ENERGY RESOURCES

■ A – Energy
■ B – Conventional Energy Resources
■ C – Alternative Energy Resources
A Energy

• 1. Sources of Energy
• What are the major sources of energy?
• How our usage of energy has changed in time?
• 2. Energy Use
• To what purposes energy is used for?
• 3. Challenges
• What major energy challenges are we facing?
1 Sources of Energy
• Nature
• Energy is movement or the possibility of creating movement:
• Exists as potential (stored) and kinetic (used) forms.
• Conversion of potential to kinetic.
• Movement states:
• Ordered (mechanical energy) or disordered (thermal energy).
• Temperature can be perceived as a level of disordered energy.
• Major tendency is to move from order to disorder (entropy).
• Importance
• Human activities are dependant on the usage of several forms and sources of
energy.
• Energy demands:
• Increased with economic development.
• The world’s power consumption is about 12 trillion watts a year, with 85% of it from
fossil fuels.
1 Sources of Energy
Chemical
• Fossil fuels (Combustion)
Non-Renewable Nuclear
• Uranium (Fission of atoms)

Chemical
Energy • Muscular (Oxidization)
Nuclear
• Geothermal (Conversion)
• Fusion (Fusion of hydrogen)
Gravity
Renewable • Tidal, hydraulic (Kinetic)
Indirect Solar
• Biomass (Photosynthesis)
• Wind (Pressure differences)
Direct Solar
• Photovoltaic cell (Conversion)
 Chemical Energy Content of some Fuels (in
1 MJ/kg)

Wood
Coal
Crude Oil
Kerosene
Ethanol
Methanol
Methane
Natural Gas
Gasoline
Hydrogen

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

1 Evolution of Energy Sources

Mid 21st
Century

Late 20th Animal

Century Biomass
Coal
Early 20th
Oil
Century
Natural Gas
Mid 19th Nuclear
Century Hydrogen

15th Century

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1 Global
market)
Energy Systems Transition, (% of

100
Wood
Coal
80
Solids Gases
60
Hydrogen

40
Liquids

20
Oil

0 Natural Gas
1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150
Total World Electricity Generation by Type of
Fuel, 2002

2%
7%

16%
Coal
40%
Natural Gas
Nuclear
Hydro
Oil
Other
16%

19%
SOLAR ENERGY:

➢ Directly or indirectly sun is the main source for all of the energy on the earth.

➢ The nuclear fusion reactions occurring inside the sun releases enormous quantity of

energy in form of heat and light.

➢ The solar energy received by the earth space is 1.4 KJ/s/m2, known as solar constant.

➢ Examples: Solar cells: Also known as photovoltaic cell.

➢ Made up of thin wafers of semi conductors materials like Si, Ga.

➢ When solar radiations fall on them, a potential difference is produced which cause flow

of electrons and produces electricity.

➢ The potential difference produced by a single solar cell is 0.4-0.5volts and produces a
current of 60 mA.
➢ Solar cell widely used in calculators, electronic watches, traffic signals, water pumps
etc. Also used in remote areas where conventional electricity supply is a problem.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZYO83Tk
M0To
SOLAR COOKER:

➢ Solar cooker make use of solar heat by reflecting solar radiations using a mirror

directly on to glass sheet which cover black insulated box within raw food.

➢ Now a days, solar cooker is now available having concave reflector results in more

heating effect and greater efficiency.

SOLAR WATER HEATER:

➢ Insulated box painted black from inside having copper coil through which cold water

is made flow in .

➢ Get heated and flow out into the storage tank.

➢ The hot water from the storage tank fitted on the roof top is then supplied through

pipes into the buildings.

2. HYDRO-ENERGY:

➢ Water flowing into the river or water stored in a dam is sources of hydro energy and
allowed to fall from a height. The Simple method to use hydro energy is to convert it
into electrical energy.

➢ The blades of the turbine located at the bottom of the dam move with the
fast moving water which in turn rotate the generator and produces electricity.

➢ Till now we have utilized only a little more than 11% of this potential.

➢ Hydropower does not cause any pollution, it is renewable and normally the hydro
power projects are multi-purpose projects helping in controlling floods, used for
irrigation, navigation etc.
3. WIND ENERGY

➢ In India, many windmills have been set up in different places such as

▪ Tamil Nadu,
▪ Maharashtra,
▪ Rajasthan,
▪ Kerala,
▪ West Bengal and
▪ Gujarat.
➢ The largest wind farm of our country is near Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu generating
380 MW electricity
➢ The high speed winds have a lot of energy in them as kinetic energy due to their motion.
➢ The driving force of the winds is the sun.
➢ The blades of the wind mill keep on rotating continuously due to the force of

the striking wind.

