VEL TECH HIGH TECH Dr.

RANGARAJAN
Dr. SAKUNTHALA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
An Autonomous Institution
Approved by AICTE-New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi &Accredited by NAAC with “A” Grade & CGPA of 3.27

DEPARTMENT
OF
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

21ME18P-ENGINEERING PRACTICES LAB OBSERVATION

(Group – B)

REGULATIONS– 2021

YEAR: 1 SEM: 1

DEPARTMENT: COMMON TO ALL

(CSE, CSE (AIML), IT, AI & DS, ECE, MECH, CIVIL, BIOTECH, CHEMICAL)

Prepared by
Mrs. R.Suguna AP/EEE
Mrs. M.Shanmugapriya AP/EEE
 VEL TECH HIGH TECH Dr. RANGARAJAN
Dr. SAKUNTHALA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
An Autonomous Institution
Approved by AICTE-New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi &Accredited by NAAC with “A” Grade & CGPA of 3.27

21ME28P-ENGINEERING PRACTICES LAB

(Group – B)
REGULATIONS– 2021

OBSERVATION NOTE BOOK

SUBJECT :

NAME :

REG. NO. :

VH. NO.

BRANCH :

YEAR/SEM :
 INDEX

Marks Faculty
S.No Date Name of the Experiment Page
(10) Signature
No.
ELECTRICAL
1. Residential house wiring

2.
Fluorescent lamp wiring

3.
Stair casewiring

4. Measurement of Voltage,
Current, Power and Power
Factor using RL load
5. Measurement of energy using
single phase energy meter
6. Measurement of resistance to
earth of electrical equipment

ELECTRONICS
7. Study of Electronic components
and equipments - Resistor,
colour coding measurement of
AC signal parameter (peak-
peak, rms period, and
frequency) using CRO.

8. Study of logic gates.

9. Generation of Clock Signal.

10. Soldering practice- Components

Devices and Circuits- Using
general purpose PCB.

11. Measurement of ripple factor of

HWR and FWR.
 VEL TECH HIGH TECH Dr. RANGARAJAN
Dr. SAKUNTHALA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
An Autonomous Institution
Approved by AICTE-New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi &Accredited by NAAC with “A” Grade & CGPA of 3.27

Course code 21ME18P Semester I

Category ENGINEERING SCIENCE COURSE (ESC) L T P C
ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY
Course Title 0 0 4 2
(COMMON FOR ALL BRANCHES)

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

• To provide exposure to the students with hands on experience on

various basic engineering practices in Civil, Mechanical, Electrical and
Electronics Engineering

PREREQUISITE:

• Basic knowledge of engineering skills

COURSEOUTCOMES:

CO. No. Course Outcomes Blooms

level
At the end of the course students will be able to
Demonstrate on Smithy operations, Foundry operations models
C108. 1 And machine assembly practice of centrifugal pump and air- K2
conditioner
C108. 2 Experiment with pipe connections and plumbing works K3
C108. 3 Make use of welding equipment to join the structures. K3
Explain carpentry components, for the joint used in roofs, doors,
C108. 4 K5
Windows and furniture.
C108. 5 Develop sheet metal models, fitting models and do basic K6
machining operations

COURSEOUTCOMESMAPPING WITHPROGRAM OUTCOMESANDPROGRAMSPECIFICOUTCOMES

CONo. PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12 PSO-1 PSO-2 PSO-3 PSO-4
C108. 1 3 - - - - 2 2 - 2 1 1 2 - - - -
C108. 2 3 - - - - 2 2 - 2 1 1 2 - - - -
C108. 3 3 - - - - 2 2 - 2 1 1 2 - - - -
C108. 4 3 - - - - 2 2 - 2 1 1 2 - - - -
C108. 5 3 - - - - 2 2 - 2 1 1 2 - - - -
C108 3 - - - - 2 2 - 2 1 1 2 - - - -

Note:1:Slight,2: Moderate,3:Substantial
SYLLABUS No. ofCredits: 3
I CIVILENGINEERING PRACTICE 12

Buildings:

a) Study of plumbing and carpentry components of residential and industrial buildings, Safety
aspects.
Plumbing Works:
a) Study of pipeline joints ,its location and functions: valves, taps, couplings, unions, reducers
and elbows in house hold fittings.
b) Study of pipe connections requirements for pumps and turbines.
c) Preparation of plumbing line sketches for water supply and sewage works.
d) Hands-on-exercise:
Basic pipe connections-Mixed pipe material connection-Pipe connections with
different joining components
e) Demonstration of plumbing requirements of high-rise buildings
Carpentry using Power Tools only:
a) Study of the joints in roofs, doors, windows and furniture.
b) Hands-on-exercise:
Wood work ,joints by sawing, Planning and cutting.

