9, 1947, a moth was found to be the reason why Harvard
University’s Mark II computer had stopped working. Engineers had
used the term “bug” previously to describe problems with machinery.
The computer operators at Harvard were amused to find an actual bug
in their computer. They taped the moth into a logbook that they kept
to track problems with the Mark II computer. Underneath the bug
they wrote, “First actual case of bug being found.”

look at clues to figure out what went wrong. The programmer

comes up with an idea about the possible problem and tries to fix
the error. If the programmer’s guess was right, the program can
be fixed and will run. If the initial guess was wrong, the program-
mer must come up with new possibilities for what went wrong
and then make another attempt to fix the problem. This process
continues until the problem is solved.
Debugging takes some practice. There are tips and tech-
niques for debugging, but the process mostly just takes
experience and practice—and sometimes a lucky guess.
However, some programmers consider debugging part of the
fun of programming.

17
chapter
Python: The
2 Basics

W ith a little background about computers and program-

ming, it’s time to find out more about the Python programming
language.
.

So What Is Python?
Python is a general-purpose, high-level, interpreted language.
What all those terms mean might not be obvious to someone
who does not yet know how to program. However, broken down
into parts these terms become easier to understand.
“General purpose” simply means that Python can be used
for almost any type of programming task. Unlike languages that
were created to do only one or two specific jobs, Python can be
used for a wide range of programming work. It can be used for
web programming, game programming, and many other types of
tasks.
“High-level” languages are those programming languages
that don’t talk directly to the computer. C, C++, Perl, and
Java are other examples of high-level programming languages.
Python, like other high-level languages, is too complicated for

18
 Python: The Basics

> > Python is a useful language for game programming.

Entire games can be created in Python, or Python can
add features such as 3-D to existing game programs
written in other languages.

the computer to understand. Computers can only understand

low-level languages. Low-level languages are also called machine
languages or assembly languages. For a high-level language to
work on a computer, the computer must process the language
first. Only after processing the language can the computer run
the program. The drawback to this is that high-level languages
take a little longer to run. This is because the computer must go
through two steps—processing and running the program.
However, there are many advantages of high-level program-
ming languages. One is that programs written in high-level
languages are much easier for programmers to write. They are

19
>> Getting to Know Python

also shorter. Both of these things contribute to making it faster

for a programmer to write code in these languages. Because
they are shorter and simpler, usually there are fewer errors in
programs written in a high-level language. When there are mis-
takes in a program, it is usually easier to find them because the
code is short.
Yet another advantage of high-level languages is that they
are portable. This means they can run on any type of computer.
Low-level languages, on the other hand, are specific to a type of
computer. To run a program written in a low-level language on
another type of computer, a programmer would need to rewrite
or modify the program for the different machine.
Finally, Python is called an interpreted language because for
a program written in Python to “talk” in a low-level language, an
interpreter is needed. The interpreter reads the high-level lan-
guage (Python) and carries out its instructions.

>> Python Programmer

Profile: Tom Ryan
Tom Ryan is a senior technical director at Epsilon, a marketing services
company in Wakefield, Massachusetts. Ryan has been programming
for more than twenty-five years and first learned to program when he
was seventeen. His father worked for computer maker IBM and was
able to get the family an early IBM personal computer. Ryan first
used the BASIC programming language “because it was pretty easy
to learn.” Also, the computer game he wanted to play was written in
BASIC. Knowing BASIC allowed Ryan “to actually rewrite the code in

20
 Python: The Basics

the game” in his favor. When Ryan played, he “always won and when
[his] brother played the same game, he always lost.” Because Ryan’s
brother lost every time, it allowed him “to get more time on the PC.”
Continuing his interest in computers, Ryan got a B.A. in computer
science from the State University of New York at Potsdam and then an
MBA from Babson College. Over his career in computer programming,
Ryan has learned many programming languages, including BASIC,
PASCAL, C, COBOL, RGP, FORTRAN, IBM 360 Assembler, Intel x86
Assembler, Oracle PL/SQL, SQL Server Cursors, SAS, VB, C#, Perl,
Python, Java, JavaScript, and VBscript. He currently codes in Perl,
Python, VB, Java, and JavaScript.
Ryan first learned Python on the job. “The developer who had
originally written the code for many of [the company’s] clients left
the company about one year after I started.” So Ryan became the
programmer in charge of Python-based coding at Epsilon. To learn
Python, Ryan used “Internet searches, online books and websites,
physical books, and existing code within the company.” His method
for learning the language was partly based on learning from books
and other resources, and partly based on “experimentation and test-
ing.” With his “computer science/programming background,” Ryan
was “able to pick it up pretty quickly.” After he learned the basics of
Python, he developed some new applications in the language for other
uses at Epsilon.
Ryan currently uses Python for processing client files. Python is
used for formatting and cleaning up data files from clients and com-
piling client reports. Python also interacts with their operating system
(Windows) to generate reports for the programmers on system func-
tions. They also use Python to do file cleanup and maintenance on the
servers. Ryan and his coworkers use other programming languages as
well; most often they use Perl.
One of Python’s advantages is its “ability to pack a lot of function-
ality into the code,” Ryan reports. Its flexibility is also an advantage.
(continued on page 22)