➢ The rotational motion of the blades drives a number of machines like water

pumps, flour mills and electric generators.

➢ A large number of wind mills are installed in clusters called wind farms,

which feed power to the utility grid and produce a large amount of electricity.

➢ The wind power potential of our country is estimated to be about 20,000 MW,

while at present we are generating about 1020 MW.

https://youtu.be/X3XgIueu4xk
4. BIOGAS

➢ A fuel which is a mixture of gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen etc.

which is obtained by decomposition of animal and plant wastes like animal dung, with

the help of micro-organisms in the presence of water.

➢ It is used as fuel in gas stove especially in rural areas.

➢ The biogas plant consists of the following parts:-

1) Inlet or charge pit:- for passage of slurry into the digester.

2) Digester:- cylindrical tank which is airtight, above which is present a floating gas

holder of metal with an outlet of gas and pit for removal of sludge.

Here the organic wastes get solubilized into simpler substances called monomers

(solubilisation). Monomers change to organic acid by fermenting microbes (acidogenesis).

Organic acid mostly formed is acetic acid.

3) Outlet:- consists of sludge which is
used as manure.
5. HYDROGEN
➢ It is a good source of energy because it does not create pollution and produce
maximum energy on burning.
➢ As of 2020, the majority of hydrogen (∼95%) is produced from fossil fuels by steam
reforming of natural gas, partial oxidation of methane, and coal gasification.

• CH4 in natural gas + 1/2O2 ------------→ CO + 2H2 + Heat (Partial oxidation of

methane reaction)
• CO + H2O --------------→ CO2 + H2 + small amount of heat (water gas shift
reaction)
• CH4 + H2O + Heat ------------→ CO + 3H2 (steam – methane reforming reaction)

➢ Hydrogen can be used in fuel cells to generate power using a chemical reaction
rather than combustion, producing only water and heat as byproducts.
➢ It can be used in cars, in houses, for portable power, and in many more applications.
6. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

➢ The thermal energy generated and stored in the earth.

➢ Geothermal from Greek word geo – earth and thermos – hot.

➢ Geothermal energy of the earth’s crust originates from the original formation of planet

(20%) and from the radioactive decay of minerals (80%). It is contained in the rocks

and beneath the earth’s crust.

➢ It can be found as far down to earth’s hot molten rock, magma.

➢ To produce power from geothermal energy, wells are dug a mile deep into the

underground reservoir to access the steam and hot water there, which can be used to

drive turbines connected to electricity generator.

➢ The steam cools off in a cooling tower and condenses back to water.

➢ The cooled water is pumped back into the earth to begin the process again.
Working:
➢ Hot water is pumped from deep underground through well under high pressure
➢ When water reaches the surface, pressure is dropped which cause water to turn into
steam.
➢ The steam spins a turbine which is connected to generator that produce electricity.
7. TIDAL ENERGY:

➢ It is the form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained from tides into useful

forms of power, mainly electricity.

➢ Tides are more predictable than the wind and the sun.

➢ These forces create corresponding motion or currents in the world’s oceans.

➢ Due to strong attraction, a bulge in water level is created, causing a temporary

increases in sea level. When sea level is raised, water from middle of the oceans is

forced to move toward shoreline creating a tide.

TIDAL BARRAGE:

➢ Tidal barrages make use of the potential energy in the difference in height between

high and low tides.

➢ When the sea level rises and the tide begins to come in, the temporary increase in tidal

power is channelled into a large basin behind the dam, holding a large amount of

potential energy.

➢ With the receding tide, this energy is then converted into mechanical energy as the

water is released through large turbines that create electrical power through the use of

generators.

➢ Barrages are essentially dams across the full width of a tidal estuary.
NON RENEWABLE RESOURCES:

➢ A substance that is being used up more quickly than it can replace itself.

➢ Its supply is finite.

➢ Examples: Most fossil fuels, natural gas, oil, coal, minerals and metal ores.

➢ They are not environmental friendly and have serious effect on our earth.
NATURAL GAS:

➢ It is a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds which are multiple combination of carbon

and hydrogen atoms containing methane and higher hydrocarbons like butane,

propane in varying amount.

➢ Natural gas is the earth’s cleanest burning hydrocarbon:

1. Natural gas has the cleanest combustion profile of all the fossil fuels as it has

high calorific value of about 50KJ/G and burns without smoke. .

2. The main product of the combustion of natural gas are CO2 and water vapors

and does not produce ash residues, SO2.

➢ It is formed organically over millions of the years from decomposing plant and

animal matter that is buried in sedimentary rock layers. Once formed the gas tends to

migrate through the pore space, fractures and fissures in the sediments and rocks.
NATURAL GAS:

➢ Raw natural gas may contain some mixture of butane, propane and pentane gases as

well as nitrogen, CO2 and water vapors but methane is primary component.