II MECHANICALENGINEERINGPRACTICE 18

Welding:
a) Preparation of butt joints ,lap joints and T-joints by Shielded metal arc welding.
b) Gas welding practice
Basic Machining:
a) Simple Turning and Taper turning
b) Drilling Practice
Sheet Metal Work:
a) Forming &Bending:
b) Model making– Trays and funnels.
c) Different type of joints.
Machine assembly practice:
a) Study of centrifugal pump
b) Study of air conditioner
Demonstration on:
a) Smithy operations, upsetting, swaging, setting down and bending. Example–Exercise–
Production of hexagonal headed bolt.
b) Foundry operations like mould preparation forgear and step cone pulley.
c) Fitting – Exercises– Preparation of square fitting and V – fitting models.

Total:30 Periods
 GROUP B (ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS)

III ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRACTICE 14

1. Residential house wiring using switches, fuse, indicator, lamp and energymeter.

2. Fluorescent lamp wiring.

3. Stair case wiring

4. Measurement of electrical quantities– voltage, current, power & powerfactor in RLC

circuit.

5. Measurement of energy using single phase energy meter.

6. Measurement of resistance to earth of an electrical equipment.

IV ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE 16

1.Study of Electronic components and equipments– Resistor, colour

coding measurement of AC signal parameter (peak-peak, rms period,

frequency) using CR.

2. Study of logic gates AND, OR, EX-OR and NOT.

3. Generation of Clock Signal.

4. Soldering practice – Components Devices and Circuits– Using general purpose

PCB.

5. Measurement of ripple factor of HWR and FWR.

Total: 30 Periods

LEARNINGRESOURCES:

TEXTBOOKS:
1. Chapman,W.A.J. Workshop Technology, Edward Arnold,2001.

REFERENCES:

1. Raghuwanshi B.S., Workshop Technology Vol.I & II, Dhanpath Rai & Sons.
2. KannaiahP. and Narayana K.L., Workshop Manual,2 Edn, Scitech publishers.
3. John K.C., MechanicalWorkshop Practice.2ndEdn.PHI2010.
4. Jeyapoovan T. and PranithaS.,Engineering Practices Lab Manual, 3rd Edn.Vikas
Pub.2008

6
Ex.No: 1
Date:

RESIDENTIAL HOUSE WIRING

Aim:
To construct the residential house wiring using switches, fuse, indicator, lamp and
Energy Meter.

Apparatus Required:

S.No Apparatus Name Range / Type Quantity

1 SPST Switch (Single Pole Single Throw) SPST,5A 3Nos.
2 Fuse 10A 1 No.

3 Indicator LED, Box,IP33 1 No.

4 Lamp 100W 1No.

5 Fan 35W, 230V 1 No.

5 Energy meter 1 phase 300V,16A 1No.

750 rev 50Hz
6 Connecting wires 1/18SWG As per required

Theory:

Conductors, switches and other accessories should be of proper capable of carrying the
maximum current which will flow through them. Conductors should be of copper or
aluminum. In power circuit, wiring should be designed for the load which it is supposed to
carry. Wiring should be done on the distribution system with main and branch distribution
boards at convenient centers. Wiring should neat, with good appearance. Wires should pass
through a pipe or box, and should not twist or cross. The conductor is carried in a rigid steel
conduit conforming to standards or in a porcelain tube.

Procedure:

1. Study the given wiring diagram.

2. Make the location points for energymeter, fuse, indicator, main switch box, Switch
board, lamp and ceiling rose.
3. Draw the lines for wiring on the wooden board.
4. Place the wires along with the line and fix.
5. Fix the lamp holder, Switches, Ceiling rose, Socket in marked positions on the wooden
board.
6. Connect the energymeter and main switch box in marked positions on the wooden
board.
7. Give a supply to the wires circuit.
8. Test the working of light and socket.