21
>> Getting to Know Python

(continued from page 21)

Ryan says programmers “can do multiple functions with simple
expressions.” Some of Python’s requirements can be disadvantages,
however. For example, the use of indents to indicate blocks of code
makes Python easy to read. But “if the indentations don’t line up, the
code doesn’t work and can sometimes be a bear to debug.” Also, a
colon (“:”) is used after certain statements (if, for, while). Ryan says
he still gets “caught on missing the ‘:’ every once in a while.”
Ryan has some great advice for beginning programmers. He says
to “learn as much as you can and utilize the resources that exist
beyond what you have in front of you. There are numerous exam-
ples online of how to write something or perform a function. Utilize
user support groups and blogs.” He advises that programmers should
“keep in mind that there is usually more than one way to solve a prob-
lem when coding.” In fact, someone once told Ryan, “There’s only
been one line of code ever written. Everyone else has just taken it and
modified it to do what they needed it to do.” Another bit of advice is
that programmers should “always remember to account for the unex-
pected as that’s usually what causes the code to fail.” Perhaps most
important, Ryan reminds programmers to “enjoy what you do and do
what you enjoy.”

Python Tools
To run Python code, two things are needed: an editor and an
interpreter. An editor saves the code the programmer is currently
writing. There are a large number of editors that can be used by
Python programmers. Just a few of the many editors are code-
Editor, DreamPie, DrPython, and LeoEditor.
As discussed in the section about operating systems, an
interpreter allows users to interact directly with the computer

22
 Python: The Basics

> > Members of Monty Python’s Flying Circus (pictured

left to right) included John Cleese, Terry Gilliam,
Terry Jones, Graham Chapman, Michael Palin, and Eric
Idle. The British TV show ran from 1969 to 1974.

to test their code. An interpreter takes the commands the user

inputs into the keyboard and then follows the instructions given
in the program. The results of the program show up on-screen.
IDLE is an example of a Python IDE. (The name “IDLE” is also
a Python in-joke because Eric Idle was one of the members of
Monty Python’s Flying Circus, for which Python is named.) Other
examples of Python IDEs are Wing 101, Komodo, Spyder, and
MonkeyStudio.

23
>> Getting to Know Python

Modules are another type of tool. They are a way of organiz-

ing code. Some have specific functions. For example, PyGame
is a module programmers can use to write games. It is free and
runs on any operating system. A standard library is a collection
of modules available to programmers. One of Python’s strongest
points is that it has a large standard library. This means that
users do not have to start from scratch each time they begin a
new project. There may be modules available in the standard
library that can be reused for many purposes.

24
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Discovery
of Radium
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Discovery of Radium

Author: Marie Curie

Author of introduction, etc.: Edna Carter

Release date: March 14, 2020 [eBook #61622]

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DISCOVERY

OF RADIUM ***
 Ellen S. Richards Monographs No. 2
Published by Vassar College

The Discovery
of
Radium
It is my earnest desire that some of you shall carry on this
scientific work and will keep for your ambition the
determination to make a permanent contribution to science
M. Curie
Address by
Madame M. Curie
at Vassar College
May 14, 1921
1
 PREFATORY NOTE
In her recent visit to America, Madame Curie conferred a special
honor upon Vassar College by delivering in the chapel on the
evening of May fourteenth the only extended address which she
made in this country. In a simple, straightforward way she told the
story of her great achievement. One realized how, closely environed
by all the great realities of human experience, in the face of
tremendous difficulties and with limited resources, she had pursued
undaunted her search for truth.

The discovery of radium gave Madame Curie immediate distinction

among scientists on account of the extremely significant contribution
she thereby made to the great ultimate problem of physical science,
the constitution of matter. The striking properties possessed by
radium gave to its discovery a world-wide interest, all the more
intense because of the hope which was inspired by the possible
healing qualities of the radiations from this new element.

That hope is being realized in large measure. It is therefore fitting

that this address should have been given by Madame Curie at Vassar
and that it should now be circulated among the members of the
college under the foundation in memory of Ellen S. Richards, who
devoted her life to the public health.

Edna Carter
Chairman of the Department of Physics.

2
 THE DISCOVERY OF RADIUM
I could tell you many things about radium and radioactivity and it
would take a long time. But as we can not do that, I shall only give
you a short account of my early work about radium. Radium is no
more a baby, it is more than twenty years old, but the conditions of
the discovery were somewhat peculiar, and so it is always of interest
to remember them and to explain them.

We must go back to the year 1897. Professor Curie and I worked at

that time in the laboratory of the school of Physics and Chemistry
where Professor Curie held his lectures. I was engaged in some work
on uranium rays which had been discovered two years before by
Professor Becquerel. I shall tell you how these uranium rays may be
detected. If you take a photographic plate and wrap it in black paper
and then on this plate, protected from ordinary light, put some
uranium salt and leave it a day, and the next day the plate is
developed, you notice on the plate a black spot at the place where
the uranium salt was. This spot has been made by special rays which
are given out by the uranium and are able to make an impression on
the plate in the same way as ordinary light. You can also test those
rays in another way, by placing them on an electroscope. You know
what an electroscope is. If you charge it, you can keep it charged
several hours and more, unless uranium salts are placed near to it.
But if this is the case the electroscope loses its charge and the gold
or aluminum leaf falls gradually in a progressive way. The speed with
which the leaf moves may be used as a measure of the intensity of
the rays; the greater the speed, the greater the intensity.