➢ Natural gas is a non-renewable hydrocarbon used as a source of energy for heating,

cooking, and electricity generation.

➢ It is also used as a fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture

of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals.

NATURAL GAS:

➢ It is a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds which are multiple combination of carbon

and hydrogen atoms
Main components: Methane – 70 – 90%
Ethane, propane, butane – 0 – 20%
Water vapors, hydrogen sulphide, CO2, nitrogen and helium - < 10%
➢ The natural gas composition depends on the chemical composition of decomposed
materials of plants and animals.

BENEFITS OF NATURAL GAS: Natural gas is a non-renewable hydrocarbon used as a

source of energy for
➢ heating, cooking, and electricity generation.
➢ It is also used as a fuel for vehicles and
➢ as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially
important organic chemicals.
NATURAL GAS (CONT……):

➢ It can be easily transported through pipelines.

➢ Russia has maximum reserve (40%)followed by Iran (14%) and USA (7%).
➢ In India, it is found in Tripura, Jaisalmer, off-shore area of Mumbai and Krishna
Godavari Delta.

COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG):

➢ It is being used as an alternative of petrol and diesel for transport of vehicles.

➢ It can be used in place of gasoline and liquified petroleum gas (LPG).
➢ CNG is made by compressing natural gas which is mainly composed of methane, to
less than 1% of its volume at standard atmospheric pressure.

SYNTHETIC NATURAL GAS: (SNG):

It is mixture of CO and H2. it is connecting between fossil fuels and substituted gas by
gasification followed by catalytic conversion of methane.
LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS:

➢ A flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases used as fuel in heating appliances, cooking

equipment, and vehicles.

➢ Used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an

effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer.

➢ When specifically used as a vehicle fuel it is often referred to as autogas.

➢ A non-renewable source of energy.

➢ Extracted from crude oil and natural gas.

➢ Composed hydrocarbons containing three or four carbon atoms.

➢ The normal components of LPG thus, are propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10). Small

concentrations of other hydrocarbons may also be present.

➢ Burns readily in air, Energy content ≈ petrol and twice the heat energy of natural gas.

➢ Prepared by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas,

➢ Almost entirely derived from fossil fuel sources, being manufactured during the refining

of petroleum (crude oil), or extracted from petroleum or natural gas streams as they

emerge from the ground.

➢ First produced in 1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first commercial products

appeared in 1912.

➢ It currently provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly

with no soot and very few sulfur emissions.

➢ As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or water pollution hazards, but it can cause air

pollution.

➢ Specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with fuel oil and premium grade petrol
➢ The oil mixture is piped out of the well and into a

gas trap, which separates the stream into crude oil

and "wet" gas, which contains LPG and natural

gas.

➢ The heavier crude oil sinks to the bottom of the

trap and is then pumped into an oil storage tank

for refining.

➢ Crude oil undergoes a variety of refining

processes, including catalytic cracking, crude

distillation, and others.

➢ One of the refined products is LPG.

USES OF LPG:

➢ LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) is used in your home, including

▪ cooking,

▪ heating,

▪ hot water,

▪ autogas,

▪ aerosol propellant,

▪ air conditioning refrigerant and

▪ back-up generator applications.

▪ hot air balloons

▪ Leisure time activities including caravans, boats, recreational vehicles and camping.
LPG Composition

➢ Ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, normal butane, butylene, isobutane and

isobutylene, as well as mixtures of these gases.

➢ The two most common LPG products are Propane and Butane.

➢ Isobutane (i-butane) is an isomer of butane with the same chemical formula as butane

but different physical properties.

➢ Isobutane is converted from butane in a process called isomerization.

➢ It is classified as LPG, along with propane, butane and mixes of these gases.
LPG is Heavier Than Air

➢ "YES".

➢ For example, if the density of air is equal to 1.00, the density of propane is 1.53.

➢ Butane is even heavier, at 2.00. Isobutane is heavier still, at 2.07.

➢ natural gas - methane - is lighter than air, at about 60% of the density of air.

Propane Combustion Formula

In the presence of sufficient oxygen, LPG burns to form water vapour and carbon

dioxide, as well as heat.

C3H8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H2O + Heat

If not enough oxygen is present for complete combustion of LPG (propane), incomplete

combustion occurs with water, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide being produced.

2 C3H8 + 9 O2 → 4 CO2 + 2 CO + 8 H2O + heat

Butane Combustion Formula

➢ Assuming complete combustion, you get carbon dioxide and water:

2 C4H10 + 13 O2 → 8 CO2+ 10 H2O + Heat

➢ However, with incomplete combustion you can get carbon monoxide and water

➢ Butane + Oxygen (insufficient) → Carbon Monoxide + Water + Heat

2 C4H10 + 9 O2 → 8 CO + 10 H2O + Heat

➢ This would typically occur if the ratio of oxygen to butane was insufficient.
BIOMASS:

➢ Biomass is plant or animal material used for energy production (electricity or heat),

➢ or in various industrial processes as raw substance for a range of products.