7
Circuit Diagram:

NamePlateDetails
Load:
Indicator :P1=_W,V=230V; I1=_A; Switch:Nil Lamp
: P2=_W,V=230V; I2=_A; Switch: Fan
:P3=_W,V=230V; I3=_A; Switch:
3 PinSocket :P4=_W,V=230V; I4=_A; Switch:
---------------------------------------
FullLoad :P=W; I=A
---------------------------------------
Fuse Rating Calculation:
125% of the Full load Current (I)== Amp

Result :
Thus the residential house wiring using switches, fuse, indicator, lamp and Energy
Meter was constructed and verified.

8
Ex.no: 2
Date:
FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING
Aim:
To make and check the fluorescent lamp wiring.

Apparatus Required:

S.no Apparatus Name Range / Type Quantity

1 Fluorescent Lamp 40W, 230V, 50Hz, 1phase 1No.
2 Lamp Holder Medium screw base E26 1No.
3 Switch Single way switch 1No.
4 Starter FS-11 1No.
5 Choke 1 phase, 10 W, 220V, instant start. 1No.

6 Connecting wires 1/18SWG As per required

THEORY:

Fluorescent lights are the most commonly used high source for illumination in houses,
industries, commercial organizations and public utility services. A fluorescent lamp is a low
pressure mercury and public utility services. A fluorescent discharge lamp with internal
surface coated with suitable fluorescent material. This lamp consists of glass tube provided at
both ends with caps having two pins and oxide coated tungsten filament. Tube contains argon
or krypton gas to facilitate starting with small quantity of mercury under low pressure.
Fluorescent material, when subjected to electro-magnetic radiations of particular wavelength
produced by the discharge through the mercury vapor, gets excited and in turn gives out
radiation at some other wave length which falls under visible spectrum. Thus, the secondary
radiations from fluorescent powder increase the efficiency of the lamp. Fluorescent lights in
India are generally made either 61cm long 20 W rating or 122 cm long 40W rating.
In order to make a Fluorescent light self starting, electronic choke is connected in the
circuit. When switch S is closed, full supply voltage appears across the electrodes which are
enclosed in a glasses bulb filled with argon gas. This voltage causes discharge in the argon gas
with consequent heating of the electrodes. Due to this heating, the electrode in the starter
which is made of bimetallic strip, bends and closes contact of the starter. At this stage, the
choke, the filaments of the tube and the starter become connected in series across the supply.
A current flows through the filaments and heats them. Meanwhile the argon discharge in the
starter tube disappears and after a cooling time, the electrodes of starter cause a sudden break
in the circuit. This causes a high value of induced EMF in the choke. The induces EMF in the
choke is applied across the Fluorescent light electrodes and is responsible for initiating a
gaseous discharge because initial heating has already created good number of free electrons in
the vicinity of electrodes.

9
PROCEDURE

i) Checking of Choke

Check the choke condition with test lamp as shown in the Fig.1
S.No State of the lamp glow Condition of Choke

1 Normal Glow Internal Short Circuit

2 Dim Good condition

3 No glow Open circuited

ii) Checking of Starter

1. To test the starter, connect the starter with a series test lamp as shown in Fig.2
2. Observe the flickering of the lamp which indicates a good condition
3. If no flicker in the test lamp, the starter is defective.

iii) Checking of Filament

1. To test the filament on both the side of the tube for its continuity, make the
connection as shown in fig.3
2. If tube filament is in good condition, the lamp will glow normal
3. If the test lamp not glowing, the tube is burn out.

iv) Assembly of Fluorescent lamp

1. Assemble the fluorescent tube accessories as shown in Fig.4

2. The supply is given to the circuit
3. Check the fluorescent lamp glow.

NamePlateDetails
Load:
FluorescentLamp :P=_W,V=230V; I=_A; Switch:IA,230V.