I spent some time in studying the way of making good

measurements of the uranium rays, and then I wanted to know if
there were other elements, giving out rays of the same kind. So I
took up a work about all known elements, and their compounds and
found that uranium compounds are active and also all thorium 3
compounds, but other elements were not found active, nor
were their compounds. As for the uranium and thorium compounds,
I found that they were active in proportion to their uranium or
thorium content. The more uranium or thorium, the greater the
activity, the activity being an atomic property of the elements,
uranium and thorium.

Then I took up measurements of minerals and I found that several

of those which contain uranium or thorium or both were active. But
then the activity was not what I could expect, it was greater than for
uranium or thorium compounds like the oxides which are almost
entirely composed of these elements. Then I thought that there
should be in the minerals some unknown element having a much
greater radioactivity than uranium or thorium. And I wanted to find
and to separate that element, and I settled to that work with
Professor Curie. We thought it would be done in several weeks or
months, but it was not so. It took many years of hard work to finish
that task. There was not one new element, there were several of
them. But the most important is radium which could be separated in
a pure state.

All the tests for the separation were done by the method of electrical
measurements with some kind of electroscope. We just had to make
chemical separations and to examine all products obtained with
respect to their activity. The product which retained the radioactivity
was considered as that one which had kept the new element; and,
as the radioactivity was more strong in some products, we knew that
we had succeeded in concentrating the new element. The
radioactivity was used in the same way as a spectroscopical test.

The difficulty was that there is not much radium in a mineral; this we
did not know at the beginning. But we now know that there is not
even one part of radium in a million parts of good ore. And too, to
get a small quantity of pure radium salt, one is obliged to work up a
huge quantity of ore. And that was very hard in a laboratory.
We had not even a good laboratory at that time. We worked in 4
a hangar where there were no improvements, no good chemical
arrangements. We had no help, no money. And because of that the
work could not go on as it would have done under better conditions.
I did myself the numerous crystalizations which were wanted to get
the radium salt separated from the barium salt with which it is
obtained out of the ore. And in 1902 I finally succeeded in getting
pure radium chloride and determining the atomic weight of the new
element radium, which is 226 while that of barium is only 137.

Later I could also separate the metal radium, but that was a very
difficult work; and, as it is not necessary for the use of radium to
have it in this state, it is not generally prepared that way.

Now, the special interest of radium is in the intensity of its rays

which is several million times greater than the uranium rays. And the
effects of the rays make the radium so important. If we take a
practical point of view, then the most important property of the rays
is the production of physiological effects on the cells of the human
organism. These effects may be used for the cure of several
diseases. Good results have been obtained in many cases. What is
considered particularly important is the treatment of cancer. The
medical utilization of radium makes it necessary to get that element
in sufficient quantities. And so a factory of radium was started to
begin with in France, and later in America where a big quantity of
ore named carnotite is available. America does produce many grams
of radium every year but the price is still very high because the
quantity of radium contained in the ore is so small. The radium is
more than a hundred thousand times dearer than gold.

But we must not forget that when radium was discovered no one
knew that it would prove useful in hospitals. The work was one of
pure science. And this is a proof that scientific work must not 5
be considered from the point of view of the direct usefulness of
it. It must be done for itself, for the beauty of science, and then
there is always the chance that a scientific discovery may become
like the radium a benefit for humanity.

But science is not rich, it does not dispose of important means, it

does not generally meet recognition before the material usefulness
of it has been proved. The factories produce many grams of radium
every year, but the laboratories have very small quantities. It is the
same for my laboratory and I am very grateful to the American
women who wish me to have more of radium and give me the
opportunity of doing more work with it.

The scientific history of radium is beautiful. The properties of the

rays have been studied very closely. We know that particles are
expelled from radium with a very great velocity near to that of the
light. We know that the atoms of radium are destroyed by expulsion
of these particles, some of which are atoms of helium. And in that
way it has been proved that the radioactive elements are constantly
disintegrating and that they produce at the end ordinary elements,
principally helium and lead. That is, as you see, a theory of
transformation of atoms which are not stable, as was believed
before, but may undergo spontaneous changes.

Radium is not alone in having these properties. Many having other

radioelements are known already, the polonium, the mesothorium,
the radiothorium, the actinium. We know also radioactive gases,
named emanations. There is a great variety of substances and
effects in radioactivity. There is always a vast field left to
experimentation and I hope that we may have some beautiful
progress in the following years. It is my earnest desire that some of
you should carry on this scientific work and keep for your ambition
the determination to make a permanent contribution to science.

M. Curie.

6
With my friendship for the Students of Vassar College—

M. Curie
 Transcriber’s Notes
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*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DISCOVERY OF
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