➢ It can be purposely grown energy crops (e.g. miscanthus (Silver grass), switchgrass),

▪ wood or forest residues,

▪ waste from food crops (wheat straw, bagasse),

▪ horticulture (yard waste),

▪ food processing (corn cobs),

▪ animal farming (manure, rich in nitrogen and phosphorus), or

▪ human waste from sewage plants

➢ In 2019, biomass is the only source of fuel for domestic use in many developing

countries.

➢ All biomass is biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

➢ The estimated biomass production in the world is approximately 100 billion metric tons

of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land.

➢ Wood and residues from wood, for instance spruce, birch, eucalyptus, willow, oil palm,

remains the largest biomass energy source today.

➢ It is used directly as a fuel or processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels.
Classification of biomass:

Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories:

1. First-generation biofuels are derived from food sources, such

as sugarcane and corn starch.

▪ Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, an alcohol fuel

which serve as an additive to gasoline, or in a fuel cell to produce electricity.

2. Second-generation biofuels utilize non-food-based biomass sources such

as perennial energy crops (low input crops), and agricultural/municipal waste.

▪ There is huge potential for second generation biofuels but the resources are currently

under-utilized
Biomass conversion

1. Thermal conversions

➢ Heat as the dominant mechanism to upgrade biomass into a better and more practical

fuel.

➢ The basic alternatives are

▪ Torrefaction ----- a mild form of pyrolysis at temperatures typically between 200 and

320 °C.

▪ pyrolysis -----decomposition brought about by high temperatures.

▪ Gasification ---- process that converts biomass- or fossil fuel-based carbonaceous

materials into carbon monoxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.

2. Chemical conversion:

➢ Many of these processes are based in large part on similar coal-based processes, such

as the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis.

➢ Biomass can be converted into multiple commodity chemicals.

3. Biochemical conversion:

➢ Microorganisms are used to perform the conversion process:

• anaerobic digestion,

• fermentation, and

• composting.
4. Electrochemical conversion:

➢ Biomass can be directly converted to electrical energy via electrochemical

(electrocatalytic) oxidation of the material. Performed directly in a direct carbon fuel

cell,

• direct liquid fuel cells such as direct ethanol fuel cell,

• a direct methanol fuel cell,

• a direct formic acid fuel cell,

• a L-ascorbic Acid Fuel Cell (vitamin C fuel cell), and a microbial fuel cell.
➢ The fuel can also be consumed indirectly via a fuel cell system containing a reformer

which converts the biomass into a mixture of CO and H2 before it is consumed in the

fuel cell.

WHY BIOMASS:

➢ Biomass provides a clean, renewable energy source.

➢ Generates far less air emission than fossil fuels.

➢ CO2 released by biomass is balanced by CO 2 captured in the

growth of biomass

➢ Less net impact on green house gas level

NUCLEAR ENERGY

➢ Known for its high destructive power as evidenced from nuclear weapons.

➢ Nuclear energy can be generated by two types of reactions:

(I) NUCLEAR FISSION: It is the nuclear change in which nucleus of certain isotopes with

large mass numbers are split into lighter nuclei on bombardment by neutrons and a

large amount of energy is released through a chain reaction.

235 + 0n1 ------------→ 36Kr92 + 56Ba141 + 3 0n1 + Energy

92U

Nuclear reactors make use of nuclear chain reaction. In order to control the rate of fission,

only 1 neutron released is allowed to strike for splitting another nucleus. Uranium-235

nuclei are most commonly used in nuclear reactors.

(II) NUCLEAR FUSION:

➢ Here two isotopes of a light element are forced together at extremely high

temperatures (1 billion ºC) until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus releasing

enormous energy in the process.

➢ It is difficult to initiate the process but it releases more energy than nuclear fission

➢ Two hydrogen-2 (Deuterium) atoms may fuse to form the nucleus of Helium at 1

billion ºC and release a huge amount of energy.

➢ Nuclear fusion reaction can also take place between one Hydrogen-2 (Deuterium)

and one Hydrogen-3 (Tritium) nucleus at 100 million ºC forming Helium-4 nucleus,

one neutron and a huge amount of energy.

The nuclear power plants are located at

❖Tarapur (Maharashtra),

❖Rana Pratap Sagar near Kota (Rajasthan),

❖Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (U.P.),

❖Kakrapar (Gujarat),

❖Kaiga (Karnataka),

❖ Rawatbhata (Rajasthan) and

❖Kudankulum (Tamil Nadu).