FuseRating Calculation:
125%of the Fullload Current (I) == Amp

10
 Circuit Diagram
 Checking of Choke

 Checking of Starter

 Checking of Filament

 Assembly of Fluorescent lamp

Result: Thus the fluorescent lamp wiring was constructed and verified.
11
Ex. No:3
Date:
STAIRCASE WIRING
Aim:
To control the status of the given lamp by using 2 two– way switches

Apparatus Required:

S.No Apparatus Name Range / Type Quantity

1 SPDT Switch Two way switch,5A 2Nos.
2 Lamp 100W, 230 V 1No.
3 Connecting wires 1/18SWG As per required

Procedure:
1. Place the accessories on the wiring board as per the circuit diagram.
2. Place the P.V.C pipe and insert two wires into the P.V.C pipe.
3. Take one wire connect one end to the phase side and other end to the middle point of
SPDT switch 1
4. Upper point of SPDT switch 1 is connected to the upper point of SPDT switch2.
5. Lower point of SPDT1 is connected to the lower point SPDT switch2.
6. Another wire taken through a P.V.C pipe and middle point of SPDT switch 2 is
connected to one end of the lamp holder.
7. Another end of lamp holder is connected to neutral line.
8. Screw the accessories on the board and switch on thesupply.
9. Circuit is tested for all possible combination of switch position.

TABULATION:

Switch 1 Switch 2 Bulb Condition

Position Position (ON/OFF)

1 1’ ON

3 1’ OFF
1 3’ OFF
3 3’ ON
12
 TABULATION:

Bulb Condition
Switch 1 Position Switch 2 Position
(ON/OFF)

1 1’ OFF

3 1’ ON

1 3’ ON

3 3’ OFF

NamePlateDetails
Load:
FluorescentLamp :P=_W,V=230V; I=_A; Switch:_.

FuseRating Calculation:
125%of the Fullload Current (I)= = Amp

Result:
Thus the staircase wiring was done using two way switches and verified.

13
Ex. No: 4
Date:
MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE, CURRENT, POWER AND
POWER FACTOR USING RL LOAD
Aim:
To measure power in a single phase AC circuit using wattmeter by RL load.

Apparatus Required:

S.No Name of the Range/Type Quantity

Apparatus
(0-300)V, MI 1No.
1. Voltmeter
(0-10A), MI 1No.
2. Ammeter
300V, 10A, UPF 1No.
3. Wattmeter
1KW lamp load 1No.
4. RL Load
5. Autotransformer 1ϕ, 230/ (0-270)V 1No.
6. Connecting Wires 1/18SWG As per required

THEORY

Power in an electric circuit can be measured using a wattmeter. A wattmeter

consists of two coils, namely current coil and pressure coil or potential coil. The
current coil is marked as ML and pressure coil is marked as CV. The current coil
measure the quantity that is proportional to the current in the circuit the pressure coil
measures quantity that is proportional to the voltage in the circuit. The given
wattmeter is loaded by direct loading. The ammeter is connected in series to the
wattmeter. Since the same current flows in both the coils, the current and voltage
across the circuit are constant. The power consumed by the load is measured using
the wattmeter and calculated using the formula.
PROCEDURE

1. Connection is given as per circuit diagram.

2. Initially no load is applied.
3. Switching of the power supply.
4. Apply the load by adjusting R load.
5. Measure and record the values of voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter.
6. Repeat the steps 5 and 6 until the ammeter reading reaches 10A.
7. After taking all the readings, reduce the load slowly to the minimum position.
8. Switch off the power supply.

14
 NamePlateDetails
Load:
Load : P=_W,V=230V; I=_A;
FuseRating Calculation:
125%of the Fullload Current (I)= = Amp

Tabular column:

Sl.N Real Power P

o (W) Apparent Power
Voltage Current Multiplication Factor =
Power S Factor
(V) (A)
Observed Actual (VI) (Cosϕ)

1
2
3
4
5
6
Model Calculation:
Actual Power = Observed Power ×Multiplication Factor.
Actual Power (or) Real Power (or) True Power P = V×I×Cosϕ (in Watts)
Apparent Power S=V×I ( in VI)
Power Factor (Cosϕ) = Real power/ Apparent power =

Result:
Thus the power and power factor was calculated using wattmeter by RL load.
15
 Ex.No:5
Date:
MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING ENERGY METER
Aim:
To measure the energy in a single phase circuit using energy meter by direct loading.

Apparatus Required:

S.no Name of the Range/type Quantity

apparatus
1. Single Phase Energy 1 phase 300V,16A 1No.
meter 750 rev 50Hz
(0-300)V, MI 1No.
2. Voltmeter
(0-10A), MI 1No.
3. Ammeter
300V, 10A, UPF 1No.
4. Wattmeter
1KW Resistive load 1No.
5. Load
Autotransformer 1ϕ, 230/ (0-270)V 1No.
6
7 Connecting Wires 1/18SWG As per required

Theory:
Energy meters are integrating instruments and are used for measurement of energy in a
circuit over a given time. Since the working principle of such instrument is based on electro-
magnetic induction, these are known as induction type energy meter. There are two coils in an
induction type energy meter, namely current coil and voltage coil. The current coil is connected in
series with the load while the voltage coil is connected across the load. The aluminium disc
experiences deflecting torque due to eddy currents induced in it and its rotations are counted by a
gear train mechanism.

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Supply is given to the switch by closing the DPST switch.
3. Load is switched on.
4. Time taken for five revolutions in the energymeter is noted and the
Corresponding ammeter and voltmeter reading are noted.
5. The above procedure is repeated for different load current and for fixed
number of revolutions.
6. Then the load is gradually released and supply is switched OFF.
7. The error is calculated and the graph is plotted between calculated energy and
Percentage of error.

Name Plate Details

Load:
Load : P=_W,V=230V; I=_A;
FuseRating Calculation:

125%of the Fullload Current (I)= = Amp

16
 Tabulor Column:
Real Power P Calcul Observed
Time in
S.N (W) ated Energy %
Voltage Current Seconds
o Multiplication Factor = Energ (kWh) Error
(V) (A) (t)
y
Observed Actual ( 5 revolutions)
(kWh)
1

Model Calculation:
Calculated Energy=
Observed Energy=
%of Error =

Model Graph:

Result: Thus the energy was calculated using energymeter by RL load

17
 EX.NO:6
DATE:
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF
AIM: ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
To measure the resistance to earth resistance of Electrical Equipment.

APPARTUS REQUIRED:

 Megger
 Any electrical Instrument
 Connecting wires

THEORY:
For this experiment we have to use the Megger. It is an instrument for testing the
insulation resistance of the order of megaohms.

A megger consists of an emf source and a voltmeter. The voltmeter scale is calibrated
in ohms. In measurement, the emf of the self-contained source should be equal that of the
source used in calibration. The deflection of the moving system depends on the ratio of the
currents in the coils and is independent of the applied voltage. The value of unknown
resistance can be found directly from the scale of the instrument. Figure shows detailed
diagram of a megger. It consists of a hand driven dc generate or a emf about 500V. the
permanent dc meter has two moving coils. First one is deflecting coil and another one is
controlling coil. The deflecting coil is connected to the generator through a resistor R2.The
torque due to the two coils opposes each other. It consists of three terminals E(earth
terminal) and L(line terminal) and G (guard wire terminal).

OPERATION:

When the terminals are open circuited, no current flows through the deflecting coil.
The torque to the controlling coil moves the pointer to one end of the scale. When the
terminals are short circuited, the torque due to the controlling coil and the pointer is deflected
to the other end of the scale i.e. zero mark. In between the two extreme positions the scale is
calibrated to indicate the value of unknown resistance directly. The unknown insulation
resistance is the combination of insulation volume resistance and surface leakage resistance.
The guard wire terminal makes the surface leakage current to bypass the instrument hence
only insulation resistance is measured.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Under Open Circuit:

18
Under short Circuit:

Earth Resistance of three phase Induction motor:

TABULATION:

Circuit Condition Resistance

S.No (MΩ)
Open circuit
1
Short Circuit
2
Three phase Induction motor(between any
3
one phase and outer frame)

RESULT:
Thus the measurement of resistance to earth of electrical instrument was tested using
megger .