WORST NUCLEAR DISASTER HAPPENED

1. Chernobyl (April 26, 1986).

➢ One of the largest and oldest nuclear power plants in the world.

➢ The accident started during a safety test on an RBMK-type nuclear reactor, which was

commonly used throughout the Soviet Union.

➢ The test was a simulation of an electrical power outage to aid the development of a safety

procedure for maintaining reactor cooling water circulation until the back-up electrical

generators could provide power.

➢ This gap was about one minute and had been identified as a potential safety problem that

could cause the nuclear reactor core to overheat.

➢ Three such tests had been conducted since 1982, but they had failed to provide a solution.

➢ On this fourth attempt, an unexpected 10-hour delay meant that an unprepared

operating shift was on duty.

➢ A large amount of energy was suddenly released, vaporising superheated cooling

water and rupturing the reactor core in a highly destructive steam explosion.

➢ The graphite (about a quarter of the 1200 tonnes of it was estimated to have been ejected)

and fuel became incandescent and started a number of fires, causing the main release of

radioactivity into the environment.

➢ This was immediately followed by an open-air reactor core fire that released considerable

airborne radioactive contamination for about nine days that precipitated onto parts of

the USSR and western Europe, before being finally contained on 4 May 1986.
➢ As a result of rising ambient radiation levels off-site, a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi)

radius exclusion zone was created 36 hours after the accident.

➢ About 49,000 people were evacuated from the area, primarily from Pripyat.

➢ The exclusion zone was later increased to 30 kilometres (19 mi) radius when a further

68,000 people were evacuated from the wider area

2. Fukushima Disaster (March 2011):

➢ Fukushima accident, also called Fukushima nuclear accident or Fukushima Daiichi

nuclear accident, accident in 2011 at the Fukushima Daiichi plant in northern Japan,

the second worst nuclear accident in the history of nuclear power generation.

➢ At the time of the accident, only reactors 1–3 were operational, and reactor 4 served as

temporary storage for spent fuel rods.

➢ Tokyo Electric and Power Company (TEPCO) officials reported that tsunami waves

generated by the main shock of the Japan earthquake on March 11, 2011, damaged the

backup generators at the Fukushima Daiichi plant.

➢ Although all three of the reactors that were operating were successfully shut down, the

loss of power caused cooling systems to fail in each of them within the first few days of

the disaster.
➢ Rising residual heat within each reactor’s core caused the fuel rods in reactors 1, 2, and
3 to overheat and partially melt down, leading at times to the release of radiation.
➢ Melted material fell to the bottom of the containment vessels in reactors 1 and 2 and
bored sizable holes in the floor of each vessel—a fact that emerged in late May. Those
holes partially exposed the nuclear material in the cores.
➢ In the days that followed, some 47,000 residents left their homes,
➢ Many people in areas adjacent to the 20-km evacuation warning zone also prepared to
leave, and
➢ Workers at the plant made several attempts to cool the reactors using truck-
mounted water cannons and water dropped from helicopters.
➢ Those efforts met with some success, which temporarily slowed the release of radiation;
however, they were suspended several times after rising steam or smoke signaled an
increased risk of radiation exposure.
3. Three mile island nuclear disaster:

➢ Three Mile Island accident, accident in 1979 at the Three Mile Island nuclear

power station that was the most serious in the history of the American nuclear power

industry.

➢ At 4:00 AM on March 28, an automatically operated valve in the Unit

2 reactor mistakenly closed, shutting off the water supply to the main feedwater system

(the system that transfers heat from the water actually circulating in the reactor core).

➢ This caused the reactor core to shut down automatically, but a series of equipment and

instrument malfunctions, human errors in operating procedures, and mistaken

decisions in the ensuing hours led to a serious loss of water coolant from the reactor

core.
➢ As a result, the core was partially exposed, and the zirconium cladding of its fuel

reacted with the surrounding superheated steam to form a large accumulation

of hydrogen gas, some of which escaped from the core into the containment vessel of

the reactor building.

➢ Very little of this and other radioactive gases actually escaped into the atmosphere, and

they did not constitute a threat to the health of the surrounding population. In the

following days adequate coolant water circulation in the core was restored.

➢ It resulted in the immediate (though temporary) closing of seven operating reactors

like those at Three Mile Island.

➢ No new reactors were ordered by utility companies in the United States from 1979

through the mid-1980s.