19
 Available Rating of Apparatus in Open Market
Switch:Switch1: I=5A,V=230V,Switch2:I=10A,V=230V,Switch3: I=16A,V=230V,
Switch4: I=20A,V=230V,Switch5:I=32A,V=230V
Lamp:Lamp1:P=15W,V=230V,Lamp2:P=23W,V=230V,Lamp3:P=28W,V=230V,
Lamp4:P=40W,V=230V,Lamp5:P=60W,V=230V,Lamp6:P=100W,V=230V Lamp7:P=200W,V=230V

Fan:Fan1:P=24W,V=230V,Fan2:P= 35W,V=230V,Fan3:P= 60W,V=230V

3 Pin Socket: Socket1:I=5A,V=230V,Socket2:I=16A,V=230V,Socket3:I=32A,V=230V

EnergyMeter:
Meter1:I=5A,V=230V,1200Revs/KWh,Meter2:I=10A,V=230V,1200Revs/KWh
Meter3:I=20A,V=230V,1200Revs/KWh
ResistiveLoad:
Load1:P=1kW,V=230V,Load2:P=2kW,V=230V,Load3:P=5kW,V=230V,
Load4:P=10kW,V=230V
InductiveLoad:
Load1:P=1kW,V=230V,Load2:P=2kW,V=230V,Load3:P=5kW,V=230V,
Load4:P=10kW,V=230V
Watt Meter:
Meter1:V=300V, 5A,UPF,Meter2:V=300V,5A, LPF,Meter3:V=300V,10A,UPF,
Meter4:V=300V,10A,LPF
Autotransformer:
Model1:1Phase,V=0-300V,1kVA,Model1:1Phase,V=0-300V,5kVA,
Voltmeter:
Meter1:V=0-1V,Meter2:V=0-10V,Meter3:V=0-20V,Meter4:V=0-150V,Meter5:V=0-300V,
Meter6:V=0-600V
Ammeter:
Meter1:I=0-1A,Meter2:I=0-5A,Meter3:I=0-10A,Meter4:I=0-15A,Meter5:I=0-20A,
Meter6:I=0-25A
Wire: Fuse:
Wire1:I= 1A,V=230V,Wire2:I= 5A,V=230V,
Wire3:I=16A,V=230V,Wire4:I=32A,V=230V,

Fuse1:I=1A,Fuse2:I=2A,Fuse3:I=5A,Fuse4:I=10A,Fuse5:I=15A,Fuse6:I=20A,Fuse7:I=25A

20
 21ME18P-ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

1. Study of Electronic components and equipment‟s - Resistor, colour coding

measurement of AC signal parameter (peak-peak, rms period, and
frequency) using CRO.

2. Study of logic gates.

3. Generation of Clock Signal.

4. Soldering practice- Components Devices and Circuits- Using general

purpose PCB.

5. Measurement of ripple factor of HWR and FWR.

21
Ex.no.:7
Date :

STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT

AIM:
To study the electronic components and equipment‟s and also working of CRO,
Multimeter and breadboard.

RESISTORS

Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series
with a Light emitting diode (LED) to limit the current passing through the LED.

Most resistors have 4 bands:

 The first band gives the first digit.

 The Second band gives the second digit.
 The third band indicates the number of zeros.
 The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision)
of the resistor.

22
 The Resistor Colour Code

Colour No.

Black 0

Brown 1

Red 2

Orange 3

Yellow 4

Green 5

Blue 6

Violet 7

Grey 8

White 9

For example:

Red, Violet, gold bands represent 27 x 0.1=2.7Ω

Green, blue, Silver bands represent 56 x 0.01=0.56Ω
Special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:
Silver ± 10%, Red ± 5%, Brown ± 1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Resistance measurement

S.NO COLOUR CODE Resistor Value by Resistor Value by

colour coding(Ω) multimeter(Ω)

23
Measuement of voltage using CRO

Wave Amplitude Time Frequency Peak to peak Maximum Root mean

voltage (ms) F voltage Voltage square voltage
(V) (Hz) Vp-p(V) Vmax Vrms
(V) (V)

 Frequency F= 1/T =
 Peak to peak voltage Vp-p(V) =
 Maximum Voltage Vmax (V) = Vp-p/2 =
 Root mean square voltage Vrms(V)= V max/√2

MODEL GRAPH:

24
CAPACITORS:

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits.
Capacitance
This is a measure of capacitor‟s ability to store charge. A large capacitance
means that more charge con be stored. Capacitance is measured in FARADs, symbol F.
However IF is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.

DIODES:

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol
shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a value
and early diodes were actually called valves.

TRANSISTORS:

There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit
symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor.
Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. The
leads are labeled BASE (B), COLLECTOR (C) and EMITTER (E).

BREAD BOARD:

A Bread board is used to make a temporary circuit for testing or to try out an idea. No
soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and replace components. Parts will not
be damaged so they will be able to re-use afterwards. Almost all the Electronics Club projects
started life on a breadboard to check the circuit worked as intended.

SYMBOL OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

25
 CRO (CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE)

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO):

An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows you to look at the „shape‟ of electrical
signals by displaying a graph of voltage against time on its screen. It is like a voltmeter with the
valuable extra function of showing how the voltage varies with time. Gratitude with 1 cm grid
enables you to take measurements of voltage and time from the screen.
The graph usually called the trace is drawn by a beam of electrons striking the phosphor
coating of the screen making it emit light, usually green or blue. This is similar to the way a
television picture is produced. Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a cathode (negative
electrode) at one end to emit electrons and an anode (positive electrode) to accelerate them so
they move rapidly down the tube to the screen. This arrangement is called an electron gun. The
tube also contains electrodes to deflect the electron beam up/down and left/right. The electrons
are called cathode rays because they are emitted by the cathode and this gives the oscilloscope
its full name of cathode ray oscilloscope or CRO.
A dual trace oscilloscope can display two traces on the screen, allowing you to easily
compare the input and output of an amplifier for example; it is well worth paying the modest
extra cost to have this facility.

MULTIMETERS:

Multimeters are very useful test instruments. By operating a multi-position switch on

the meter they can be quickly and easily set to be a voltmeter, an ammeter or an ohmmeter.
They have several settings (called „ranges‟)for each type of meter and the choice of AC or DC.
Some multimeters have additional features such as transistor testing and ranges for measuring
capacitance and frequency.

RESULT:

Thus the usage of CRO, Multimeter, Breadboard and colour coding of resistor was
studied. 26
Ex.no : 8
Date :
STUDY OF LOGIC GATES
AIM:
To study various Logic gates and truth table.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

SL.NO COMPONENTS QUANTITY

1 IC Trainer kit 1
2 IC 7408- AND gate 1
3 IC 7432- OR gate 1
4 IC 7404- NOT gate 1
5 IC 7400- NAND gate 1
6 IC 7402- NOR gates 1
7 IC 7486 - EX-OR gates 1
8 Connecting wires 10

THEORY:
Logic gates
Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates are the AND,
OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR gates.
AND gate (IC 7408)
The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all inputs are high. A
dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e. A.B. Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes
omitted i.e. AB. The Circuit diagram, logic symbol and truth table is shown in figure.
OR gate (IC 7432)
The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more inputs are high.
A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation. The
Circuit diagram, logic symbol and truth table is shown in figure.
NOT gate (IC 7404)
The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input as its
output. It also known as an inverter.If the input variable is A, the inverted output is known as
NOT A. This is also shown as A‟ or A with a bar over the top, as shown at the outputs. The
Circuit diagram, logic symbol and truth table is shown in figure.
EX-OR gates(IC 7486)
The EX-OR gate is a digital logic gates that implements an exclusive disjunction. If both the
inputs are same either HIGH (1) or LOW (0) output of EX-OR gate is LOW (0) and if both the
inputs are not same the output is HIGH (1).
NAND gate (IC 7400)
This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The
outputs of all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an AND gate
and NOT gate combination. The Circuit diagram, logic symbol and truth table is shown in
figure.

27
NOR gates (IC 7402)
This is NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. If all the input is
low, then the output of NOR gates will be high. The symbol is an OR gate and NOT gate
combination. The Circuit diagram, logic symbol and truth table is shown in figure.

PROCEDURE
 Insert a 7404 chip into the breadboard and connect pin 7 to ground and pin 14 to
5V. (Make sure that all of the pins are properly seated in the sockets rather than
bent underneath.)
 Connect one input to a switch, so you can easily set it to 1 or 0.
 Connect the corresponding output to a LED indicators provided.
 Verify the truthtable of NOT GATE.
 Repeat the above procedure for the others gates.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

LOGIC DIAGRAM & TRUTH TABLE:

28
29
RESULT
The operations of various logic gates(AND, OR, NOT and EXOR) and its truth table
was logically checked and studied completely.
30
Ex.No.: 9
Date :
GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL
AIM:
To design and study the operation of a stable multivibrator using IC 555 timer.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