➢ The accident increased public fears about the safety of nuclear reactors and
strengthened public opposition to the construction of new plants.
➢ The unharmed Unit 1 reactor at Three Mile Island did not resume operation until
1985.
➢ The cleanup of Unit 2 continued until 1990; damage to the unit was so severe, however
(52 percent of the core melted down), that it remained unusable.
NUCLEAR DISASTER IN INDIA:

1987 Kalpakkam accident

▪ Kalpakkam atomic power station is located in Tamil Nadu.
▪ It is nuclear power generating station with capacity of 440MW and is run by Nuclear Power
▪ The accident occurred on 4th May, 1987.
▪ The accident occurred while refuelling process was going on for fast breeder test reactor wh
This led to the shutting down of the nuclear reactor for two years. As per 2006 monetary valu

1989 Tarapur accident

▪ Tarapur power plant is the highest nuclear energy producer with total capacity of 1400MW
▪ It is located in Maharashtra.
▪ The accident occurred on 10th September, 1989.
▪ The leakage of radioactive iodine was the reason of this accident.
▪ It took one year for repairing which had cost around 78 million dollar according to 2006 va
1992 Tarapur accident
➢ Tarapur nuclear reactor tube released radioactivity due to its malfunctioning on 13th
May, 1992.
➢There is no untoward incident reported.

1993 Narora fire accident

➢ Narora atomic power station is situated in Uttar Pradesh.
➢ Fire at turbine blades was the reason for accident.
➢ All important cables were burnt by this incident incurring 220 million dollar loss.
➢Even though there is fire accident, there is no damage to reactor.

1995 RAPS leakage incident

➢ Rajasthan atomic power station at Kota leaked helium.
➢ The heavy water was mixed with water of Rana Pratap Sagar river.
➢ The power station was closed for two years for repairs.
➢ The loss was estimated at 280 million dollars as per 2006 monetary value.
2002 Kalpakkam accident
▪ Kalpakkam fast breeder reactor leaked the radioactive sodium which damaged the
valves and systems led to the accident.
▪ This caused 30 million dollar loss.

2010 Mayapuri incident

▪ Mayapuri is a place in Delhi.
▪ Negligence is the prime reason for this accident.
▪ Delhi University used an irradiator.
▪ But, it decided to sell it to scrap dealer as it was not in use for a longer time without
observing the things in it.
▪ The workers of scrap shop went on cutting it unknowingly.
▪ They came into contact with radioactive cobalt substance which led to severe health
problems and death of a person.
COAL:

➢ Coal, also called black gold, is the most abundant fossil fuel in the world.

➢ Coal contain carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash.

➢ Coal reserves are six times greater than oil and petroleum reserves.
FORMATION OF COAL:

➢ Coal was formed 255–350 million years ago in the hot, damp regions of the earth

during the carboniferous age.

➢ The ancient plants along the banks of rivers and swamps were buried after death into

the soil and due to the heat and pressure gradually got converted into peat and coal

over millions of years.

➢ The coal forms from the accumulation of plant debris, usually in swamp environment.

➢ When a plant dies and fall into the swamp, the standing water protects it from decay.

➢ To form a thick layer of plant debris required to produce a coal seam, the rate of plant

debris accumulation must be greater than rate of decay.

➢ Once a thick layer of plant debris is formed, it must be buried by sediments such as mud

or sand.

➢ These are typically washed into the swamp by a flooding river.

➢ The weight of these materials compacts the plant debris and aids in its transformation

into coal.

➢ Heat and pressure produced chemical and physical changes in the plant layers

which forced out oxygen and left rich carbon deposits. In time, material that

had been plants became coal.

➢ About ten feet of plant debris will compact into just one foot of coal.
➢ Plant debris accumulates very slowly. So, accumulating ten feet of plant debris will

take a long time.

➢ The fifty feet of plant debris needed to make a five-foot thick coal seam would require

thousands of years to accumulate.

➢ During that long time, the water level of the swamp must remain stable.

➢ If the water becomes too deep, the plants of the swamp will drown, and if the water

cover is not maintained the plant debris will decay.

➢ To form a coal seam, the ideal conditions of perfect water depth must be maintained

for a very long time.

TYPES OF COAL: Coal are classified into three categories on the basis of amount of C, O, H

present:

1. Anthracite Coal:

➢ Best quality; hard coal having 80 to 95 per cent carbon.

➢ Semi-metallic lustre and very little volatile matter.

➢ Negligibly small proportion of moisture.

➢ Ignites slowly == less loss of heat == highly efficient.

➢ Ignites slowly and burns with a nice short blue flame. [Complete combustion == Flame is

BLUE == little or no pollutants. Example: LPG]

➢ In India, it is found only in Jammu and Kashmir and that too in small quantity.
2. Bituminous Coal:

➢ Soft coal; most widely available and used coal.

➢ Derives its name after a liquid called bitumen.

➢ 40 to 80 per cent carbon.

➢ Moisture and volatile content (15 to 40 per cent)

➢ Dense, compact, and is usually of black colour.