SL.NO COMPONENTS QUANTITY

1 IC555 1
2 RESISTOR(10 K) 2
3 CRO 1
4 CAPACITOR(0.1 µF , 0.01 µF) Each 1
5 BREAD BOARD 1
6 RPS 1
7 CONNECTING WIRES 10

PROCEDURE:
1. The Circuit connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The power supply is switched ON.
3. By varying the Voltage and time division in CRO note down the readings of
amplitude and time period for square wave signal.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OUTPUT WAVEFORM

TABULATION:

S.No. OUTPUT VOLTAGE TIME PERIOD T(ms)

IN VOLTS TON TOFF

RESULT
Thus the operation of a STABLE MULTIVIBRATOR using 555 timer was studied and
verified.
31
Ex No. : 10
Date :
SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING PRACTICE
AIM:
To practice soldering and de-soldering in PCB Board.

REQUIREMENTS
SL NO. COMPONENTS QUANTITY
1. PCB BOARD 1
2. SOLDERING IRON 1
3. SOLDERING FLUX 1
4. RESISTOR 1
5. CAPACITOR 1
6. SOLDERING LED 1

THEORY:
SOLDERING IRON

Tool with an internal heating element used to heat surfaces being soldered to the
point where the solder becomes molten. Usually rod-shaped metal implement with a
pointed or wedge-shaped tip, used in soldering metallic parts. A tool for joining metals
with solder has a wedge-shaped metal bit, usually of copper, which is heated. Tool with
an internal heating element used to heat surfaces being soldered to the point where the
solder becomes molten.

SOLDERING LED

Any of various fusible alloys, usually tin and lead, used to join metallic parts.

SOLDERING FLUX

Flux applied to surfaces that are to be joined by soldering; flux cleans the
surfaces and results in a better bond in PCB board.

RESISTOR
Resistor restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in
series with a light emitting diode (LED) to limit the current passing through the LED.
The unit to measure resistor is OHM.

CAPACITOR
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistor in timing circuits.
The unit to measure capacitor is CAPACITANCE.

LOW PASS FILTER

A filter designed to transmit electromagnetic frequencies below a certain value,
while excluding those of a higher frequency.

32
PCB BOARD

SOLDERING ROD

SOLDERING LED

RESULT:
Thus SOLDERING& DESOLDERING was performed in PCB board.

33
Ex.No.: 11a
Date :
11(a) MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR HALF WAVE
RECTIFIER
AIM:
To study, construct and test the characteristic and to measure the ripple factor for HALF
WAVE RECTIFIER.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

SL.NO. COMPONENTS QUANTITY

1. DIODE(IN 4007) 1
2. RESISTOR(1K) 1
3. CRO 1
4. TRANSFORMER 1
5. BREAD BOARD 1
6. CONNECTING WIRES 10

Formula:
 Ripple factor

 Root mean square voltage( Vrms)

 DC voltage( Vdc)

Procedure:
1. The Circuit connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The AC power supply is switched ON.

3. By varying the Voltage and time divisions in CRO note down the readings of
amplitude and time period.

34
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

WAVEFORMS:

TABULATION
INPUT OUTPUT
AMPLITUDE(V) TIME(S) AMPLITUDE(V) TIME(S)

RESULT:
Thus the rectifier was constructed and tested the performance curve for HALF WAVE
RECTIFIER was verified. 35
Ex.No.:11b
Date :
11. (b) MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR FULL WAVE
RECTIFIER
AIM:
To study, construct and test the characteristic and to measure the ripple factor for FULL
WAVE RECTIFIER.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

SL.NO. COMPONENTS QUANTITY

1. DIODE(IN 4007) 1
2. RESISTOR(1K) 1
3. CRO 1
4. TRANSFORMER 1
5. BREAD BOARD 1
6. CONNECTING WIRES 10

Formula:
 Ripple factor

 Root mean square voltage( Vrms)

 DC voltage( Vdc)

Procedure:
1. The Circuit connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The AC power supply is switched ON.

3. By varying the Voltage and time divisions in CRO note down the readings of
amplitude and time period.

36
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

WAVE FORMS:

TABULATION

INPUT OUTPUT
AMPLITUDE(V) TIME(S) AMPLITUDE(V) TIME(S)

RESULT:
Thus the rectifier was constructed and tested the performance curve for FULL WAVE
RECTIFIER was verified.
37