➢ Does not have traces of original vegetable material.

➢ Calorific value is very high due to high proportion of carbon and low moisture.

➢ Used in production of coke and gas.

3. Lignite:

➢ Brown coal.
➢ Lower grade coal having 40 to 55 per cent carbon.
➢ Intermediate stage, Dark to black brown.
➢ Moisture content is high (over 35 per cent).
➢ It undergoes SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION [Bad. Creates fire accidents in mines]

4. Peat Coal:

➢ First stage of transformation.

➢ Contains less than 40 to 55 per cent carbon == more impurities.
➢ Contains sufficient volatile matter and lot of moisture
➢ [more smoke and more pollution].
➢ Left to itself, it burns like wood, gives less heat,
➢ emits more smoke and leaves a lot of ash.
COAL (CONT…):

➢ Major coal fields in India are Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Singrauli and Godavari valley.

➢ The coal states of India are Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra

Pradesh and Maharashtra.

➢ Anthracite coal occurs only in J & K.

➢ When coal is burnt it produces carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas responsible for

causing enhanced global warming.

➢ Coal also contains impurities like sulphur and as it burns the smoke contains toxic gases

like oxides of sulphur and nitrogen.

➢ Direct burning of coal releases emissions like smoke, particulate matter, SOX, NOX, CO

and CO2, whereas gaseous or liquid fuel forms cause less pollution.
DIFFERENT USES OF COAL:

Coal is seemingly the cheapest and most essential source of energy. Here is a list of all the
major uses of coal.

•Generating Electricity
•Production of Steel
•Industries
•Gasification and Liquefaction
•Domestic Use
 Coal Consumption, 1950-1998 (in millions of
1 tons)

4000
Rest of the world
3500 India
U.S.
3000 China

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
PETROLEUM:

➢ Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellowish-black liquid found in geological

formations beneath the Earth's surface.

➢ It is commonly refined into various types of fuels.

➢ Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation, It

consists of naturally occurring hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and may

contain miscellaneous organic compounds.

➢ The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude

oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil.

➢ A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms,

mostly zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock and subjected to

both intense heat and pressure.

COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM:

➢ With crude oil all liquid, gaseous and solid hydrocarbons.

➢ Lighter hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane and butane exist as gases,

while pentane and heavier hydrocarbons are in the form of liquids or solids under

surface pressure and temperature conditions.

Composition by weight
Element Percent range
Carbon 83 to 85%
Hydrogen 10 to 14%
Nitrogen 0.1 to 2%
Oxygen 0.05 to 1.5%
Sulfur 0.05 to 6.0%
Metals < 0.1%
➢ Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules appear in crude oil.

➢ The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of each

oil.
Composition by weight
Hydrocarbon Average Range
Alkanes (paraffins) 30% 15 to 60%
Naphthenes 49% 30 to 60%
Aromatics 15% 3 to 30%
Asphaltics 6% remainder

➢ Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition.

➢ Usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish).

➢ In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter

forms a "gas cap" over the petroleum, and saline water which, being heavier than most

forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath it.

PETROLEUM REFINING:

➢ Conversion of crude oil into useful products.

➢ The products are used as fuels for transportation, heating, paving roads, and

generating electricity and as feedstocks for making chemicals..

➢ Each refinery is uniquely designed to process specific crude oils into selected products.

➢ In general, these units perform one of three functions:

(1)separating the many types of hydrocarbon present in crude oils into fractions of more

closely related properties,

(2)chemically converting the separated hydrocarbons into more desirable reaction

products - conversion, and

(3)purifying the products of unwanted elements and compounds - treatment.

1. Separation

➢ Modern separation involves piping crude oil through hot furnaces.

➢ The resulting liquids and vapors are discharged into distillation units.

➢ All refineries have atmospheric distillation units, while more complex refineries may

have vacuum distillation units.

➢ The liquids and vapors separate into petroleum components called fractions according

to their boiling points.

➢ Heavy fractions are on the bottom and light fractions are on the top.

➢ The lightest fractions, including gasoline and liquefied refinery gases, vaporize and rise

to the top of the distillation tower, where they condense back to liquids.

➢ Medium weight liquids, including kerosene and distillates, stay in the middle of the

distillation tower.

➢ Heavier liquids, called gas oils, separate lower down in the distillation tower, while the

heaviest fractions with the highest boiling points settle at the bottom of the tower.
2. Conversion

➢ Heavy, lower-value distillation fractions can be processed further into lighter, higher-

value products such as gasoline.

➢ Cracking because it uses heat, pressure, catalysts, and sometimes hydrogen to crack

heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lighter ones.

➢ A cracking unit consists of

❖one or more tall, thick-walled, rocket-shaped reactors and

❖a network of furnaces, heat exchangers, and other vessels.

➢ Complex refineries may have one or more types of crackers, including fluid catalytic

cracking units and hydrocracking/hydrocracker units.

➢ Cracking is not the only form of crude oil conversion. Other refinery processes

rearrange molecules to add value rather than splitting molecules.

➢ Alkylation, for example, makes gasoline components by combining some of the gaseous

byproducts of cracking.

➢ Reforming uses heat, moderate pressure, and catalysts to turn naphtha, a light, relatively

low-value fraction, into high-octane gasoline components.

3. Treatment

➢ The finishing touches occur during the final treatment.

➢ To make gasoline, refinery technicians carefully combine a variety of streams from the

processing units.

4. Storage

➢ Incoming crude oil and the outgoing final products are stored temporarily in large tanks

on a tank farm near the refinery.

➢ Pipelines, trains, and trucks carry the final products from the storage tanks to other

locations across the country.

1 World Annual Oil Production (1900-2004) and
Estimated Resources (1900-2100)
30
Actual
Predicted
25

20
Billions of barrels

15

10

0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
2 Energy Use
Modification of the Appropriation and Transfer
Environment Processing
■Making space suitable ■Extraction of resources ■Movements of freight,
for human activities. (agricultural products and people and information.
■Clearing land for raw materials). ■Attenuate the spatial
agriculture. ■Modifying resources inequities in the location of
■Modifying the (manufacturing). resources by overcoming
hydrography (irrigation). ■Disposal of wastes distance.
■Establishing distribution (Piling, decontaminating ■Growing share of
infrastructures (roads). and burning). transportation in the total
■Constructing and energy spent
conditioning (temperature
and light) enclosed
structures.
Growing Energy Needs

❑ Energy consumption of a nation is usually considered as an index of its

development,

❑ because almost all the development activities are directly or indirectly

dependent upon energy.

❑ Power generation and energy consumption are crucial to economic

development as economy of any nation depends upon availability of energy
resources.

❑ There are wide disparities in per capita energy use of developed and the
developing nations.

❑ With increased speed of development in the developing nations energy needs

are also increasing.
Energy Scenario

Energy is a key input in the economic growth and there is a

close link between the availability of energy and the future
growth of a nation.

Power generation and energy consumption are crucial to

economic development.

In India, energy is consumed in a variety of forms such as fuel

wood; animal waste and agricultural residues are the traditional
sources of energy. These non-commercial fuels are gradually
getting replaced by commercial fuels i.e. coal, petroleum
products, natural gas and electricity.
Out of total energy, commercial fuels account for 60% where
as the balance 40% is coming from non-commercial fuels. Of
the total commercial energy produced in the form of power or
electricity,

69% is from coal (thermal power),

25% is from hydel power,
4% is from diesel and gas,
2% is from nuclear power, and

Less than 1% from non- conventional sources like solar, wind,

ocean, biomass, etc.
 Chemical Energy Content of some Fuels (in MJ/kg)

Wood
Coal
Crude Oil
Kerosene
Ethanol
Methanol
Methane
Natural Gas
Gasoline
Hydrogen

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Renewable energy resources must be preferred over the
non-renewable resources.
It is inevitable truth that now there is an urgent need of
thinking in terms of alternative sources of energy, which
are also termed as non-conventional energy sources which
include:
Solar energy needs equipments such as solar heat
collectors, solar cells, solar cooker, solar water heater,
solar furnace and solar power plants .
Wind energy
Hydropower, Tidal energy, ocean thermal energy,
geothermal energy, biomass, biogas, biofuels etc.

The non renewable energy sources include coal,

petroleum, natural gas, nuclear energy.
The whole point of why we use renewable resources at all –

➢ is because we live on a planet with finite amount of materials and resources. We don’t

have a spare earth to tap into when the pot runs dry; so it’s imperative we salvage and

harness what we already have for the longest life of the planet and ourselves.

➢ Recycling or obtaining free energy from things like, magnetics, wind, solar, geothermal,

hydro electric, etc, means we don’t have to be creating wastes and dangerous by-

products which create pollution.

➢ Burning wood, coal, oil, and other materials which eventually will run out - including

nuclear resources - all create some sort of dangerous by-products, including plastics.
➢ Another bad side effect is the depletion of Earth’s trees and oxygen which life needs to

sustain itself as well as the slow heating of the planet which effects the weather, ocean

bio-diversity, the geo-stability of the earth’s core, the stability of the polar caps, plus the

insect and animal life.

➢ Any form of fuel source that does not create the above environmental effects and can

reduce energy of manufacture, plus easily replace itself, would be a serious contender as

a renewable energy source.

➢ It also has to be safe when it fails - which rules out nuclear power and plastics.